what are the five methods of data presentation

10 Methods of Data Presentation with 5 Great Tips to Practice, Best in 2024

Leah Nguyen • 05 April, 2024 • 13 min read

There are different ways of presenting data, so which one is suited you the most? You can end deathly boring and ineffective data presentation right now with our 10 methods of data presentation . Check out the examples from each technique!

Have you ever presented a data report to your boss/coworkers/teachers thinking it was super dope like you’re some cyber hacker living in the Matrix, but all they saw was a pile of static numbers that seemed pointless and didn't make sense to them?

Understanding digits is rigid . Making people from non-analytical backgrounds understand those digits is even more challenging.

How can you clear up those confusing numbers in the types of presentation that have the flawless clarity of a diamond? So, let's check out best way to present data. 💎

Table of Contents

• What are Methods of Data Presentations?
• #1 - Tabular

#3 - Pie chart

#4 - bar chart, #5 - histogram, #6 - line graph, #7 - pictogram graph, #8 - radar chart, #9 - heat map, #10 - scatter plot.

• 5 Mistakes to Avoid
• Best Method of Data Presentation

Frequently Asked Questions

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What are Methods of Data Presentation?

The term ’data presentation’ relates to the way you present data in a way that makes even the most clueless person in the room understand. 

Some say it’s witchcraft (you’re manipulating the numbers in some ways), but we’ll just say it’s the power of turning dry, hard numbers or digits into a visual showcase that is easy for people to digest.

Presenting data correctly can help your audience understand complicated processes, identify trends, and instantly pinpoint whatever is going on without exhausting their brains.

Good data presentation helps…

• Make informed decisions and arrive at positive outcomes . If you see the sales of your product steadily increase throughout the years, it’s best to keep milking it or start turning it into a bunch of spin-offs (shoutout to Star Wars👀).
• Reduce the time spent processing data . Humans can digest information graphically 60,000 times faster than in the form of text. Grant them the power of skimming through a decade of data in minutes with some extra spicy graphs and charts.
• Communicate the results clearly . Data does not lie. They’re based on factual evidence and therefore if anyone keeps whining that you might be wrong, slap them with some hard data to keep their mouths shut.
• Add to or expand the current research . You can see what areas need improvement, as well as what details often go unnoticed while surfing through those little lines, dots or icons that appear on the data board.

Methods of Data Presentation and Examples

Imagine you have a delicious pepperoni, extra-cheese pizza. You can decide to cut it into the classic 8 triangle slices, the party style 12 square slices, or get creative and abstract on those slices. 

There are various ways for cutting a pizza and you get the same variety with how you present your data. In this section, we will bring you the 10 ways to slice a pizza - we mean to present your data - that will make your company’s most important asset as clear as day. Let's dive into 10 ways to present data efficiently.

#1 - Tabular 

Among various types of data presentation, tabular is the most fundamental method, with data presented in rows and columns. Excel or Google Sheets would qualify for the job. Nothing fancy.

This is an example of a tabular presentation of data on Google Sheets. Each row and column has an attribute (year, region, revenue, etc.), and you can do a custom format to see the change in revenue throughout the year.

When presenting data as text, all you do is write your findings down in paragraphs and bullet points, and that’s it. A piece of cake to you, a tough nut to crack for whoever has to go through all of the reading to get to the point.

• 65% of email users worldwide access their email via a mobile device.
• Emails that are optimised for mobile generate 15% higher click-through rates.
• 56% of brands using emojis in their email subject lines had a higher open rate.

(Source: CustomerThermometer )

All the above quotes present statistical information in textual form. Since not many people like going through a wall of texts, you’ll have to figure out another route when deciding to use this method, such as breaking the data down into short, clear statements, or even as catchy puns if you’ve got the time to think of them.

A pie chart (or a ‘donut chart’ if you stick a hole in the middle of it) is a circle divided into slices that show the relative sizes of data within a whole. If you’re using it to show percentages, make sure all the slices add up to 100%.

The pie chart is a familiar face at every party and is usually recognised by most people. However, one setback of using this method is our eyes sometimes can’t identify the differences in slices of a circle, and it’s nearly impossible to compare similar slices from two different pie charts, making them the villains in the eyes of data analysts.

Bonus example: A literal ‘pie’ chart! 🥧

The bar chart is a chart that presents a bunch of items from the same category, usually in the form of rectangular bars that are placed at an equal distance from each other. Their heights or lengths depict the values they represent.

They can be as simple as this:

Or more complex and detailed like this example of presentation of data. Contributing to an effective statistic presentation, this one is a grouped bar chart that not only allows you to compare categories but also the groups within them as well.

Similar in appearance to the bar chart but the rectangular bars in histograms don’t often have the gap like their counterparts.

Instead of measuring categories like weather preferences or favourite films as a bar chart does, a histogram only measures things that can be put into numbers.

Teachers can use presentation graphs like a histogram to see which score group most of the students fall into, like in this example above.

Recordings to ways of displaying data, we shouldn't overlook the effectiveness of line graphs. Line graphs are represented by a group of data points joined together by a straight line. There can be one or more lines to compare how several related things change over time. 

On a line chart’s horizontal axis, you usually have text labels, dates or years, while the vertical axis usually represents the quantity (e.g.: budget, temperature or percentage).

A pictogram graph uses pictures or icons relating to the main topic to visualise a small dataset. The fun combination of colours and illustrations makes it a frequent use at schools.

Pictograms are a breath of fresh air if you want to stay away from the monotonous line chart or bar chart for a while. However, they can present a very limited amount of data and sometimes they are only there for displays and do not represent real statistics.

If presenting five or more variables in the form of a bar chart is too stuffy then you should try using a radar chart, which is one of the most creative ways to present data.

Radar charts show data in terms of how they compare to each other starting from the same point. Some also call them ‘spider charts’ because each aspect combined looks like a spider web.

Radar charts can be a great use for parents who’d like to compare their child’s grades with their peers to lower their self-esteem. You can see that each angular represents a subject with a score value ranging from 0 to 100. Each student’s score across 5 subjects is highlighted in a different colour.

If you think that this method of data presentation somehow feels familiar, then you’ve probably encountered one while playing Pokémon .

A heat map represents data density in colours. The bigger the number, the more colour intense that data will be represented.

Most U.S citizens would be familiar with this data presentation method in geography. For elections, many news outlets assign a specific colour code to a state, with blue representing one candidate and red representing the other. The shade of either blue or red in each state shows the strength of the overall vote in that state.

Another great thing you can use a heat map for is to map what visitors to your site click on. The more a particular section is clicked the ‘hotter’ the colour will turn, from blue to bright yellow to red.

If you present your data in dots instead of chunky bars, you’ll have a scatter plot. 

A scatter plot is a grid with several inputs showing the relationship between two variables. It’s good at collecting seemingly random data and revealing some telling trends.

For example, in this graph, each dot shows the average daily temperature versus the number of beach visitors across several days. You can see that the dots get higher as the temperature increases, so it’s likely that hotter weather leads to more visitors.

5 Data Presentation Mistakes to Avoid

#1 - assume your audience understands what the numbers represent.

You may know all the behind-the-scenes of your data since you’ve worked with them for weeks, but your audience doesn’t.

Showing without telling only invites more and more questions from your audience, as they have to constantly make sense of your data, wasting the time of both sides as a result.

While showing your data presentations, you should tell them what the data are about before hitting them with waves of numbers first. You can use interactive activities such as polls , word clouds , online quiz and Q&A sections , combined with icebreaker games , to assess their understanding of the data and address any confusion beforehand.

#2 - Use the wrong type of chart

Charts such as pie charts must have a total of 100% so if your numbers accumulate to 193% like this example below, you’re definitely doing it wrong.

Before making a chart, ask yourself: what do I want to accomplish with my data? Do you want to see the relationship between the data sets, show the up and down trends of your data, or see how segments of one thing make up a whole?

Remember, clarity always comes first. Some data visualisations may look cool, but if they don’t fit your data, steer clear of them. 

#3 - Make it 3D

3D is a fascinating graphical presentation example. The third dimension is cool, but full of risks.

Can you see what’s behind those red bars? Because we can’t either. You may think that 3D charts add more depth to the design, but they can create false perceptions as our eyes see 3D objects closer and bigger than they appear, not to mention they cannot be seen from multiple angles.

#4 - Use different types of charts to compare contents in the same category

This is like comparing a fish to a monkey. Your audience won’t be able to identify the differences and make an appropriate correlation between the two data sets. 

Next time, stick to one type of data presentation only. Avoid the temptation of trying various data visualisation methods in one go and make your data as accessible as possible.

#5 - Bombard the audience with too much information

The goal of data presentation is to make complex topics much easier to understand, and if you’re bringing too much information to the table, you’re missing the point.

The more information you give, the more time it will take for your audience to process it all. If you want to make your data understandable and give your audience a chance to remember it, keep the information within it to an absolute minimum. You should set your session with open-ended questions , to avoid dead-communication!

What are the Best Methods of Data Presentation?

Finally, which is the best way to present data?

The answer is…

There is none 😄 Each type of presentation has its own strengths and weaknesses and the one you choose greatly depends on what you’re trying to do. 

For example:

• Go for a scatter plot if you’re exploring the relationship between different data values, like seeing whether the sales of ice cream go up because of the temperature or because people are just getting more hungry and greedy each day?
• Go for a line graph if you want to mark a trend over time. 
• Go for a heat map if you like some fancy visualisation of the changes in a geographical location, or to see your visitors' behaviour on your website.
• Go for a pie chart (especially in 3D) if you want to be shunned by others because it was never a good idea👇

What is chart presentation?

A chart presentation is a way of presenting data or information using visual aids such as charts, graphs, and diagrams. The purpose of a chart presentation is to make complex information more accessible and understandable for the audience.

When can I use charts for presentation?

Charts can be used to compare data, show trends over time, highlight patterns, and simplify complex information.

Why should use charts for presentation?

You should use charts to ensure your contents and visual look clean, as they are the visual representative, provide clarity, simplicity, comparison, contrast and super time-saving!

What are the 4 graphical methods of presenting data?

Histogram, Smoothed frequency graph, Pie diagram or Pie chart, Cumulative or ogive frequency graph, and Frequency Polygon.

Leah Nguyen

Words that convert, stories that stick. I turn complex ideas into engaging narratives - helping audiences learn, remember, and take action.

Tips to Engage with Polls & Trivia

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Home Blog Design Understanding Data Presentations (Guide + Examples)

Understanding Data Presentations (Guide + Examples)

In this age of overwhelming information, the skill to effectively convey data has become extremely valuable. Initiating a discussion on data presentation types involves thoughtful consideration of the nature of your data and the message you aim to convey. Different types of visualizations serve distinct purposes. Whether you’re dealing with how to develop a report or simply trying to communicate complex information, how you present data influences how well your audience understands and engages with it. This extensive guide leads you through the different ways of data presentation.

Table of Contents

What is a Data Presentation?

What should a data presentation include, line graphs, treemap chart, scatter plot, how to choose a data presentation type, recommended data presentation templates, common mistakes done in data presentation.

A data presentation is a slide deck that aims to disclose quantitative information to an audience through the use of visual formats and narrative techniques derived from data analysis, making complex data understandable and actionable. This process requires a series of tools, such as charts, graphs, tables, infographics, dashboards, and so on, supported by concise textual explanations to improve understanding and boost retention rate.

Data presentations require us to cull data in a format that allows the presenter to highlight trends, patterns, and insights so that the audience can act upon the shared information. In a few words, the goal of data presentations is to enable viewers to grasp complicated concepts or trends quickly, facilitating informed decision-making or deeper analysis.

Data presentations go beyond the mere usage of graphical elements. Seasoned presenters encompass visuals with the art of data storytelling , so the speech skillfully connects the points through a narrative that resonates with the audience. Depending on the purpose – inspire, persuade, inform, support decision-making processes, etc. – is the data presentation format that is better suited to help us in this journey.

To nail your upcoming data presentation, ensure to count with the following elements:

• Clear Objectives: Understand the intent of your presentation before selecting the graphical layout and metaphors to make content easier to grasp.
• Engaging introduction: Use a powerful hook from the get-go. For instance, you can ask a big question or present a problem that your data will answer. Take a look at our guide on how to start a presentation for tips & insights.
• Structured Narrative: Your data presentation must tell a coherent story. This means a beginning where you present the context, a middle section in which you present the data, and an ending that uses a call-to-action. Check our guide on presentation structure for further information.
• Visual Elements: These are the charts, graphs, and other elements of visual communication we ought to use to present data. This article will cover one by one the different types of data representation methods we can use, and provide further guidance on choosing between them.
• Insights and Analysis: This is not just showcasing a graph and letting people get an idea about it. A proper data presentation includes the interpretation of that data, the reason why it’s included, and why it matters to your research.
• Conclusion & CTA: Ending your presentation with a call to action is necessary. Whether you intend to wow your audience into acquiring your services, inspire them to change the world, or whatever the purpose of your presentation, there must be a stage in which you convey all that you shared and show the path to staying in touch. Plan ahead whether you want to use a thank-you slide, a video presentation, or which method is apt and tailored to the kind of presentation you deliver.
• Q&A Session: After your speech is concluded, allocate 3-5 minutes for the audience to raise any questions about the information you disclosed. This is an extra chance to establish your authority on the topic. Check our guide on questions and answer sessions in presentations here.

Bar charts are a graphical representation of data using rectangular bars to show quantities or frequencies in an established category. They make it easy for readers to spot patterns or trends. Bar charts can be horizontal or vertical, although the vertical format is commonly known as a column chart. They display categorical, discrete, or continuous variables grouped in class intervals [1] . They include an axis and a set of labeled bars horizontally or vertically. These bars represent the frequencies of variable values or the values themselves. Numbers on the y-axis of a vertical bar chart or the x-axis of a horizontal bar chart are called the scale.

Real-Life Application of Bar Charts

Let’s say a sales manager is presenting sales to their audience. Using a bar chart, he follows these steps.

Step 1: Selecting Data

The first step is to identify the specific data you will present to your audience.

The sales manager has highlighted these products for the presentation.

• Product A: Men’s Shoes
• Product B: Women’s Apparel
• Product C: Electronics
• Product D: Home Decor

Step 2: Choosing Orientation

Opt for a vertical layout for simplicity. Vertical bar charts help compare different categories in case there are not too many categories [1] . They can also help show different trends. A vertical bar chart is used where each bar represents one of the four chosen products. After plotting the data, it is seen that the height of each bar directly represents the sales performance of the respective product.

It is visible that the tallest bar (Electronics – Product C) is showing the highest sales. However, the shorter bars (Women’s Apparel – Product B and Home Decor – Product D) need attention. It indicates areas that require further analysis or strategies for improvement.

Step 3: Colorful Insights

Different colors are used to differentiate each product. It is essential to show a color-coded chart where the audience can distinguish between products.

• Men’s Shoes (Product A): Yellow
• Women’s Apparel (Product B): Orange
• Electronics (Product C): Violet
• Home Decor (Product D): Blue

Bar charts are straightforward and easily understandable for presenting data. They are versatile when comparing products or any categorical data [2] . Bar charts adapt seamlessly to retail scenarios. Despite that, bar charts have a few shortcomings. They cannot illustrate data trends over time. Besides, overloading the chart with numerous products can lead to visual clutter, diminishing its effectiveness.

For more information, check our collection of bar chart templates for PowerPoint .

Line graphs help illustrate data trends, progressions, or fluctuations by connecting a series of data points called ‘markers’ with straight line segments. This provides a straightforward representation of how values change [5] . Their versatility makes them invaluable for scenarios requiring a visual understanding of continuous data. In addition, line graphs are also useful for comparing multiple datasets over the same timeline. Using multiple line graphs allows us to compare more than one data set. They simplify complex information so the audience can quickly grasp the ups and downs of values. From tracking stock prices to analyzing experimental results, you can use line graphs to show how data changes over a continuous timeline. They show trends with simplicity and clarity.

Real-life Application of Line Graphs

To understand line graphs thoroughly, we will use a real case. Imagine you’re a financial analyst presenting a tech company’s monthly sales for a licensed product over the past year. Investors want insights into sales behavior by month, how market trends may have influenced sales performance and reception to the new pricing strategy. To present data via a line graph, you will complete these steps.

First, you need to gather the data. In this case, your data will be the sales numbers. For example:

• January: $45,000
• February: $55,000
• March: $45,000
• April: $60,000
• May: $ 70,000
• June: $65,000
• July: $62,000
• August: $68,000
• September: $81,000
• October: $76,000
• November: $87,000
• December: $91,000

After choosing the data, the next step is to select the orientation. Like bar charts, you can use vertical or horizontal line graphs. However, we want to keep this simple, so we will keep the timeline (x-axis) horizontal while the sales numbers (y-axis) vertical.

Step 3: Connecting Trends

After adding the data to your preferred software, you will plot a line graph. In the graph, each month’s sales are represented by data points connected by a line.

Step 4: Adding Clarity with Color

If there are multiple lines, you can also add colors to highlight each one, making it easier to follow.

Line graphs excel at visually presenting trends over time. These presentation aids identify patterns, like upward or downward trends. However, too many data points can clutter the graph, making it harder to interpret. Line graphs work best with continuous data but are not suitable for categories.

For more information, check our collection of line chart templates for PowerPoint and our article about how to make a presentation graph .

A data dashboard is a visual tool for analyzing information. Different graphs, charts, and tables are consolidated in a layout to showcase the information required to achieve one or more objectives. Dashboards help quickly see Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). You don’t make new visuals in the dashboard; instead, you use it to display visuals you’ve already made in worksheets [3] .

Keeping the number of visuals on a dashboard to three or four is recommended. Adding too many can make it hard to see the main points [4]. Dashboards can be used for business analytics to analyze sales, revenue, and marketing metrics at a time. They are also used in the manufacturing industry, as they allow users to grasp the entire production scenario at the moment while tracking the core KPIs for each line.

Real-Life Application of a Dashboard

Consider a project manager presenting a software development project’s progress to a tech company’s leadership team. He follows the following steps.

Step 1: Defining Key Metrics

To effectively communicate the project’s status, identify key metrics such as completion status, budget, and bug resolution rates. Then, choose measurable metrics aligned with project objectives.

Step 2: Choosing Visualization Widgets

After finalizing the data, presentation aids that align with each metric are selected. For this project, the project manager chooses a progress bar for the completion status and uses bar charts for budget allocation. Likewise, he implements line charts for bug resolution rates.

Step 3: Dashboard Layout

Key metrics are prominently placed in the dashboard for easy visibility, and the manager ensures that it appears clean and organized.

Dashboards provide a comprehensive view of key project metrics. Users can interact with data, customize views, and drill down for detailed analysis. However, creating an effective dashboard requires careful planning to avoid clutter. Besides, dashboards rely on the availability and accuracy of underlying data sources.

For more information, check our article on how to design a dashboard presentation , and discover our collection of dashboard PowerPoint templates .

Treemap charts represent hierarchical data structured in a series of nested rectangles [6] . As each branch of the ‘tree’ is given a rectangle, smaller tiles can be seen representing sub-branches, meaning elements on a lower hierarchical level than the parent rectangle. Each one of those rectangular nodes is built by representing an area proportional to the specified data dimension.

Treemaps are useful for visualizing large datasets in compact space. It is easy to identify patterns, such as which categories are dominant. Common applications of the treemap chart are seen in the IT industry, such as resource allocation, disk space management, website analytics, etc. Also, they can be used in multiple industries like healthcare data analysis, market share across different product categories, or even in finance to visualize portfolios.

Real-Life Application of a Treemap Chart

Let’s consider a financial scenario where a financial team wants to represent the budget allocation of a company. There is a hierarchy in the process, so it is helpful to use a treemap chart. In the chart, the top-level rectangle could represent the total budget, and it would be subdivided into smaller rectangles, each denoting a specific department. Further subdivisions within these smaller rectangles might represent individual projects or cost categories.

Step 1: Define Your Data Hierarchy

While presenting data on the budget allocation, start by outlining the hierarchical structure. The sequence will be like the overall budget at the top, followed by departments, projects within each department, and finally, individual cost categories for each project.

• Top-level rectangle: Total Budget
• Second-level rectangles: Departments (Engineering, Marketing, Sales)
• Third-level rectangles: Projects within each department
• Fourth-level rectangles: Cost categories for each project (Personnel, Marketing Expenses, Equipment)

Step 2: Choose a Suitable Tool

It’s time to select a data visualization tool supporting Treemaps. Popular choices include Tableau, Microsoft Power BI, PowerPoint, or even coding with libraries like D3.js. It is vital to ensure that the chosen tool provides customization options for colors, labels, and hierarchical structures.

Here, the team uses PowerPoint for this guide because of its user-friendly interface and robust Treemap capabilities.

Step 3: Make a Treemap Chart with PowerPoint

After opening the PowerPoint presentation, they chose “SmartArt” to form the chart. The SmartArt Graphic window has a “Hierarchy” category on the left.  Here, you will see multiple options. You can choose any layout that resembles a Treemap. The “Table Hierarchy” or “Organization Chart” options can be adapted. The team selects the Table Hierarchy as it looks close to a Treemap.

Step 5: Input Your Data

After that, a new window will open with a basic structure. They add the data one by one by clicking on the text boxes. They start with the top-level rectangle, representing the total budget.  

Step 6: Customize the Treemap

By clicking on each shape, they customize its color, size, and label. At the same time, they can adjust the font size, style, and color of labels by using the options in the “Format” tab in PowerPoint. Using different colors for each level enhances the visual difference.

Treemaps excel at illustrating hierarchical structures. These charts make it easy to understand relationships and dependencies. They efficiently use space, compactly displaying a large amount of data, reducing the need for excessive scrolling or navigation. Additionally, using colors enhances the understanding of data by representing different variables or categories.

In some cases, treemaps might become complex, especially with deep hierarchies.  It becomes challenging for some users to interpret the chart. At the same time, displaying detailed information within each rectangle might be constrained by space. It potentially limits the amount of data that can be shown clearly. Without proper labeling and color coding, there’s a risk of misinterpretation.

A heatmap is a data visualization tool that uses color coding to represent values across a two-dimensional surface. In these, colors replace numbers to indicate the magnitude of each cell. This color-shaded matrix display is valuable for summarizing and understanding data sets with a glance [7] . The intensity of the color corresponds to the value it represents, making it easy to identify patterns, trends, and variations in the data.

As a tool, heatmaps help businesses analyze website interactions, revealing user behavior patterns and preferences to enhance overall user experience. In addition, companies use heatmaps to assess content engagement, identifying popular sections and areas of improvement for more effective communication. They excel at highlighting patterns and trends in large datasets, making it easy to identify areas of interest.

We can implement heatmaps to express multiple data types, such as numerical values, percentages, or even categorical data. Heatmaps help us easily spot areas with lots of activity, making them helpful in figuring out clusters [8] . When making these maps, it is important to pick colors carefully. The colors need to show the differences between groups or levels of something. And it is good to use colors that people with colorblindness can easily see.

Check our detailed guide on how to create a heatmap here. Also discover our collection of heatmap PowerPoint templates .

Pie charts are circular statistical graphics divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportions. Each slice represents a proportionate part of the whole, making it easy to visualize the contribution of each component to the total.

The size of the pie charts is influenced by the value of data points within each pie. The total of all data points in a pie determines its size. The pie with the highest data points appears as the largest, whereas the others are proportionally smaller. However, you can present all pies of the same size if proportional representation is not required [9] . Sometimes, pie charts are difficult to read, or additional information is required. A variation of this tool can be used instead, known as the donut chart , which has the same structure but a blank center, creating a ring shape. Presenters can add extra information, and the ring shape helps to declutter the graph.

Pie charts are used in business to show percentage distribution, compare relative sizes of categories, or present straightforward data sets where visualizing ratios is essential.

Real-Life Application of Pie Charts

Consider a scenario where you want to represent the distribution of the data. Each slice of the pie chart would represent a different category, and the size of each slice would indicate the percentage of the total portion allocated to that category.

Step 1: Define Your Data Structure

Imagine you are presenting the distribution of a project budget among different expense categories.

• Column A: Expense Categories (Personnel, Equipment, Marketing, Miscellaneous)
• Column B: Budget Amounts ($40,000, $30,000, $20,000, $10,000) Column B represents the values of your categories in Column A.

Step 2: Insert a Pie Chart

Using any of the accessible tools, you can create a pie chart. The most convenient tools for forming a pie chart in a presentation are presentation tools such as PowerPoint or Google Slides.  You will notice that the pie chart assigns each expense category a percentage of the total budget by dividing it by the total budget.

For instance:

• Personnel: $40,000 / ($40,000 + $30,000 + $20,000 + $10,000) = 40%
• Equipment: $30,000 / ($40,000 + $30,000 + $20,000 + $10,000) = 30%
• Marketing: $20,000 / ($40,000 + $30,000 + $20,000 + $10,000) = 20%
• Miscellaneous: $10,000 / ($40,000 + $30,000 + $20,000 + $10,000) = 10%

You can make a chart out of this or just pull out the pie chart from the data.

3D pie charts and 3D donut charts are quite popular among the audience. They stand out as visual elements in any presentation slide, so let’s take a look at how our pie chart example would look in 3D pie chart format.

Step 03: Results Interpretation

The pie chart visually illustrates the distribution of the project budget among different expense categories. Personnel constitutes the largest portion at 40%, followed by equipment at 30%, marketing at 20%, and miscellaneous at 10%. This breakdown provides a clear overview of where the project funds are allocated, which helps in informed decision-making and resource management. It is evident that personnel are a significant investment, emphasizing their importance in the overall project budget.

Pie charts provide a straightforward way to represent proportions and percentages. They are easy to understand, even for individuals with limited data analysis experience. These charts work well for small datasets with a limited number of categories.

However, a pie chart can become cluttered and less effective in situations with many categories. Accurate interpretation may be challenging, especially when dealing with slight differences in slice sizes. In addition, these charts are static and do not effectively convey trends over time.

For more information, check our collection of pie chart templates for PowerPoint .

Histograms present the distribution of numerical variables. Unlike a bar chart that records each unique response separately, histograms organize numeric responses into bins and show the frequency of reactions within each bin [10] . The x-axis of a histogram shows the range of values for a numeric variable. At the same time, the y-axis indicates the relative frequencies (percentage of the total counts) for that range of values.

Whenever you want to understand the distribution of your data, check which values are more common, or identify outliers, histograms are your go-to. Think of them as a spotlight on the story your data is telling. A histogram can provide a quick and insightful overview if you’re curious about exam scores, sales figures, or any numerical data distribution.

Real-Life Application of a Histogram

In the histogram data analysis presentation example, imagine an instructor analyzing a class’s grades to identify the most common score range. A histogram could effectively display the distribution. It will show whether most students scored in the average range or if there are significant outliers.

Step 1: Gather Data

He begins by gathering the data. The scores of each student in class are gathered to analyze exam scores.

After arranging the scores in ascending order, bin ranges are set.

Step 2: Define Bins

Bins are like categories that group similar values. Think of them as buckets that organize your data. The presenter decides how wide each bin should be based on the range of the values. For instance, the instructor sets the bin ranges based on score intervals: 60-69, 70-79, 80-89, and 90-100.

Step 3: Count Frequency

Now, he counts how many data points fall into each bin. This step is crucial because it tells you how often specific ranges of values occur. The result is the frequency distribution, showing the occurrences of each group.

Here, the instructor counts the number of students in each category.

• 60-69: 1 student (Kate)
• 70-79: 4 students (David, Emma, Grace, Jack)
• 80-89: 7 students (Alice, Bob, Frank, Isabel, Liam, Mia, Noah)
• 90-100: 3 students (Clara, Henry, Olivia)

Step 4: Create the Histogram

It’s time to turn the data into a visual representation. Draw a bar for each bin on a graph. The width of the bar should correspond to the range of the bin, and the height should correspond to the frequency.  To make your histogram understandable, label the X and Y axes.

In this case, the X-axis should represent the bins (e.g., test score ranges), and the Y-axis represents the frequency.

The histogram of the class grades reveals insightful patterns in the distribution. Most students, with seven students, fall within the 80-89 score range. The histogram provides a clear visualization of the class’s performance. It showcases a concentration of grades in the upper-middle range with few outliers at both ends. This analysis helps in understanding the overall academic standing of the class. It also identifies the areas for potential improvement or recognition.

Thus, histograms provide a clear visual representation of data distribution. They are easy to interpret, even for those without a statistical background. They apply to various types of data, including continuous and discrete variables. One weak point is that histograms do not capture detailed patterns in students’ data, with seven compared to other visualization methods.

A scatter plot is a graphical representation of the relationship between two variables. It consists of individual data points on a two-dimensional plane. This plane plots one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. Each point represents a unique observation. It visualizes patterns, trends, or correlations between the two variables.

Scatter plots are also effective in revealing the strength and direction of relationships. They identify outliers and assess the overall distribution of data points. The points’ dispersion and clustering reflect the relationship’s nature, whether it is positive, negative, or lacks a discernible pattern. In business, scatter plots assess relationships between variables such as marketing cost and sales revenue. They help present data correlations and decision-making.

Real-Life Application of Scatter Plot

A group of scientists is conducting a study on the relationship between daily hours of screen time and sleep quality. After reviewing the data, they managed to create this table to help them build a scatter plot graph:

In the provided example, the x-axis represents Daily Hours of Screen Time, and the y-axis represents the Sleep Quality Rating.

The scientists observe a negative correlation between the amount of screen time and the quality of sleep. This is consistent with their hypothesis that blue light, especially before bedtime, has a significant impact on sleep quality and metabolic processes.

There are a few things to remember when using a scatter plot. Even when a scatter diagram indicates a relationship, it doesn’t mean one variable affects the other. A third factor can influence both variables. The more the plot resembles a straight line, the stronger the relationship is perceived [11] . If it suggests no ties, the observed pattern might be due to random fluctuations in data. When the scatter diagram depicts no correlation, whether the data might be stratified is worth considering.

Choosing the appropriate data presentation type is crucial when making a presentation . Understanding the nature of your data and the message you intend to convey will guide this selection process. For instance, when showcasing quantitative relationships, scatter plots become instrumental in revealing correlations between variables. If the focus is on emphasizing parts of a whole, pie charts offer a concise display of proportions. Histograms, on the other hand, prove valuable for illustrating distributions and frequency patterns. 

Bar charts provide a clear visual comparison of different categories. Likewise, line charts excel in showcasing trends over time, while tables are ideal for detailed data examination. Starting a presentation on data presentation types involves evaluating the specific information you want to communicate and selecting the format that aligns with your message. This ensures clarity and resonance with your audience from the beginning of your presentation.

1. Fact Sheet Dashboard for Data Presentation

Convey all the data you need to present in this one-pager format, an ideal solution tailored for users looking for presentation aids. Global maps, donut chats, column graphs, and text neatly arranged in a clean layout presented in light and dark themes.

Use This Template

2. 3D Column Chart Infographic PPT Template

Represent column charts in a highly visual 3D format with this PPT template. A creative way to present data, this template is entirely editable, and we can craft either a one-page infographic or a series of slides explaining what we intend to disclose point by point.

3. Data Circles Infographic PowerPoint Template

An alternative to the pie chart and donut chart diagrams, this template features a series of curved shapes with bubble callouts as ways of presenting data. Expand the information for each arch in the text placeholder areas.

4. Colorful Metrics Dashboard for Data Presentation

This versatile dashboard template helps us in the presentation of the data by offering several graphs and methods to convert numbers into graphics. Implement it for e-commerce projects, financial projections, project development, and more.

5. Animated Data Presentation Tools for PowerPoint & Google Slides

A slide deck filled with most of the tools mentioned in this article, from bar charts, column charts, treemap graphs, pie charts, histogram, etc. Animated effects make each slide look dynamic when sharing data with stakeholders.

6. Statistics Waffle Charts PPT Template for Data Presentations

This PPT template helps us how to present data beyond the typical pie chart representation. It is widely used for demographics, so it’s a great fit for marketing teams, data science professionals, HR personnel, and more.

7. Data Presentation Dashboard Template for Google Slides

A compendium of tools in dashboard format featuring line graphs, bar charts, column charts, and neatly arranged placeholder text areas. 

8. Weather Dashboard for Data Presentation

Share weather data for agricultural presentation topics, environmental studies, or any kind of presentation that requires a highly visual layout for weather forecasting on a single day. Two color themes are available.

9. Social Media Marketing Dashboard Data Presentation Template

Intended for marketing professionals, this dashboard template for data presentation is a tool for presenting data analytics from social media channels. Two slide layouts featuring line graphs and column charts.

10. Project Management Summary Dashboard Template

A tool crafted for project managers to deliver highly visual reports on a project’s completion, the profits it delivered for the company, and expenses/time required to execute it. 4 different color layouts are available.

11. Profit & Loss Dashboard for PowerPoint and Google Slides

A must-have for finance professionals. This typical profit & loss dashboard includes progress bars, donut charts, column charts, line graphs, and everything that’s required to deliver a comprehensive report about a company’s financial situation.

Overwhelming visuals

One of the mistakes related to using data-presenting methods is including too much data or using overly complex visualizations. They can confuse the audience and dilute the key message.

Inappropriate chart types

Choosing the wrong type of chart for the data at hand can lead to misinterpretation. For example, using a pie chart for data that doesn’t represent parts of a whole is not right.

Lack of context

Failing to provide context or sufficient labeling can make it challenging for the audience to understand the significance of the presented data.

Inconsistency in design

Using inconsistent design elements and color schemes across different visualizations can create confusion and visual disarray.

Failure to provide details

Simply presenting raw data without offering clear insights or takeaways can leave the audience without a meaningful conclusion.

Lack of focus

Not having a clear focus on the key message or main takeaway can result in a presentation that lacks a central theme.

Visual accessibility issues

Overlooking the visual accessibility of charts and graphs can exclude certain audience members who may have difficulty interpreting visual information.

In order to avoid these mistakes in data presentation, presenters can benefit from using presentation templates . These templates provide a structured framework. They ensure consistency, clarity, and an aesthetically pleasing design, enhancing data communication’s overall impact.

Understanding and choosing data presentation types are pivotal in effective communication. Each method serves a unique purpose, so selecting the appropriate one depends on the nature of the data and the message to be conveyed. The diverse array of presentation types offers versatility in visually representing information, from bar charts showing values to pie charts illustrating proportions. 

Using the proper method enhances clarity, engages the audience, and ensures that data sets are not just presented but comprehensively understood. By appreciating the strengths and limitations of different presentation types, communicators can tailor their approach to convey information accurately, developing a deeper connection between data and audience understanding.

[1] Government of Canada, S.C. (2021) 5 Data Visualization 5.2 Bar Chart , 5.2 Bar chart .  https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/edu/power-pouvoir/ch9/bargraph-diagrammeabarres/5214818-eng.htm

[2] Kosslyn, S.M., 1989. Understanding charts and graphs. Applied cognitive psychology, 3(3), pp.185-225. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA183409.pdf

[3] Creating a Dashboard . https://it.tufts.edu/book/export/html/1870

[4] https://www.goldenwestcollege.edu/research/data-and-more/data-dashboards/index.html

[5] https://www.mit.edu/course/21/21.guide/grf-line.htm

[6] Jadeja, M. and Shah, K., 2015, January. Tree-Map: A Visualization Tool for Large Data. In GSB@ SIGIR (pp. 9-13). https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1393/gsb15proceedings.pdf#page=15

[7] Heat Maps and Quilt Plots. https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/heat-maps-and-quilt-plots

[8] EIU QGIS WORKSHOP. https://www.eiu.edu/qgisworkshop/heatmaps.php

[9] About Pie Charts.  https://www.mit.edu/~mbarker/formula1/f1help/11-ch-c8.htm

[10] Histograms. https://sites.utexas.edu/sos/guided/descriptive/numericaldd/descriptiven2/histogram/ [11] https://asq.org/quality-resources/scatter-diagram

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ChartExpo Survey

Top 5 Easy-to-Follow Data Presentation Examples

You’ll agree when we say that poring through numbers is tedious at best and mentally exhausting at worst.

And this is where data presentation examples come in.

Charts come in and distill data into meaningful insights. And this saves tons of hours, which you can use to relax or execute other tasks. Besides, when creating data stories, you need charts that communicate insights with clarity.

There’re 5 solid and reliable data presentation methods: textual, statistical data presentation, measures of dispersion, tabular, and graphical data representation.

Besides, some of the tested and proven charts for data presentation include:

• Waterfall Chart
• Double Bar Graph
• Slope Chart
• Treemap Charts
• Radar Chart
• Sankey Chart

There’re visualization tools that produce simple, insightful, and ready-made data presentation charts. Yes, you read that right. These tools create charts that complement data stories seamlessly.

Remember, without visualizing data to extract insights, chances of creating a compelling narrative will go down.

Table of Content:

What is data presentation, top 5 data presentation examples:, how to generate sankey chart in excel for data presentation, importance of data presentation in business, benefits of data presentation, what are the top 5 methods of data presentation.

Data presentation is the process of using charts and graphs formats to display insights into data. The insights could be:

• Relationship
• Trend and patterns

Data Analysis  and  Data Presentation  have a practical implementation in every possible field. It can range from academic studies, and commercial, industrial , and marketing activities to professional practices .

In its raw form, data can be extremely complicated to decipher. Examples of data presentation, such as chord charts , are an important step toward breaking down data into understandable charts or graphs.

You can use tools (which we’ll talk about later) to analyze raw data.

Once the required information is obtained from the data, the next logical step is to present the data in a graphical presentation.

The presentation is the key to success.

Once you’ve extracted actionable insights, you can craft a compelling data story. Keep reading because we’ll address the following in the coming section: the importance of data presentation in business.

Let’s take a look at the five data presentation examples below:

1. Waterfall Chart

A Waterfall Chart is a graphical representation used to depict the cumulative impact of sequential positive or negative values on a starting point over a designated time frame. It typically consists of a series of horizontal bars, with each bar representing a stage or category in a process.

2. Double Bar Graph

A Double Bar Chart displays more than one data series in clustered horizontal columns.

Each data series shares the same axis labels, so horizontal bars are grouped by category.

Bars directly compare multiple series in a given category. The chart is amazingly easy to read and interpret, even for a non-technical audience.

3. Slope Chart

Slope Charts are simple graphs that quickly and directly show  transitions, changes over time, absolute values, and even rankings .

Besides, they’re also called Slope Graphs .

This is one of the data presentation examples you can use to show the before and after story of variables in your data.

Slope Graphs can be useful when you have two time periods or points of comparison and want to show relative increases and decreases quickly across various categories between two data points.

Take a look at the table below. Can you provide coherent and actionable insights into the table below?

Notice the difference after visualizing the table. You can easily tell the performance of individual segments in:

• Macy’s Store

5. Radar Chart

Radar Chart is also known as Spider Chart or Spider Web Chart. A radar chart is very helpful to visualize the comparison between multiple categories and variables.

A radar Chart is one of the data presentation examples you can use to compare data of two different time ranges e.g. Current vs Previous. Radar Chart with different scales makes it easy for you to identify trends, patterns, and outliers in your data. You can also use Radar Chart to visualize the data of Polar graph equations.

6. Sankey Chart

You can use Sankey Chart to visualize data with flow-like attributes, such as material, energy, cost, etc.

This chart draws the reader’s attention to the enormous flows, the largest consumer, the major losses , and other insights.

The aforementioned visualization design is one of the data presentation examples that use links and nodes to uncover hidden insights into relationships between critical metrics.

The size of a node is directly proportionate to the quantity of the data point under review.

So how can you access the data presentation examples (highlighted above)?

Excel is one of the most used tools for visualizing data because it’s easy to use. 

However, you cannot access ready-made and visually appealing data presentation charts for storytelling. But this does not mean you should ditch this freemium data visualization tool.

Did you know you can supercharge your Excel with add-ins to access visually stunning and ready-to-go data presentation charts?

Yes, you can increase the functionality of your Excel and access ready-made data presentation examples for your data stories.

The add-on we recommend you to use is ChartExpo.

What is ChartExpo?

We recommend this tool (ChartExpo) because it’s super easy to use.

You don’t need to take programming night classes to extract insights from your data. ChartExpo is more of a ‘drag-and-drop tool,’ which means you’ll only need to scroll your mouse and fill in respective metrics and dimensions in your data.

ChartExpo comes with a 7-day free trial period.

The tool produces charts that are incredibly easy to read and interpret . And it allows you to save charts in the world’s most recognized formats, namely PNG and JPG.

In the coming section, we’ll show you how to use ChartExpo to visualize your data with one of the data presentation examples (Sankey).

  To install ChartExpo add-in into your Excel, click this link .

• Open your Excel and paste the table above.
• Click the My Apps button.

• Then select ChartExpo and click on  INSERT, as shown below.

• Click the Search Box and type “Sankey Chart” .

• Once the chart pops up, click on its icon to get started.

• Select the sheet holding your data and click the Create Chart from Selection button.

How to Edit the Sankey Chart?

• Click the Edit Chart button, as shown above.

• Once the Chart Header Properties window shows, click the Line 1 box and fill in your title.

• To change the color of the nodes, click the pen-like icons on the nodes.
• Once the color window shows, select the Node Color and then the Apply button.

• Save your changes by clicking the Apply button.
• Check out the final chart below.

Data presentation examples are vital, especially when crafting data stories for the top management. Top management can use data presentation charts, such as Sankey, as a backdrop for their decision.

Presentation charts, maps, and graphs are powerful because they simplify data by making it understandable & readable at the same time. Besides, they make data stories compelling and irresistible to target audiences.

Big files with numbers are usually hard to read and make it difficult to spot patterns easily. However, many businesses believe that developing visual reports focused on creating stories around data is unnecessary; they think that the data alone should be sufficient for decision-making.

Visualizing supports this and lightens the decision-making process.

Luckily, there are innovative applications you can use to visualize all the data your company has into dashboards, graphs, and reports. Data visualization helps transform your numbers into an engaging story with details and patterns.

Check out more benefits of data presentation examples below:

1. Easy to understand

You can interpret vast quantities of data clearly and cohesively to draw insights, thanks to graphic representations.

Using data presentation examples, such as charts, managers and decision-makers can easily create and rapidly consume key metrics.

If any of the aforementioned metrics have anomalies — ie. sales are significantly down in one region — decision-makers will easily dig into the data to diagnose the problem.

2. Spot patterns

Data visualization can help you to do trend analysis and respond rapidly on the grounds of what you see.

Such patterns make more sense when graphically represented; because charts make it easier to identify correlated parameters.

3. Data Narratives

You can use data presentation charts, such as Sankey, to build dashboards and turn them into stories.

Data storytelling can help you connect with potential readers and audiences on an emotional level.

4. Speed up the decision-making process

We naturally process visual images 60,000 times faster than text. A graph, chart, or other visual representation of data is more comfortable for our brain to process.

Thanks to our ability to easily interpret visual content, data presentation examples can dramatically improve the speed of decision-making processes.

Take a look at the table below?

Can you give reliable insights into the table above?

Keep reading because we’ll explore easy-to-follow data presentation examples in the coming section. Also, we’ll address the following question: what are the top 5 methods of data presentation?

1. Textual Ways of Presenting Data

Out of the five data presentation examples, this is the simplest one.

Just write your findings coherently and your job is done. The demerit of this method is that one has to read the whole text to get a clear picture.  Yes, you read that right.

The introduction, summary, and conclusion can help condense the information.

2. Statistical data presentation

Data on its own is less valuable. However, for it to be valuable to your business, it has to be:

No matter how well manipulated, the insights into raw data should be presented in an easy-to-follow sequence to keep the audience waiting for more.

Text is the principal method for explaining findings, outlining trends, and providing contextual information. A table is best suited for representing individual information and represents both quantitative and qualitative information.

On the other hand, a graph is a very effective visual tool because:

• It displays data at a glance
• Facilitates comparison
• Reveals trends, relationships, frequency distribution, and correlation

Text, tables, and graphs are incredibly effective data presentation examples you can leverage to curate persuasive data narratives.

3. Measure of Dispersion

Statistical dispersion is how a key metric is likely to deviate from the average value. In other words, dispersion can help you to understand the distribution of key data points.

There are two types of measures of dispersion, namely:

• Absolute Measure of Dispersion
• Relative Measure of Dispersion

4. Tabular Ways of Data Presentation and Analysis

To avoid the complexities associated with qualitative data, use tables and charts to display insights.

This is one of the data presentation examples where values are displayed in rows and columns. All rows and columns have an attribute (name, year, gender, and age).

5. Graphical Data Representation

Graphical representation uses charts and graphs to visually display, analyze, clarify, and interpret numerical data, functions, and other qualitative structures.

Data is ingested into charts and graphs, such as Sankey, and then represented by a variety of symbols, such as lines and bars.

Data presentation examples, such as Bar Charts , can help you illustrate trends, relationships, comparisons, and outliers between data points.

What is the main objective of data presentation?

Discovery and communication are the two key objectives of data presentation.

In the discovery phase, we recommend you try various charts and graphs to understand the insights into the raw data. The communication phase is focused on presenting the insights in a summarized form.

What is the importance of graphs and charts in business?

Big files with numbers are usually hard to read and make it difficult to spot patterns easily.

Presentation charts, maps, and graphs are vital because they simplify data by making it understandable & readable at the same time. Besides, they make data stories compelling and irresistible to target audiences.

Poring through numbers is tedious at best and mentally exhausting at worst.

This is where data presentation examples come into play.

Charts come in and distill data into meaningful insights. And this saves tons of hours, which you can use to handle other tasks. Besides, when creating data stories, it would be best if you had charts that communicate insights with clarity.

Excel, one of the popular tools for visualizing data, comes with very basic data presentation charts, which require a lot of editing.

We recommend you try ChartExpo because it’s one of the most trusted add-ins. Besides, it has a super-friendly user interface for everyone, irrespective of their computer skills.

Create simple, ready-made, and easy-to-interpret Bar Charts today without breaking a sweat.

How much did you enjoy this article?

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Data presentation: A comprehensive guide

Learn how to create data presentation effectively and communicate your insights in a way that is clear, concise, and engaging.

Raja Bothra

Building presentations

Hey there, fellow data enthusiast!

Welcome to our comprehensive guide on data presentation.

Whether you're an experienced presenter or just starting, this guide will help you present your data like a pro. We'll dive deep into what data presentation is, why it's crucial, and how to master it. So, let's embark on this data-driven journey together.

What is data presentation?

Data presentation is the art of transforming raw data into a visual format that's easy to understand and interpret. It's like turning numbers and statistics into a captivating story that your audience can quickly grasp. When done right, data presentation can be a game-changer, enabling you to convey complex information effectively.

Why are data presentations important?

Imagine drowning in a sea of numbers and figures. That's how your audience might feel without proper data presentation. Here's why it's essential:

• Clarity : Data presentations make complex information clear and concise.
• Engagement : Visuals, such as charts and graphs, grab your audience's attention.
• Comprehension : Visual data is easier to understand than long, numerical reports.
• Decision-making : Well-presented data aids informed decision-making.
• Impact : It leaves a lasting impression on your audience.

Types of data presentation:

Now, let's delve into the diverse array of data presentation methods, each with its own unique strengths and applications. We have three primary types of data presentation, and within these categories, numerous specific visualization techniques can be employed to effectively convey your data.

1. Textual presentation

Textual presentation harnesses the power of words and sentences to elucidate and contextualize your data. This method is commonly used to provide a narrative framework for the data, offering explanations, insights, and the broader implications of your findings. It serves as a foundation for a deeper understanding of the data's significance.

2. Tabular presentation

Tabular presentation employs tables to arrange and structure your data systematically. These tables are invaluable for comparing various data groups or illustrating how data evolves over time. They present information in a neat and organized format, facilitating straightforward comparisons and reference points.

3. Graphical presentation

Graphical presentation harnesses the visual impact of charts and graphs to breathe life into your data. Charts and graphs are powerful tools for spotlighting trends, patterns, and relationships hidden within the data. Let's explore some common graphical presentation methods:

• Bar charts: They are ideal for comparing different categories of data. In this method, each category is represented by a distinct bar, and the height of the bar corresponds to the value it represents. Bar charts provide a clear and intuitive way to discern differences between categories.
• Pie charts: It excel at illustrating the relative proportions of different data categories. Each category is depicted as a slice of the pie, with the size of each slice corresponding to the percentage of the total value it represents. Pie charts are particularly effective for showcasing the distribution of data.
• Line graphs: They are the go-to choice when showcasing how data evolves over time. Each point on the line represents a specific value at a particular time period. This method enables viewers to track trends and fluctuations effortlessly, making it perfect for visualizing data with temporal dimensions.
• Scatter plots: They are the tool of choice when exploring the relationship between two variables. In this method, each point on the plot represents a pair of values for the two variables in question. Scatter plots help identify correlations, outliers, and patterns within data pairs.

The selection of the most suitable data presentation method hinges on the specific dataset and the presentation's objectives. For instance, when comparing sales figures of different products, a bar chart shines in its simplicity and clarity. On the other hand, if your aim is to display how a product's sales have changed over time, a line graph provides the ideal visual narrative.

Additionally, it's crucial to factor in your audience's level of familiarity with data presentations. For a technical audience, more intricate visualization methods may be appropriate. However, when presenting to a general audience, opting for straightforward and easily understandable visuals is often the wisest choice.

In the world of data presentation, choosing the right method is akin to selecting the perfect brush for a masterpiece. Each tool has its place, and understanding when and how to use them is key to crafting compelling and insightful presentations. So, consider your data carefully, align your purpose, and paint a vivid picture that resonates with your audience.

What to include in data presentation?

When creating your data presentation, remember these key components:

• Data points : Clearly state the data points you're presenting.
• Comparison : Highlight comparisons and trends in your data.
• Graphical methods : Choose the right chart or graph for your data.
• Infographics : Use visuals like infographics to make information more digestible.
• Numerical values : Include numerical values to support your visuals.
• Qualitative information : Explain the significance of the data.
• Source citation : Always cite your data sources.

How to structure an effective data presentation?

Creating a well-structured data presentation is not just important; it's the backbone of a successful presentation. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you craft a compelling and organized presentation that captivates your audience:

1. Know your audience

Understanding your audience is paramount. Consider their needs, interests, and existing knowledge about your topic. Tailor your presentation to their level of understanding, ensuring that it resonates with them on a personal level. Relevance is the key.

2. Have a clear message

Every effective data presentation should convey a clear and concise message. Determine what you want your audience to learn or take away from your presentation, and make sure your message is the guiding light throughout your presentation. Ensure that all your data points align with and support this central message.

3. Tell a compelling story

Human beings are naturally wired to remember stories. Incorporate storytelling techniques into your presentation to make your data more relatable and memorable. Your data can be the backbone of a captivating narrative, whether it's about a trend, a problem, or a solution. Take your audience on a journey through your data.

4. Leverage visuals

Visuals are a powerful tool in data presentation. They make complex information accessible and engaging. Utilize charts, graphs, and images to illustrate your points and enhance the visual appeal of your presentation. Visuals should not just be an accessory; they should be an integral part of your storytelling.

5. Be clear and concise

Avoid jargon or technical language that your audience may not comprehend. Use plain language and explain your data points clearly. Remember, clarity is king. Each piece of information should be easy for your audience to digest.

6. Practice your delivery

Practice makes perfect. Rehearse your presentation multiple times before the actual delivery. This will help you deliver it smoothly and confidently, reducing the chances of stumbling over your words or losing track of your message.

A basic structure for an effective data presentation

Armed with a comprehensive comprehension of how to construct a compelling data presentation, you can now utilize this fundamental template for guidance:

In the introduction, initiate your presentation by introducing both yourself and the topic at hand. Clearly articulate your main message or the fundamental concept you intend to communicate.

Moving on to the body of your presentation, organize your data in a coherent and easily understandable sequence. Employ visuals generously to elucidate your points and weave a narrative that enhances the overall story. Ensure that the arrangement of your data aligns with and reinforces your central message.

As you approach the conclusion, succinctly recapitulate your key points and emphasize your core message once more. Conclude by leaving your audience with a distinct and memorable takeaway, ensuring that your presentation has a lasting impact.

Additional tips for enhancing your data presentation

To take your data presentation to the next level, consider these additional tips:

• Consistent design : Maintain a uniform design throughout your presentation. This not only enhances visual appeal but also aids in seamless comprehension.
• High-quality visuals : Ensure that your visuals are of high quality, easy to read, and directly relevant to your topic.
• Concise text : Avoid overwhelming your slides with excessive text. Focus on the most critical points, using visuals to support and elaborate.
• Anticipate questions : Think ahead about the questions your audience might pose. Be prepared with well-thought-out answers to foster productive discussions.

By following these guidelines, you can structure an effective data presentation that not only informs but also engages and inspires your audience. Remember, a well-structured presentation is the bridge that connects your data to your audience's understanding and appreciation.

Do’s and don'ts on a data presentation

• Use visuals : Incorporate charts and graphs to enhance understanding.
• Keep it simple : Avoid clutter and complexity.
• Highlight key points : Emphasize crucial data.
• Engage the audience : Encourage questions and discussions.
• Practice : Rehearse your presentation.

Don'ts:

• Overload with data : Less is often more; don't overwhelm your audience.
• Fit Unrelated data : Stay on topic; don't include irrelevant information.
• Neglect the audience : Ensure your presentation suits your audience's level of expertise.
• Read word-for-word : Avoid reading directly from slides.
• Lose focus : Stick to your presentation's purpose.

Summarizing key takeaways

• Definition : Data presentation is the art of visualizing complex data for better understanding.
• Importance : Data presentations enhance clarity, engage the audience, aid decision-making, and leave a lasting impact.
• Types : Textual, Tabular, and Graphical presentations offer various ways to present data.
• Choosing methods : Select the right method based on data, audience, and purpose.
• Components : Include data points, comparisons, visuals, infographics, numerical values, and source citations.
• Structure : Know your audience, have a clear message, tell a compelling story, use visuals, be concise, and practice.
• Do's and don'ts : Do use visuals, keep it simple, highlight key points, engage the audience, and practice. Don't overload with data, include unrelated information, neglect the audience's expertise, read word-for-word, or lose focus.

FAQ's on a data presentation

1. what is data presentation, and why is it important in 2024.

Data presentation is the process of visually representing data sets to convey information effectively to an audience. In an era where the amount of data generated is vast, visually presenting data using methods such as diagrams, graphs, and charts has become crucial. By simplifying complex data sets, presentation of the data may helps your audience quickly grasp much information without drowning in a sea of chart's, analytics, facts and figures.

2. What are some common methods of data presentation?

There are various methods of data presentation, including graphs and charts, histograms, and cumulative frequency polygons. Each method has its strengths and is often used depending on the type of data you're using and the message you want to convey. For instance, if you want to show data over time, try using a line graph. If you're presenting geographical data, consider to use a heat map.

3. How can I ensure that my data presentation is clear and readable?

To ensure that your data presentation is clear and readable, pay attention to the design and labeling of your charts. Don't forget to label the axes appropriately, as they are critical for understanding the values they represent. Don't fit all the information in one slide or in a single paragraph. Presentation software like Prezent and PowerPoint can help you simplify your vertical axis, charts and tables, making them much easier to understand.

4. What are some common mistakes presenters make when presenting data?

One common mistake is trying to fit too much data into a single chart, which can distort the information and confuse the audience. Another mistake is not considering the needs of the audience. Remember that your audience won't have the same level of familiarity with the data as you do, so it's essential to present the data effectively and respond to questions during a Q&A session.

5. How can I use data visualization to present important data effectively on platforms like LinkedIn?

When presenting data on platforms like LinkedIn, consider using eye-catching visuals like bar graphs or charts. Use concise captions and e.g., examples to highlight the single most important information in your data report. Visuals, such as graphs and tables, can help you stand out in the sea of textual content, making your data presentation more engaging and shareable among your LinkedIn connections.

Create your data presentation with prezent

Prezent can be a valuable tool for creating data presentations. Here's how Prezent can help you in this regard:

• Time savings : Prezent saves up to 70% of presentation creation time, allowing you to focus on data analysis and insights.
• On-brand consistency : Ensure 100% brand alignment with Prezent's brand-approved designs for professional-looking data presentations.
• Effortless collaboration : Real-time sharing and collaboration features make it easy for teams to work together on data presentations.
• Data storytelling : Choose from 50+ storylines to effectively communicate data insights and engage your audience.
• Personalization : Create tailored data presentations that resonate with your audience's preferences, enhancing the impact of your data.

In summary, Prezent streamlines the process of creating data presentations by offering time-saving features, ensuring brand consistency, promoting collaboration, and providing tools for effective data storytelling. Whether you need to present data to clients, stakeholders, or within your organization, Prezent can significantly enhance your presentation-making process.

So, go ahead, present your data with confidence, and watch your audience be wowed by your expertise.

Thank you for joining us on this data-driven journey. Stay tuned for more insights, and remember, data presentation is your ticket to making numbers come alive! Sign up for our free trial or book a demo ! ‍

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A Guide to Effective Data Presentation

Key objectives of data presentation, charts and graphs for great visuals, storytelling with data, visuals, and text, audiences and data presentation, the main idea in data presentation, storyboarding and data presentation, additional resources, data presentation.

Tools for effective data presentation

Financial analysts are required to present their findings in a neat, clear, and straightforward manner. They spend most of their time working with spreadsheets in MS Excel, building financial models , and crunching numbers. These models and calculations can be pretty extensive and complex and may only be understood by the analyst who created them. Effective data presentation skills are critical for being a world-class financial analyst .

It is the analyst’s job to effectively communicate the output to the target audience, such as the management team or a company’s external investors. This requires focusing on the main points, facts, insights, and recommendations that will prompt the necessary action from the audience.

One challenge is making intricate and elaborate work easy to comprehend through great visuals and dashboards. For example, tables, graphs, and charts are tools that an analyst can use to their advantage to give deeper meaning to a company’s financial information. These tools organize relevant numbers that are rather dull and give life and story to them.

Here are some key objectives to think about when presenting financial analysis:

• Visual communication
• Audience and context
• Charts, graphs, and images
• Focus on important points
• Design principles
• Storytelling
• Persuasiveness

For a breakdown of these objectives, check out Excel Dashboards & Data Visualization course to help you become a world-class financial analyst.

Charts and graphs make any financial analysis readable, easy to follow, and provide great data presentation. They are often included in the financial model’s output, which is essential for the key decision-makers in a company.

The decision-makers comprise executives and managers who usually won’t have enough time to synthesize and interpret data on their own to make sound business decisions. Therefore, it is the job of the analyst to enhance the decision-making process and help guide the executives and managers to create value for the company.

When an analyst uses charts, it is necessary to be aware of what good charts and bad charts look like and how to avoid the latter when telling a story with data.

Examples of Good Charts

As for great visuals, you can quickly see what’s going on with the data presentation, saving you time for deciphering their actual meaning. More importantly, great visuals facilitate business decision-making because their goal is to provide persuasive, clear, and unambiguous numeric communication.

For reference, take a look at the example below that shows a dashboard, which includes a gauge chart for growth rates, a bar chart for the number of orders, an area chart for company revenues, and a line chart for EBITDA margins.

To learn the step-by-step process of creating these essential tools in MS Excel, watch our video course titled “ Excel Dashboard & Data Visualization .”  Aside from what is given in the example below, our course will also teach how you can use other tables and charts to make your financial analysis stand out professionally.

Learn how to build the graph above in our Dashboards Course !

Example of Poorly Crafted Charts

A bad chart, as seen below, will give the reader a difficult time to find the main takeaway of a report or presentation, because it contains too many colors, labels, and legends, and thus, will often look too busy. It also doesn’t help much if a chart, such as a pie chart, is displayed in 3D, as it skews the size and perceived value of the underlying data. A bad chart will be hard to follow and understand.

Aside from understanding the meaning of the numbers, a financial analyst must learn to combine numbers and language to craft an effective story. Relying only on data for a presentation may leave your audience finding it difficult to read, interpret, and analyze your data. You must do the work for them, and a good story will be easier to follow. It will help you arrive at the main points faster, rather than just solely presenting your report or live presentation with numbers.

The data can be in the form of revenues, expenses, profits, and cash flow. Simply adding notes, comments, and opinions to each line item will add an extra layer of insight, angle, and a new perspective to the report.

Furthermore, by combining data, visuals, and text, your audience will get a clear understanding of the current situation,  past events, and possible conclusions and recommendations that can be made for the future.

The simple diagram below shows the different categories of your audience.

  This chart is taken from our course on how to present data .

Internal Audience

An internal audience can either be the executives of the company or any employee who works in that company. For executives, the purpose of communicating a data-filled presentation is to give an update about a certain business activity such as a project or an initiative.

Another important purpose is to facilitate decision-making on managing the company’s operations, growing its core business, acquiring new markets and customers, investing in R&D, and other considerations. Knowing the relevant data and information beforehand will guide the decision-makers in making the right choices that will best position the company toward more success.

External Audience

An external audience can either be the company’s existing clients, where there are projects in progress, or new clients that the company wants to build a relationship with and win new business from. The other external audience is the general public, such as the company’s external shareholders and prospective investors of the company.

When it comes to winning new business, the analyst’s presentation will be more promotional and sales-oriented, whereas a project update will contain more specific information for the client, usually with lots of industry jargon.

Audiences for Live and Emailed Presentation

A live presentation contains more visuals and storytelling to connect more with the audience. It must be more precise and should get to the point faster and avoid long-winded speech or text because of limited time.

In contrast, an emailed presentation is expected to be read, so it will include more text. Just like a document or a book, it will include more detailed information, because its context will not be explained with a voice-over as in a live presentation.

When it comes to details, acronyms, and jargon in the presentation, these things depend on whether your audience are experts or not.

Every great presentation requires a clear “main idea”. It is the core purpose of the presentation and should be addressed clearly. Its significance should be highlighted and should cause the targeted audience to take some action on the matter.

An example of a serious and profound idea is given below.

To communicate this big idea, we have to come up with appropriate and effective visual displays to show both the good and bad things surrounding the idea. It should put emphasis and attention on the most important part, which is the critical cash balance and capital investment situation for next year. This is an important component of data presentation.

The storyboarding below is how an analyst would build the presentation based on the big idea. Once the issue or the main idea has been introduced, it will be followed by a demonstration of the positive aspects of the company’s performance, as well as the negative aspects, which are more important and will likely require more attention.

Various ideas will then be suggested to solve the negative issues. However, before choosing the best option, a comparison of the different outcomes of the suggested ideas will be performed. Finally, a recommendation will be made that centers around the optimal choice to address the imminent problem highlighted in the big idea.

This storyboard is taken from our course on how to present data .

To get to the final point (recommendation), a great deal of analysis has been performed, which includes the charts and graphs discussed earlier, to make the whole presentation easy to follow, convincing, and compelling for your audience.

CFI offers the Business Intelligence & Data Analyst (BIDA)® certification program for those looking to take their careers to the next level. To keep learning and developing your knowledge base, please explore the additional relevant resources below:

• Investment Banking Pitch Books
• Excel Dashboards
• Financial Modeling Guide
• Startup Pitch Book
• See all business intelligence resources
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Blog Data Visualization 10 Data Presentation Examples For Strategic Communication

10 Data Presentation Examples For Strategic Communication

Written by: Krystle Wong Sep 28, 2023

Knowing how to present data is like having a superpower. 

Data presentation today is no longer just about numbers on a screen; it’s storytelling with a purpose. It’s about captivating your audience, making complex stuff look simple and inspiring action. 

To help turn your data into stories that stick, influence decisions and make an impact, check out Venngage’s free chart maker or follow me on a tour into the world of data storytelling along with data presentation templates that work across different fields, from business boardrooms to the classroom and beyond. Keep scrolling to learn more! 

Click to jump ahead:

10 Essential data presentation examples + methods you should know

What should be included in a data presentation, what are some common mistakes to avoid when presenting data, faqs on data presentation examples, transform your message with impactful data storytelling.

Data presentation is a vital skill in today’s information-driven world. Whether you’re in business, academia, or simply want to convey information effectively, knowing the different ways of presenting data is crucial. For impactful data storytelling, consider these essential data presentation methods:

1. Bar graph

Ideal for comparing data across categories or showing trends over time.

Bar graphs, also known as bar charts are workhorses of data presentation. They’re like the Swiss Army knives of visualization methods because they can be used to compare data in different categories or display data changes over time. 

In a bar chart, categories are displayed on the x-axis and the corresponding values are represented by the height of the bars on the y-axis. 

It’s a straightforward and effective way to showcase raw data, making it a staple in business reports, academic presentations and beyond.

Make sure your bar charts are concise with easy-to-read labels. Whether your bars go up or sideways, keep it simple by not overloading with too many categories.

2. Line graph

Great for displaying trends and variations in data points over time or continuous variables.

Line charts or line graphs are your go-to when you want to visualize trends and variations in data sets over time.

One of the best quantitative data presentation examples, they work exceptionally well for showing continuous data, such as sales projections over the last couple of years or supply and demand fluctuations. 

The x-axis represents time or a continuous variable and the y-axis represents the data values. By connecting the data points with lines, you can easily spot trends and fluctuations.

A tip when presenting data with line charts is to minimize the lines and not make it too crowded. Highlight the big changes, put on some labels and give it a catchy title.

3. Pie chart

Useful for illustrating parts of a whole, such as percentages or proportions.

Pie charts are perfect for showing how a whole is divided into parts. They’re commonly used to represent percentages or proportions and are great for presenting survey results that involve demographic data. 

Each “slice” of the pie represents a portion of the whole and the size of each slice corresponds to its share of the total. 

While pie charts are handy for illustrating simple distributions, they can become confusing when dealing with too many categories or when the differences in proportions are subtle.

Don’t get too carried away with slices — label those slices with percentages or values so people know what’s what and consider using a legend for more categories.

4. Scatter plot

Effective for showing the relationship between two variables and identifying correlations.

Scatter plots are all about exploring relationships between two variables. They’re great for uncovering correlations, trends or patterns in data. 

In a scatter plot, every data point appears as a dot on the chart, with one variable marked on the horizontal x-axis and the other on the vertical y-axis.

By examining the scatter of points, you can discern the nature of the relationship between the variables, whether it’s positive, negative or no correlation at all.

If you’re using scatter plots to reveal relationships between two variables, be sure to add trendlines or regression analysis when appropriate to clarify patterns. Label data points selectively or provide tooltips for detailed information.

5. Histogram

Best for visualizing the distribution and frequency of a single variable.

Histograms are your choice when you want to understand the distribution and frequency of a single variable. 

They divide the data into “bins” or intervals and the height of each bar represents the frequency or count of data points falling into that interval. 

Histograms are excellent for helping to identify trends in data distributions, such as peaks, gaps or skewness.

Here’s something to take note of — ensure that your histogram bins are appropriately sized to capture meaningful data patterns. Using clear axis labels and titles can also help explain the distribution of the data effectively.

6. Stacked bar chart

Useful for showing how different components contribute to a whole over multiple categories.

Stacked bar charts are a handy choice when you want to illustrate how different components contribute to a whole across multiple categories. 

Each bar represents a category and the bars are divided into segments to show the contribution of various components within each category. 

This method is ideal for highlighting both the individual and collective significance of each component, making it a valuable tool for comparative analysis.

Stacked bar charts are like data sandwiches—label each layer so people know what’s what. Keep the order logical and don’t forget the paintbrush for snazzy colors. Here’s a data analysis presentation example on writers’ productivity using stacked bar charts:

7. Area chart

Similar to line charts but with the area below the lines filled, making them suitable for showing cumulative data.

Area charts are close cousins of line charts but come with a twist. 

Imagine plotting the sales of a product over several months. In an area chart, the space between the line and the x-axis is filled, providing a visual representation of the cumulative total. 

This makes it easy to see how values stack up over time, making area charts a valuable tool for tracking trends in data.

For area charts, use them to visualize cumulative data and trends, but avoid overcrowding the chart. Add labels, especially at significant points and make sure the area under the lines is filled with a visually appealing color gradient.

8. Tabular presentation

Presenting data in rows and columns, often used for precise data values and comparisons.

Tabular data presentation is all about clarity and precision. Think of it as presenting numerical data in a structured grid, with rows and columns clearly displaying individual data points. 

A table is invaluable for showcasing detailed data, facilitating comparisons and presenting numerical information that needs to be exact. They’re commonly used in reports, spreadsheets and academic papers.

When presenting tabular data, organize it neatly with clear headers and appropriate column widths. Highlight important data points or patterns using shading or font formatting for better readability.

9. Textual data

Utilizing written or descriptive content to explain or complement data, such as annotations or explanatory text.

Textual data presentation may not involve charts or graphs, but it’s one of the most used qualitative data presentation examples. 

It involves using written content to provide context, explanations or annotations alongside data visuals. Think of it as the narrative that guides your audience through the data. 

Well-crafted textual data can make complex information more accessible and help your audience understand the significance of the numbers and visuals.

Textual data is your chance to tell a story. Break down complex information into bullet points or short paragraphs and use headings to guide the reader’s attention.

10. Pictogram

Using simple icons or images to represent data is especially useful for conveying information in a visually intuitive manner.

Pictograms are all about harnessing the power of images to convey data in an easy-to-understand way. 

Instead of using numbers or complex graphs, you use simple icons or images to represent data points. 

For instance, you could use a thumbs up emoji to illustrate customer satisfaction levels, where each face represents a different level of satisfaction. 

Pictograms are great for conveying data visually, so choose symbols that are easy to interpret and relevant to the data. Use consistent scaling and a legend to explain the symbols’ meanings, ensuring clarity in your presentation.

Looking for more data presentation ideas? Use the Venngage graph maker or browse through our gallery of chart templates to pick a template and get started! 

A comprehensive data presentation should include several key elements to effectively convey information and insights to your audience. Here’s a list of what should be included in a data presentation:

1. Title and objective

• Begin with a clear and informative title that sets the context for your presentation.
• State the primary objective or purpose of the presentation to provide a clear focus.

2. Key data points

• Present the most essential data points or findings that align with your objective.
• Use charts, graphical presentations or visuals to illustrate these key points for better comprehension.

3. Context and significance

• Provide a brief overview of the context in which the data was collected and why it’s significant.
• Explain how the data relates to the larger picture or the problem you’re addressing.

4. Key takeaways

• Summarize the main insights or conclusions that can be drawn from the data.
• Highlight the key takeaways that the audience should remember.

5. Visuals and charts

• Use clear and appropriate visual aids to complement the data.
• Ensure that visuals are easy to understand and support your narrative.

6. Implications or actions

• Discuss the practical implications of the data or any recommended actions.
• If applicable, outline next steps or decisions that should be taken based on the data.

7. Q&A and discussion

• Allocate time for questions and open discussion to engage the audience.
• Address queries and provide additional insights or context as needed.

Presenting data is a crucial skill in various professional fields, from business to academia and beyond. To ensure your data presentations hit the mark, here are some common mistakes that you should steer clear of:

Overloading with data

Presenting too much data at once can overwhelm your audience. Focus on the key points and relevant information to keep the presentation concise and focused. Here are some free data visualization tools you can use to convey data in an engaging and impactful way. 

Assuming everyone’s on the same page

It’s easy to assume that your audience understands as much about the topic as you do. But this can lead to either dumbing things down too much or diving into a bunch of jargon that leaves folks scratching their heads. Take a beat to figure out where your audience is coming from and tailor your presentation accordingly.

Misleading visuals

Using misleading visuals, such as distorted scales or inappropriate chart types can distort the data’s meaning. Pick the right data infographics and understandable charts to ensure that your visual representations accurately reflect the data.

Not providing context

Data without context is like a puzzle piece with no picture on it. Without proper context, data may be meaningless or misinterpreted. Explain the background, methodology and significance of the data.

Not citing sources properly

Neglecting to cite sources and provide citations for your data can erode its credibility. Always attribute data to its source and utilize reliable sources for your presentation.

Not telling a story

Avoid simply presenting numbers. If your presentation lacks a clear, engaging story that takes your audience on a journey from the beginning (setting the scene) through the middle (data analysis) to the end (the big insights and recommendations), you’re likely to lose their interest.

Infographics are great for storytelling because they mix cool visuals with short and sweet text to explain complicated stuff in a fun and easy way. Create one with Venngage’s free infographic maker to create a memorable story that your audience will remember.

Ignoring data quality

Presenting data without first checking its quality and accuracy can lead to misinformation. Validate and clean your data before presenting it.

Simplify your visuals

Fancy charts might look cool, but if they confuse people, what’s the point? Go for the simplest visual that gets your message across. Having a dilemma between presenting data with infographics v.s data design? This article on the difference between data design and infographics might help you out. 

Missing the emotional connection

Data isn’t just about numbers; it’s about people and real-life situations. Don’t forget to sprinkle in some human touch, whether it’s through relatable stories, examples or showing how the data impacts real lives.

Skipping the actionable insights

At the end of the day, your audience wants to know what they should do with all the data. If you don’t wrap up with clear, actionable insights or recommendations, you’re leaving them hanging. Always finish up with practical takeaways and the next steps.

Can you provide some data presentation examples for business reports?

Business reports often benefit from data presentation through bar charts showing sales trends over time, pie charts displaying market share,or tables presenting financial performance metrics like revenue and profit margins.

What are some creative data presentation examples for academic presentations?

Creative data presentation ideas for academic presentations include using statistical infographics to illustrate research findings and statistical data, incorporating storytelling techniques to engage the audience or utilizing heat maps to visualize data patterns.

What are the key considerations when choosing the right data presentation format?

When choosing a chart format , consider factors like data complexity, audience expertise and the message you want to convey. Options include charts (e.g., bar, line, pie), tables, heat maps, data visualization infographics and interactive dashboards.

Knowing the type of data visualization that best serves your data is just half the battle. Here are some best practices for data visualization to make sure that the final output is optimized. 

How can I choose the right data presentation method for my data?

To select the right data presentation method, start by defining your presentation’s purpose and audience. Then, match your data type (e.g., quantitative, qualitative) with suitable visualization techniques (e.g., histograms, word clouds) and choose an appropriate presentation format (e.g., slide deck, report, live demo).

For more presentation ideas , check out this guide on how to make a good presentation or use a presentation software to simplify the process.  

How can I make my data presentations more engaging and informative?

To enhance data presentations, use compelling narratives, relatable examples and fun data infographics that simplify complex data. Encourage audience interaction, offer actionable insights and incorporate storytelling elements to engage and inform effectively.

The opening of your presentation holds immense power in setting the stage for your audience. To design a presentation and convey your data in an engaging and informative, try out Venngage’s free presentation maker to pick the right presentation design for your audience and topic. 

What is the difference between data visualization and data presentation?

Data presentation typically involves conveying data reports and insights to an audience, often using visuals like charts and graphs. Data visualization , on the other hand, focuses on creating those visual representations of data to facilitate understanding and analysis. 

Now that you’ve learned a thing or two about how to use these methods of data presentation to tell a compelling data story , it’s time to take these strategies and make them your own. 

But here’s the deal: these aren’t just one-size-fits-all solutions. Remember that each example we’ve uncovered here is not a rigid template but a source of inspiration. It’s all about making your audience go, “Wow, I get it now!”

Think of your data presentations as your canvas – it’s where you paint your story, convey meaningful insights and make real change happen. 

So, go forth, present your data with confidence and purpose and watch as your strategic influence grows, one compelling presentation at a time.

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How to Present Data Effectively

You’re sitting in front of your computer and ready to put together a presentation involving data.   The numbers stare at you from your screen, jumbled and raw.   How do you start?   Numbers on their own can be difficult to digest. Without any context, they’re just that—numbers.   But organize them well and they tell a story.   In this blog post, we’ll go into the importance of structuring data in a presentation and provide tips on how to do it well. These tips are practical and applicable for all sorts of presentations—from marketing plans and medical breakthroughs to project proposals and portfolios. 

What is data presentation?

3 essential tips on data presentation, use the right chart, keep it simple, use text wisely and sparingly.

In many ways, data presentation is like storytelling—only you do them with a series of graphs and charts.  One of the most common mistakes presenters make is being so submerged in the data that they fail to view it from an outsider’s point of view.   Always keep this in mind: What makes sense to you may not make sense to your audience. To portray figures and statistics in a way that’s comprehensible to your viewers, step back, put yourself in their shoes, and consider the following: 

• How much do they know about the topic?
• How much information will they need?
• What data will impress them?

Providing a context helps your audience visualize and understand the numbers. To help you achieve that, here are three tips on how to represent data effectively.  

Whether you’re using Google Slides or PowerPoint, both come equipped with a range of design tools that help you help your viewers make sense of your qualitative data.  The key here is to know how to use them and how to use them well. In these tips, we’ll cover the basics of data presentation that are often overlooked but also go beyond basics for more professional advice. 

The downside of having too many tools at your disposal is that it makes selecting an uphill task.   Pie and bar charts are by far the most commonly used methods as they are versatile and easy to understand. 

If you’re looking to kick things up a notch, think outside the box. When the numbers allow for it, opt for something different. For example, donut charts can sometimes be used to execute the same effect as pie charts. 

But these conventional graphs and charts aren’t applicable to all types of data. For example, if you’re comparing numerous variables and factors, a bar chart would do no good. A table, on the other hand, offers a much cleaner look.

Pro tip : If you want to go beyond basics, create your own shapes and use their sizes to reflect proportion, as seen in this next image.

Their sizes don’t have to be an exact reflection of their proportions. What’s important here is that they’re discernible and are of the same shape so that your viewers can grasp its concept at first glance.  Note that this should only be used for comparisons with large enough contrasts. For instance, it’d be difficult to use this to compare two market sizes of 25 percent and 26 percent. 

When it comes to making qualitative data digestible, simplicity does the trick.  Limit the number of elements on the slide as much as possible and provide only the bare essentials. 

See how simple this slide is? In one glance, your eye immediately goes to the percentages of the donut because there are no text boxes, illustrations, graphics, etc. to distract you.  Sometimes, more context is needed for your numbers to make sense. In the spirit of keeping your slides neat, you may be tempted to spread the data across two slides. But that makes it complicated, so putting it all on one slide is your only option.  In such cases, our mantra of “keep it simple” still applies. The trick lies in neat positioning and clever formatting.  

In the above slides, we’ve used boxes to highlight supporting figures while giving enough attention to the main chart. This separates them visually and helps the audience focus better.  With the slide already pretty full, it’s crucial to use a plain background or risk overwhelming your viewers.  

Last but certainly not least, our final tip involves the use of text.  Just because you’re telling a story with numbers doesn’t mean text cannot be used. In fact, the contrary proves true: Text plays a vital role in data presentation and should be used strategically.  To highlight a particular statistic, do not hesitate to go all out and have that be the focal point of your slide for emphasis. Keep text to a minimum and as a supporting element. 

Make sure your numbers are formatted clearly. Large figures should have thousands separated with commas. For example, 4,498,300,000 makes for a much easier read than “4498300000”. Any corresponding units should also be clear.  With data presentation, don’t forget that numbers are still your protagonist, so they must be highlighted with a larger or bolder font.  Where there are numbers and graphics, space is scarce so every single word must be chosen wisely.   The key here is to ensure your viewers understand what your data represents in one glance but to leave it sufficiently vague, like a teaser, so that they pay attention to your speech for more information.  → Slidesgo’s free presentation templates come included with specially designed and created charts and graphs that you can easily personalize according to your data. Give them a try now! 

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Google Slides, like PowerPoint, has different presentation modes that can come in handy when you’re presenting and you want your slideshow to look smooth. Whether you’re looking for slides only, speaker notes or the Q&A feature, in this new Google Slides tutorial, you’ll learn about these and their respective settings. Ready? Then let’s explore the presenter view! 

Top 10 tips and tricks for creating a business presentation!

Slidesgo is back with a new post! We want your presentations and oral expositions to never be the same again, but to go to the next level of presentations. Success comes from a combination of two main ingredients: a presentation template suitable for the topic and a correct development of the spoken part. For templates, just take a look at the Slidesgo website, where you are sure to find your ideal design. For tips and tricks on how to make a presentation, our blog contains a lot of information, for example, this post. We have focused these tips on business presentations, so that, no matter what type of company or...

How to present survey results in PowerPoint or Google Slides

A survey is a technique that is applied by conducting a questionnaire to a significant sample of a group of people. When we carry out the survey, we start from a hypothesis and it is this survey activity that will allow us to confirm the hypothesis or to see where the problem and solution of what we are investigating lies.We know: fieldwork is hard work. Many hours collecting data, analyzing and organizing it until we have our survey results.Well, we don't want to discourage you (at Slidesgo we stand for positivism) but this is only 50% of the survey work....

Best 10 tips for webinar presentations

During the last couple of years, the popularity of webinars has skyrocketed. Thousands of people have taken advantage of the shift to online learning and have prepared their own webinars where they have both taught and learned new skills while getting to know more people from their fields. Thanks to online resources like Google Meet and Slidesgo, now you can also prepare your own webinar. Here are 10 webinar presentation tips that will make your speech stand out! 

Data Presentation Techniques that Make an Impact

Create beautiful charts & infographics get started, 10.05.2016 by anete ezera.

Presenting data doesn’t need to be boring. In fact, it is a great way to spice up your presentations and share important facts and figures with your audience. Data has the power to be engaging, persuasive and memorable.

If you have a compelling story to tell with data, you should present it in a clear and powerful way. We will help you get started with a few effective data presentation techniques!

If you’d like more information about designing great presentations, download our new eBook ‘How to Design PowerPoint Presentations that Pack a Punch in 5 Easy Steps.’

What Presentations Benefit from Data?

Data doesn’t necessarily make all presentations better, but certain types of presentations are prime for the incorporation of data visualizations:

• Sales Reports
• PR and Marketing Research
• Marketing and Advertising Campaigns
• Executive and CEO Presentations
• Educational Reports
• Political Speeches
• Annual Reports
• Shareholder Presentations
• Financial Reports
• Product Launches, and more!

Why Use Charts in Presentations?

Visuals make information stick in our brains . A study from the Wharton School of Business found that 67% of the audience surveyed were persuaded by verbal presentations that had accompanying visuals. Charts are great visual aids for multiple reasons:

• Charts are easy to read
• Charts are visually appealing
• Charts simplify complex information
• Charts make it possible to quickly make comparisons and spot trends
• Charts are memorable and make an impact
• Charts give your presentation credibility

How to Add Data to Your Presentation

1) define your message.

Before you can even think about adding data to your presentation, you need to ask yourself, ‘what story am I trying to tell?’ Once you have a concrete idea of what your message is, you’ll have an easier time crafting the right visualization to share with your audience.

2) Clean and Organize Your Data

Now that you know what point you want to make with your data, it’s time to make sure your numbers are ready to be visualized.   Every good data visualization starts with good data. Make sure your spreadsheet is formatted and labeled exactly how you want it. Think about the message you want to share with your data and get rid of anything that doesn’t help you tell your story.

Data that is clean and organized is easier to display and analyze. Here are five awesome free data analysis tools to help you extract, clean, and share your data.

3) Pick the Right Chart Type

We can’t emphasize enough how important it is to make sure you pick the right chart type for the data you want to present. While your data might technically work with multiple chart types, you need to pick the one that ensures your message is clear, accurate, and concise.

4) Simplicity is Key

Charts and graphs turn complex ideas or data sets into easy-to-understand visual concepts. Remember that your data is the star of the show, so keep it simple. Avoid visual clutter, excessive text, poor color selection, and unnecessary animations. Make sure your legend and data labels are printed in a large, visible font. You don’t want your audience to get distracted. Less is more!

5) Create a Narrative

People understand stories better than they understand spreadsheets. Craft a compelling story around your data to make it memorable. Find a way to drive emotion from the numbers. Give your audience something they can relate to and resonate with. Data visualization speaker Bill Shander offers five tips to make you a better data storyteller. 

6) Visualize Data with Infogram

Before you add data to your presentation you need to visualize it. While many presentation tools allow you to create charts , they often leave much to be desired. Infogram makes it easy to create beautiful, engaging data visualizations your audience won’t forget.

You can embed interactive and responsive data visualizations into your presentations if you’re using Bunkr or any other HTML based presentation platform. Or, if you upgrade to one of our paid plans , you can download static versions of your charts and graphs to enhance your work. You can even make the background of PNG downloads transparent so they slip seamlessly into your presentation.

Would you like to experience the full power of  data visualization ? Try Infogram for Teams or Enterprise for free! With a Team or Enterprise account, you can create up to 10,000+ projects, collaborate with your team in real time, use our engagement analytics feature, and more. Request your free demo  here .

7) Make a Handout

Leave your audience with a physical or virtual copy of your charts. This makes it possible for them to look at the numbers more closely after your presentation. It’s also nice to include extra information, beyond what you covered, in case someone wants to delve deeper into the material.

Now that you know how to add data to your presentations, it’s time to learn how to design a PowerPoint that really gets people talking. Download our latest eBook ‘How to Design PowerPoint Presentations that Pack a Punch in 5 Easy Steps’ – for free!

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9 Data Presentation Tools for Business Success

• By Judhajit Sen
• May 29, 2024

A data presentation is a slide deck that shares quantitative information with an audience using visuals and effective presentation techniques . The goal is to make complex data easily understandable and actionable using data presentation examples like graphs and charts, tables, dashboards, and clear text explanations. 

Data presentations help highlight trends, patterns, and insights, allowing the audience to grasp complicated concepts or trends quickly. This makes it easier for them to make informed decisions or conduct deeper analysis.

Data visualization in presentations is used in every field, from academia to business and industry. Raw data is often too complex to understand directly, so data analysis breaks it down into charts and graphs. These tools help turn raw data into useful information.

Once the information is extracted, it’s presented graphically. A good presentation can significantly enhance understanding and response.

Think of data presentation as storytelling in business presentations with charts. A common mistake is assuming the audience understands the data as well as the presenter. Always consider your audience’s knowledge level and what information they need when you present your data.

To present the data effectively:

1. Provide context to help the audience understand the numbers.

2. Compare data groups using visual aids.

3. Step back and view the data from the audience’s perspective.

Data presentations are crucial in nearly every industry, helping professionals share their findings clearly after analyzing data.

Key Takeaways

• Simplifying Complex Data: Data presentations turn complex data into easy-to-understand visuals and narratives, helping audiences quickly grasp trends and insights for informed decision-making.
• Versatile Tools: Various tools like bar charts, dashboards, pie charts, histograms, scatter plots, pictograms, textual presentations, and tables each serve unique purposes, enhancing the clarity and impact of the data.
• Audience Consideration: Tailor your presentation to the audience’s knowledge level, providing context and using simple visuals to make the information accessible and actionable.
• Effective Data Storytelling: Combining clear context, organized visuals, and thoughtful presentation ensures that the data’s story is conveyed effectively, supporting better business decisions and success.

Following are 9 data presentation tools for business success.

Bar charts are a simple yet powerful method of presentation of the data using rectangular bars to show quantities or frequencies. They make it easy to spot patterns or trends at a glance. Bar charts can be vertical (column charts) or horizontal, depending on how you want to display your data.

In a bar graph, categories are displayed on one axis, usually the x-axis for vertical charts and the y-axis for horizontal ones. The bars’ lengths represent the values or frequencies of these categories, with the scale marked on the opposite axis.

These charts are ideal for comparing data across different categories or showing trends over time. Each bar’s height (or length in a horizontal chart) is directly proportional to the value it represents. This visual representation helps illustrate differences or changes in data.

Bar charts are versatile tools in business reports, academic presentations, and more. To make your bar charts effective:

• Ensure they are concise and have easy-to-read labels.
• Avoid clutter by not including too many categories, making the chart hard to read.
• Keep it simple to maintain clarity and impact, whether your bars go up or sideways.

Line Graphs

Line graphs show how data changes over time or with continuous variables. They connect points of data with straight lines, making it easy to see trends and fluctuations. These graphs are handy when comparing multiple datasets over the same timeline.

Using line graphs, you can track things like stock prices, sales projections, or experimental results. The x-axis represents time or another continuous variable, while the y-axis shows the data values. This setup allows you to understand the ups and downs in the data quickly.

To make your graphs effective, keep them simple. Avoid overcrowding with too many lines, highlight significant changes, use labels, and give your graph a clear, catchy title. This will help your audience grasp the information quickly and easily.

A data dashboard is a data analysis presentation example for analyzing information. It combines different graphs, charts, and tables in one layout to show the information needed to meet one or more objectives. Dashboards help quickly see Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) by displaying visuals you’ve already made in worksheets.

It’s best to keep the number of visuals on a dashboard to three or four. Adding too many can make it hard to see the main points. Dashboards are helpful for business analytics, like analyzing sales, revenue, and marketing metrics. In manufacturing, they help users understand the production scenario and track critical KPIs for each production line.

Dashboards represent vital points of data or metrics in an easy-to-understand way. They are often an  interactive presentation idea , allowing users to drill down into the data or view different aspects of it.

Pie charts are circular graphs divided into parts to show numerical proportions. Each portion represents a part of the whole, making it easy to see each component’s contribution to the total.

The size of each slice is determined by its value relative to the total. A pie chart with more significant points of data will have larger slices, and the whole chart will be more important. However, you can make all pies the same size if proportional representation isn’t necessary.

Pie charts are helpful in business to show percentage distributions, compare category sizes, or present simple data sets where visualizing ratios is essential. They work best with fewer variables. For more variables, it’s better to use a pie chart calculator that helps to create pie charts easily for various data sets with different color slices. 

Each “slice” represents a fraction of the total, and the size of each slice shows its share of the whole. Pie charts are excellent for showing how a whole is divided into parts, such as survey results or demographic data.

While pie charts are great for simple distributions, they can get confusing with too many categories or slight differences in proportions. To keep things clear, label each slice with percentages or values and use a legend if there are many categories. If more detail is needed, consider using a donut chart with a blank center for extra information and a less cluttered look.

A histogram is a graphical presentation of data  to help in understanding the distribution of numerical values. Unlike bar charts that show each response separately, histograms group numeric responses into bins and display the frequency of reactions within each bin. The x-axis denotes the range of values, while the y-axis shows the frequency of those values.

Histograms are useful for understanding your data’s distribution, identifying shared values, and spotting outliers. They highlight the story your data tells, whether it’s exam scores, sales figures, or any other numerical data.

Histograms are great for visualizing the distribution and frequency of a single variable. They divide the data into bins, and the height of each bar indicates how many points of data fall into that bin. This makes it easy to see trends like peaks, gaps, or skewness in your data.

To make your histogram effective, choose bin sizes that capture meaningful patterns. Clear axis labels and titles also help in explaining the data distribution.

Scatter Plot

Using individual data points, a scatter plot chart is a presentation of data in visual form to show the relationship between two variables. Each variable is plotted along the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. Each point on the scatter plot represents a single observation.

Scatter plots help visualize patterns, trends, and correlations between the two variables. They can also help identify outliers and understand the overall distribution of data points. The way the points are spread out or clustered together can indicate whether there is a positive, negative, or no clear relationship between the variables.

Scatter plots can be used in practical applications, such as in business, to show how variables like marketing cost and sales revenue are related. They help understand data correlations, which aids in decision-making.

To make scatter plots more effective, consider adding trendlines or regression analysis to highlight patterns. Labeling key data points or tooltips can provide additional information and make the chart easier to interpret.

A pictogram is the simplest form of data presentation and analysis, often used in schools and universities to help students grasp concepts more effectively through pictures.

This type of diagram uses images to represent data. For example, you could draw five books to show the number of books sold in the first week of release, with each image representing 1,000 books. If consumers bought 5,000 books, you would display five book images.

Using simple icons or images makes the information visually intuitive. Instead of relying on numbers or complex graphs, pictograms use straightforward symbols to depict data points. For example, a thumbs-up emoji can illustrate customer satisfaction levels, with each emoji representing a different level of satisfaction.

Pictograms are excellent for visual data presentation. Choose symbols that are easy to interpret and relevant to the data to ensure clarity. Consistent scaling and a legend explaining the symbols’ meanings are essential for an effective presentation.

Textual Presentation

Textual presentation uses words to describe the relationships between pieces of information. This method helps share details that can’t be shown in a graph or table. For example, researchers often present findings in a study textually to provide extra context or explanation. A textual presentation can make the information more transparent.

This type of presentation is common in research and for introducing new ideas. Unlike charts or graphs, it relies solely on paragraphs and words.

Textual presentation also involves using written content, such as annotations or explanatory text, to explain or complement data. While it doesn’t use visual presentation aids like charts, it is a widely used method for presenting qualitative data. Think of it as the narrative that guides your audience through the data.

Adequate textual data may make complex information more accessible. Breaking down complex details into bullet points or short paragraphs helps your audience understand the significance of numbers and visuals. Headings can guide the reader’s attention and tell a coherent story.

Tabular Presentation

Tabular presentation uses tables to share information by organizing data in rows and columns. This method is useful for comparing data and visualizing information. Researchers often use tables to analyze data in various classifications:

Qualitative classification: This includes qualities like nationality, age, social status, appearance, and personality traits, helping to compare sociological and psychological information.

Quantitative classification: This covers items you can count or number.

Spatial classification: This deals with data based on location, such as information about a city, state, or region.

Temporal classification: This involves time-based data measured in seconds, hours, days, or weeks.

Tables simplify data, making it easily consumable, allow for side-by-side comparisons, and save space in your presentation by condensing information.

Using rows and columns, tabular presentation focuses on clarity and precision. It’s about displaying numerical data in a structured grid, clearly showing individual data points. Tables are invaluable for showcasing detailed data, facilitating comparisons, and presenting exact numerical information. They are commonly used in reports, spreadsheets, and academic papers.

Organize tables neatly with clear headers and appropriate column widths to ensure readability. Highlight important data points or patterns using shading or font formatting. Tables are simple and effective, especially when the audience needs to know precise figures.

Elevate Business Decisions with Effective Data Presentations

Data presentations are essential for transforming complex data into understandable and actionable insights. Data presentations simplify the process of interpreting quantitative information by utilizing data presentation examples like charts, graphs, tables, infographics, dashboards, and clear narratives. This method of storytelling with visuals highlights trends, patterns, and insights, enabling audiences to make informed decisions quickly.

In business, data analysis presentations are invaluable. Different types of presentation tools like bar charts help compare categories and track changes over time, while dashboards consolidate various metrics into a comprehensive view. Pie charts and histograms offer clear views of distributions and proportions, aiding in grasping the bigger picture. Scatter plots reveal relationships between variables, and pictograms make data visually intuitive. Textual presentations and tables provide detailed context and precise figures, which are essential for thorough analysis and comparison.

Consider the audience’s knowledge level to tailor the best way to present data in PowerPoint. Clear context, simple visuals, and thoughtful organization ensure the data’s story is easily understood and impactful. Mastering these nine data presentation types can significantly enhance business success by making data-driven decisions more accessible and practical.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is a data presentation?

A data presentation is a slide deck that uses visuals and narrative techniques to make complex data easy to understand and actionable. It includes charts, graphs, tables, infographics, dashboards, and clear text explanations.

2. Why are data presentations important in business?

Data presentations are crucial because they help highlight trends, patterns, and insights, making it easier for the audience to understand complicated concepts. This enables better decision-making and deeper analysis.

3. What types of data presentation tools are commonly used?

Common tools include bar charts, line graphs, dashboards, pie charts, histograms, scatter plots, pictograms, textual presentations, and tables. Each tool has a unique way of representing data to aid understanding.

4. How can I ensure my data presentation is effective?

To ensure effectiveness, provide context, compare data sets using visual aids, consider your audience’s knowledge level, and keep visuals simple. Organizing information thoughtfully and avoiding clutter enhances clarity and impact.

Transform Your Data into Compelling Stories with Prezentium

Unlock the full potential of your business data with Prezentium ‘s expert presentation services. Our AI-powered solutions turn complex data into clear, actionable insights, helping you easily make informed decisions. 

Prezentium’s Overnight Presentations ensure you wake up to a stunning, ready-to-use presentation in your inbox by 9:30 am PST. Send your requirements by 5:30 pm PST, and let our team combine business acumen, visual design, and data science to craft a presentation that highlights trends and insights seamlessly.

Our Presentation Specialists transform raw ideas and meeting notes into captivating presentations. Whether you need new designs or bespoke templates, our experts bring your vision to life with precision and creativity.

Enhance your team’s skills with Zenith Learning, our interactive workshops that blend structured problem-solving with visual storytelling. Learn to present data effectively and make a lasting impact in your business communications.

Prezentium’s services are designed to help you make the most of your data, from bar charts to dashboards, ensuring your presentations are informative and visually engaging. Let us help you tell your data’s story in a way that resonates. Contact Prezentium today to elevate your business presentations.

Why wait? Avail a complimentary 1-on-1 session with our presentation expert. See how other enterprise leaders are creating impactful presentations with us.

5 Active Listening Skills for Better Communication

Mastering executive communication: strategies, benefits, and best practices, 7 tips for crafting a winning sales presentation.

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It is the simplest form of data Presentation often used in schools or universities to provide a clearer picture to students, who are better able to capture the concepts effectively through a pictorial Presentation of simple data.

2. Column chart

It is a simplified version of the pictorial Presentation which involves the management of a larger amount of data being shared during the presentations and providing suitable clarity to the insights of the data.

3. Pie Charts

Pie charts provide a very descriptive & a 2D depiction of the data pertaining to comparisons or resemblance of data in two separate fields.

4. Bar charts

A bar chart that shows the accumulation of data with cuboid bars with different dimensions & lengths which are directly proportionate to the values they represent. The bars can be placed either vertically or horizontally depending on the data being represented.

5. Histograms

It is a perfect Presentation of the spread of numerical data. The main differentiation that separates data graphs and histograms are the gaps in the data graphs.

6. Box plots

Box plot or Box-plot is a way of representing groups of numerical data through quartiles. Data Presentation is easier with this style of graph dealing with the extraction of data to the minutes of difference.

Map Data graphs help you with data Presentation over an area to display the areas of concern. Map graphs are useful to make an exact depiction of data over a vast case scenario.

All these visual presentations share a common goal of creating meaningful insights and a platform to understand and manage the data in relation to the growth and expansion of one’s in-depth understanding of data & details to plan or execute future decisions or actions.

Importance of Data Presentation

Data Presentation could be both can be a deal maker or deal breaker based on the delivery of the content in the context of visual depiction.

Data Presentation tools are powerful communication tools that can simplify the data by making it easily understandable & readable at the same time while attracting & keeping the interest of its readers and effectively showcase large amounts of complex data in a simplified manner.

If the user can create an insightful presentation of the data in hand with the same sets of facts and figures, then the results promise to be impressive.

There have been situations where the user has had a great amount of data and vision for expansion but the presentation drowned his/her vision.

To impress the higher management and top brass of a firm, effective presentation of data is needed.

Data Presentation helps the clients or the audience to not spend time grasping the concept and the future alternatives of the business and to convince them to invest in the company & turn it profitable both for the investors & the company.

Although data presentation has a lot to offer, the following are some of the major reason behind the essence of an effective presentation:-

• Many consumers or higher authorities are interested in the interpretation of data, not the raw data itself. Therefore, after the analysis of the data, users should represent the data with a visual aspect for better understanding and knowledge.
• The user should not overwhelm the audience with a number of slides of the presentation and inject an ample amount of texts as pictures that will speak for themselves.
• Data presentation often happens in a nutshell with each department showcasing their achievements towards company growth through a graph or a histogram.
• Providing a brief description would help the user to attain attention in a small amount of time while informing the audience about the context of the presentation
• The inclusion of pictures, charts, graphs and tables in the presentation help for better understanding the potential outcomes.
• An effective presentation would allow the organization to determine the difference with the fellow organization and acknowledge its flaws. Comparison of data would assist them in decision making.

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How to Make a “Good” Presentation “Great”

• Guy Kawasaki

Remember: Less is more.

A strong presentation is so much more than information pasted onto a series of slides with fancy backgrounds. Whether you’re pitching an idea, reporting market research, or sharing something else, a great presentation can give you a competitive advantage, and be a powerful tool when aiming to persuade, educate, or inspire others. Here are some unique elements that make a presentation stand out.

• Fonts: Sans Serif fonts such as Helvetica or Arial are preferred for their clean lines, which make them easy to digest at various sizes and distances. Limit the number of font styles to two: one for headings and another for body text, to avoid visual confusion or distractions.
• Colors: Colors can evoke emotions and highlight critical points, but their overuse can lead to a cluttered and confusing presentation. A limited palette of two to three main colors, complemented by a simple background, can help you draw attention to key elements without overwhelming the audience.
• Pictures: Pictures can communicate complex ideas quickly and memorably but choosing the right images is key. Images or pictures should be big (perhaps 20-25% of the page), bold, and have a clear purpose that complements the slide’s text.
• Layout: Don’t overcrowd your slides with too much information. When in doubt, adhere to the principle of simplicity, and aim for a clean and uncluttered layout with plenty of white space around text and images. Think phrases and bullets, not sentences.

As an intern or early career professional, chances are that you’ll be tasked with making or giving a presentation in the near future. Whether you’re pitching an idea, reporting market research, or sharing something else, a great presentation can give you a competitive advantage, and be a powerful tool when aiming to persuade, educate, or inspire others.

• Guy Kawasaki is the chief evangelist at Canva and was the former chief evangelist at Apple. Guy is the author of 16 books including Think Remarkable : 9 Paths to Transform Your Life and Make a Difference.

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• Data Management

5 data presentation tips for communicating insights

Best data presentation tips.

• Keep your audience in mind 
• Focus on the big picture 
• Use visuals to highlight main points
• Think about how you’re presenting hard data
• Choose the best type of chart for each main point

Collecting the right data and managing it correctly are essential to a successful business strategy. Data management helps you analyze raw data and glean insights to inform your next moves as a business. 

But you also need to be able to effectively communicate insights from that data. That’s where data presentation comes in. The future of your company is built on the data you collect in the present — and with proper data presentation, you can make sure the insights you’ve gained reach the stakeholders who matter.

The value of effective data presentation

Any business can collect data on its industry, customers, and performance — but successful businesses turn that raw data into action. Once you’ve gleaned insights from your data, it’s time to share them with decision makers and other stakeholders to convince them to pursue a course of action.

Rather than sharing random data points, you need to present information in a structured way that takes your audience on a journey to educate them on what you’ve found.

Spreadsheet after spreadsheet of data, no matter how solid and informative, can go to waste if you don’t present it in a way that’s easy for stakeholders to digest. In essence, data presentation is where the analytical and creative parts of data management meet.

5 tips for improving data presentation

Here are some quick and easy tips on how best to visualize and structure your data to make an impact and influence opinion.

1. Keep your audience in mind

Put yourself in your audience’s shoes before you set foot in the boardroom. Is the data you’ve collected easy to understand? Will it translate well from your laptop to a larger screen for you to present it? Are the colors and the formatting creating a pleasant visual experience?

Try a couple of practice runs of your presentation before you do the real thing. Ask a colleague who’s not connected to your upcoming meeting to observe you and offer feedback. You’re showcasing important data, and that should come across in the presentation.

2. Focus on the big picture

There’s a limit to the amount of information a person can absorb in one sitting. Don’t push your luck by overwhelming your audience with too many major data points and letting important takeaways slip through the cracks.

Instead, pick one major data point for each graph or visualization and stick to it. Stakeholders will more easily tie the insight you’re giving them to a graph or visualization if you don’t overload them.

Think back to some of your favorite classes as a student. Teachers often understand the value of tying important information to visuals — it can help students remember what they’ve learned . You’re the teacher in this scenario, so the same principle applies.

3. Use visuals to highlight main points

To that end, you can create visual highlights that draw attention to a particular number or data range you need your audience to understand. There are several ways to do this.

You can literally highlight that information in a graph or chart, or you can craft a specific slide around it. Just make sure there are clear visuals tied to the “aha” moment you want to communicate.

To bring the point home, take a moment to explain why this data is important. Accompany this pause with bullet points stating the same information for greater effect.

4. Think about how you’re presenting hard data

If your job involves a lot of data management, odds are you’re comfortable with numbers. Unfortunately, not everyone feels the same way. For some, seeing a lot of figures and percentages can be more confusing than illuminating, so do your best to reduce the anxiety some people feel when faced with big or complicated numbers.

Try these tips:

• Don’t make your audience count zeroes (“10,000” instead of “10000”).
• Avoid decimals if possible (“5” instead of “5.02”).
• Align important data on the right side of a chart, allowing your audience to quickly compare values.

5. Choose the best type of chart for each main point

Charts and graphs are useful when you’re showing and comparing data, so they’re an essential part of data presentation. But your audience is likely already familiar with different types of charts (and their intended purposes), so picking the wrong one is a fast way to lose credibility during a presentation. Here’s a quick reference to help you choose the right chart for different data:

• Line graph: These graphs are great for depicting trends and plotting specific data points along a trend line.
• Bar chart: These charts are best used when making comparisons between data points.
• Pie chart: Pie charts show percentages of a whole — for example, the percentages of respondents who chose each answer option in a survey.
• Scatter plot: These charts place different variables on an X/Y axis to investigate the relationship between one variable and another. If you want to show which variable has the greatest impact in a given situation, a scatter plot can help.

Tools for enhancing data presentation

Once you’ve got a good idea of how you’d like to present your data, you can reduce some of the legwork in crafting a great presentation by automating the visualization processes. With Jotform’s report building tool, you can generate dynamic visual reports based on the data you provide and the customization options you select.

The more you work on data management, the better the data you collect can work for you. Harnessing the power of numbers is vital to implementing the next strategy that will define your business, and effective data presentation will ensure your organization’s stats get the attention they deserve.

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Sangseok Lee

2 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Sanggye Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.

Data are usually collected in a raw format and thus the inherent information is difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data need to be summarized, processed, and analyzed. However, no matter how well manipulated, the information derived from the raw data should be presented in an effective format, otherwise, it would be a great loss for both authors and readers. In this article, the techniques of data and information presentation in textual, tabular, and graphical forms are introduced. Text is the principal method for explaining findings, outlining trends, and providing contextual information. A table is best suited for representing individual information and represents both quantitative and qualitative information. A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at a glance, facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends and relationships within the data such as changes over time, frequency distribution, and correlation or relative share of a whole. Text, tables, and graphs for data and information presentation are very powerful communication tools. They can make an article easy to understand, attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently present large amounts of complex information. Moreover, as journal editors and reviewers glance at these presentations before reading the whole article, their importance cannot be ignored.

Introduction

Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. Whether data are being collected with a certain purpose or collected data are being utilized, questions regarding what information the data are conveying, how the data can be used, and what must be done to include more useful information must constantly be kept in mind.

Since most data are available to researchers in a raw format, they must be summarized, organized, and analyzed to usefully derive information from them. Furthermore, each data set needs to be presented in a certain way depending on what it is used for. Planning how the data will be presented is essential before appropriately processing raw data.

First, a question for which an answer is desired must be clearly defined. The more detailed the question is, the more detailed and clearer the results are. A broad question results in vague answers and results that are hard to interpret. In other words, a well-defined question is crucial for the data to be well-understood later. Once a detailed question is ready, the raw data must be prepared before processing. These days, data are often summarized, organized, and analyzed with statistical packages or graphics software. Data must be prepared in such a way they are properly recognized by the program being used. The present study does not discuss this data preparation process, which involves creating a data frame, creating/changing rows and columns, changing the level of a factor, categorical variable, coding, dummy variables, variable transformation, data transformation, missing value, outlier treatment, and noise removal.

We describe the roles and appropriate use of text, tables, and graphs (graphs, plots, or charts), all of which are commonly used in reports, articles, posters, and presentations. Furthermore, we discuss the issues that must be addressed when presenting various kinds of information, and effective methods of presenting data, which are the end products of research, and of emphasizing specific information.

Data Presentation

Data can be presented in one of the three ways:

–as text;

–in tabular form; or

–in graphical form.

Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the method of analysis to be used, and the information to be emphasized. Inappropriately presented data fail to clearly convey information to readers and reviewers. Even when the same information is being conveyed, different methods of presentation must be employed depending on what specific information is going to be emphasized. A method of presentation must be chosen after carefully weighing the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of presentation. For easy comparison of different methods of presentation, let us look at a table ( Table 1 ) and a line graph ( Fig. 1 ) that present the same information [ 1 ]. If one wishes to compare or introduce two values at a certain time point, it is appropriate to use text or the written language. However, a table is the most appropriate when all information requires equal attention, and it allows readers to selectively look at information of their own interest. Graphs allow readers to understand the overall trend in data, and intuitively understand the comparison results between two groups. One thing to always bear in mind regardless of what method is used, however, is the simplicity of presentation.

Values are expressed as mean ± SD. Group C: normal saline, Group D: dexmedetomidine. SBP: systolic blood pressure, DBP: diastolic blood pressure, MBP: mean blood pressure, HR: heart rate. * P < 0.05 indicates a significant increase in each group, compared with the baseline values. † P < 0.05 indicates a significant decrease noted in Group D, compared with the baseline values. ‡ P < 0.05 indicates a significant difference between the groups.

Text presentation

Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and trends, and provide contextual information. Data are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences. Text can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize certain data. If quantitative information to be conveyed consists of one or two numbers, it is more appropriate to use written language than tables or graphs. For instance, information about the incidence rates of delirium following anesthesia in 2016–2017 can be presented with the use of a few numbers: “The incidence rate of delirium following anesthesia was 11% in 2016 and 15% in 2017; no significant difference of incidence rates was found between the two years.” If this information were to be presented in a graph or a table, it would occupy an unnecessarily large space on the page, without enhancing the readers' understanding of the data. If more data are to be presented, or other information such as that regarding data trends are to be conveyed, a table or a graph would be more appropriate. By nature, data take longer to read when presented as texts and when the main text includes a long list of information, readers and reviewers may have difficulties in understanding the information.

Table presentation

Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words or numbers in rows and columns, have been used for nearly 2,000 years. Anyone with a sufficient level of literacy can easily understand the information presented in a table. Tables are the most appropriate for presenting individual information, and can present both quantitative and qualitative information. Examples of qualitative information are the level of sedation [ 2 ], statistical methods/functions [ 3 , 4 ], and intubation conditions [ 5 ].

The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information that cannot be presented with a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed in a table. Another strength is that information with different units can be presented together. For instance, blood pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered, and anesthesia time can be presented together in one table. Finally, tables are useful for summarizing and comparing quantitative information of different variables. However, the interpretation of information takes longer in tables than in graphs, and tables are not appropriate for studying data trends. Furthermore, since all data are of equal importance in a table, it is not easy to identify and selectively choose the information required.

For a general guideline for creating tables, refer to the journal submission requirements 1) .

Heat maps for better visualization of information than tables

Heat maps help to further visualize the information presented in a table by applying colors to the background of cells. By adjusting the colors or color saturation, information is conveyed in a more visible manner, and readers can quickly identify the information of interest ( Table 2 ). Software such as Excel (in Microsoft Office, Microsoft, WA, USA) have features that enable easy creation of heat maps through the options available on the “conditional formatting” menu.

All numbers were created by the author. SBP: systolic blood pressure, DBP: diastolic blood pressure, MBP: mean blood pressure, HR: heart rate.

Graph presentation

Whereas tables can be used for presenting all the information, graphs simplify complex information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or trends, and are useful for summarizing, explaining, or exploring quantitative data. While graphs are effective for presenting large amounts of data, they can be used in place of tables to present small sets of data. A graph format that best presents information must be chosen so that readers and reviewers can easily understand the information. In the following, we describe frequently used graph formats and the types of data that are appropriately presented with each format with examples.

Scatter plot

Scatter plots present data on the x - and y -axes and are used to investigate an association between two variables. A point represents each individual or object, and an association between two variables can be studied by analyzing patterns across multiple points. A regression line is added to a graph to determine whether the association between two variables can be explained or not. Fig. 2 illustrates correlations between pain scoring systems that are currently used (PSQ, Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire; PASS, Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale; PCS, Pain Catastrophizing Scale) and Geop-Pain Questionnaire (GPQ) with the correlation coefficient, R, and regression line indicated on the scatter plot [ 6 ]. If multiple points exist at an identical location as in this example ( Fig. 2 ), the correlation level may not be clear. In this case, a correlation coefficient or regression line can be added to further elucidate the correlation.

Bar graph and histogram

A bar graph is used to indicate and compare values in a discrete category or group, and the frequency or other measurement parameters (i.e. mean). Depending on the number of categories, and the size or complexity of each category, bars may be created vertically or horizontally. The height (or length) of a bar represents the amount of information in a category. Bar graphs are flexible, and can be used in a grouped or subdivided bar format in cases of two or more data sets in each category. Fig. 3 is a representative example of a vertical bar graph, with the x -axis representing the length of recovery room stay and drug-treated group, and the y -axis representing the visual analog scale (VAS) score. The mean and standard deviation of the VAS scores are expressed as whiskers on the bars ( Fig. 3 ) [ 7 ].

By comparing the endpoints of bars, one can identify the largest and the smallest categories, and understand gradual differences between each category. It is advised to start the x - and y -axes from 0. Illustration of comparison results in the x - and y -axes that do not start from 0 can deceive readers' eyes and lead to overrepresentation of the results.

One form of vertical bar graph is the stacked vertical bar graph. A stack vertical bar graph is used to compare the sum of each category, and analyze parts of a category. While stacked vertical bar graphs are excellent from the aspect of visualization, they do not have a reference line, making comparison of parts of various categories challenging ( Fig. 4 ) [ 8 ].

A pie chart, which is used to represent nominal data (in other words, data classified in different categories), visually represents a distribution of categories. It is generally the most appropriate format for representing information grouped into a small number of categories. It is also used for data that have no other way of being represented aside from a table (i.e. frequency table). Fig. 5 illustrates the distribution of regular waste from operation rooms by their weight [ 8 ]. A pie chart is also commonly used to illustrate the number of votes each candidate won in an election.

Line plot with whiskers

A line plot is useful for representing time-series data such as monthly precipitation and yearly unemployment rates; in other words, it is used to study variables that are observed over time. Line graphs are especially useful for studying patterns and trends across data that include climatic influence, large changes or turning points, and are also appropriate for representing not only time-series data, but also data measured over the progression of a continuous variable such as distance. As can be seen in Fig. 1 , mean and standard deviation of systolic blood pressure are indicated for each time point, which enables readers to easily understand changes of systolic pressure over time [ 1 ]. If data are collected at a regular interval, values in between the measurements can be estimated. In a line graph, the x-axis represents the continuous variable, while the y-axis represents the scale and measurement values. It is also useful to represent multiple data sets on a single line graph to compare and analyze patterns across different data sets.

Box and whisker chart

A box and whisker chart does not make any assumptions about the underlying statistical distribution, and represents variations in samples of a population; therefore, it is appropriate for representing nonparametric data. AA box and whisker chart consists of boxes that represent interquartile range (one to three), the median and the mean of the data, and whiskers presented as lines outside of the boxes. Whiskers can be used to present the largest and smallest values in a set of data or only a part of the data (i.e. 95% of all the data). Data that are excluded from the data set are presented as individual points and are called outliers. The spacing at both ends of the box indicates dispersion in the data. The relative location of the median demonstrated within the box indicates skewness ( Fig. 6 ). The box and whisker chart provided as an example represents calculated volumes of an anesthetic, desflurane, consumed over the course of the observation period ( Fig. 7 ) [ 9 ].

Three-dimensional effects

Most of the recently introduced statistical packages and graphics software have the three-dimensional (3D) effect feature. The 3D effects can add depth and perspective to a graph. However, since they may make reading and interpreting data more difficult, they must only be used after careful consideration. The application of 3D effects on a pie chart makes distinguishing the size of each slice difficult. Even if slices are of similar sizes, slices farther from the front of the pie chart may appear smaller than the slices closer to the front ( Fig. 8 ).

Drawing a graph: example

Finally, we explain how to create a graph by using a line graph as an example ( Fig. 9 ). In Fig. 9 , the mean values of arterial pressure were randomly produced and assumed to have been measured on an hourly basis. In many graphs, the x- and y-axes meet at the zero point ( Fig. 9A ). In this case, information regarding the mean and standard deviation of mean arterial pressure measurements corresponding to t = 0 cannot be conveyed as the values overlap with the y-axis. The data can be clearly exposed by separating the zero point ( Fig. 9B ). In Fig. 9B , the mean and standard deviation of different groups overlap and cannot be clearly distinguished from each other. Separating the data sets and presenting standard deviations in a single direction prevents overlapping and, therefore, reduces the visual inconvenience. Doing so also reduces the excessive number of ticks on the y-axis, increasing the legibility of the graph ( Fig. 9C ). In the last graph, different shapes were used for the lines connecting different time points to further allow the data to be distinguished, and the y-axis was shortened to get rid of the unnecessary empty space present in the previous graphs ( Fig. 9D ). A graph can be made easier to interpret by assigning each group to a different color, changing the shape of a point, or including graphs of different formats [ 10 ]. The use of random settings for the scale in a graph may lead to inappropriate presentation or presentation of data that can deceive readers' eyes ( Fig. 10 ).

Owing to the lack of space, we could not discuss all types of graphs, but have focused on describing graphs that are frequently used in scholarly articles. We have summarized the commonly used types of graphs according to the method of data analysis in Table 3 . For general guidelines on graph designs, please refer to the journal submission requirements 2) .

Conclusions

Text, tables, and graphs are effective communication media that present and convey data and information. They aid readers in understanding the content of research, sustain their interest, and effectively present large quantities of complex information. As journal editors and reviewers will scan through these presentations before reading the entire text, their importance cannot be disregarded. For this reason, authors must pay as close attention to selecting appropriate methods of data presentation as when they were collecting data of good quality and analyzing them. In addition, having a well-established understanding of different methods of data presentation and their appropriate use will enable one to develop the ability to recognize and interpret inappropriately presented data or data presented in such a way that it deceives readers' eyes [ 11 ].

<Appendix>

Output for presentation.

Discovery and communication are the two objectives of data visualization. In the discovery phase, various types of graphs must be tried to understand the rough and overall information the data are conveying. The communication phase is focused on presenting the discovered information in a summarized form. During this phase, it is necessary to polish images including graphs, pictures, and videos, and consider the fact that the images may look different when printed than how appear on a computer screen. In this appendix, we discuss important concepts that one must be familiar with to print graphs appropriately.

The KJA asks that pictures and images meet the following requirement before submission 3)

“Figures and photographs should be submitted as ‘TIFF’ files. Submit files of figures and photographs separately from the text of the paper. Width of figure should be 84 mm (one column). Contrast of photos or graphs should be at least 600 dpi. Contrast of line drawings should be at least 1,200 dpi. The Powerpoint file (ppt, pptx) is also acceptable.”

Unfortunately, without sufficient knowledge of computer graphics, it is not easy to understand the submission requirement above. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an understanding of image resolution, image format (bitmap and vector images), and the corresponding file specifications.

Resolution is often mentioned to describe the quality of images containing graphs or CT/MRI scans, and video files. The higher the resolution, the clearer and closer to reality the image is, while the opposite is true for low resolutions. The most representative unit used to describe a resolution is “dpi” (dots per inch): this literally translates to the number of dots required to constitute 1 inch. The greater the number of dots, the higher the resolution. The KJA submission requirements recommend 600 dpi for images, and 1,200 dpi 4) for graphs. In other words, resolutions in which 600 or 1,200 dots constitute one inch are required for submission.

There are requirements for the horizontal length of an image in addition to the resolution requirements. While there are no requirements for the vertical length of an image, it must not exceed the vertical length of a page. The width of a column on one side of a printed page is 84 mm, or 3.3 inches (84/25.4 mm ≒ 3.3 inches). Therefore, a graph must have a resolution in which 1,200 dots constitute 1 inch, and have a width of 3.3 inches.

Bitmap and Vector

Methods of image construction are important. Bitmap images can be considered as images drawn on section paper. Enlarging the image will enlarge the picture along with the grid, resulting in a lower resolution; in other words, aliasing occurs. On the other hand, reducing the size of the image will reduce the size of the picture, while increasing the resolution. In other words, resolution and the size of an image are inversely proportionate to one another in bitmap images, and it is a drawback of bitmap images that resolution must be considered when adjusting the size of an image. To enlarge an image while maintaining the same resolution, the size and resolution of the image must be determined before saving the image. An image that has already been created cannot avoid changes to its resolution according to changes in size. Enlarging an image while maintaining the same resolution will increase the number of horizontal and vertical dots, ultimately increasing the number of pixels 5) of the image, and the file size. In other words, the file size of a bitmap image is affected by the size and resolution of the image (file extensions include JPG [JPEG] 6) , PNG 7) , GIF 8) , and TIF [TIFF] 9) . To avoid this complexity, the width of an image can be set to 4 inches and its resolution to 900 dpi to satisfy the submission requirements of most journals [ 12 ].

Vector images overcome the shortcomings of bitmap images. Vector images are created based on mathematical operations of line segments and areas between different points, and are not affected by aliasing or pixelation. Furthermore, they result in a smaller file size that is not affected by the size of the image. They are commonly used for drawings and illustrations (file extensions include EPS 10) , CGM 11) , and SVG 12) ).

Finally, the PDF 13) is a file format developed by Adobe Systems (Adobe Systems, CA, USA) for electronic documents, and can contain general documents, text, drawings, images, and fonts. They can also contain bitmap and vector images. While vector images are used by researchers when working in Powerpoint, they are saved as 960 × 720 dots when saved in TIFF format in Powerpoint. This results in a resolution that is inappropriate for printing on a paper medium. To save high-resolution bitmap images, the image must be saved as a PDF file instead of a TIFF, and the saved PDF file must be imported into an imaging processing program such as Photoshop™(Adobe Systems, CA, USA) to be saved in TIFF format [ 12 ].

1) Instructions to authors in KJA; section 5-(9) Table; https://ekja.org/index.php?body=instruction

2) Instructions to Authors in KJA; section 6-1)-(10) Figures and illustrations in Manuscript preparation; https://ekja.org/index.php?body=instruction

3) Instructions to Authors in KJA; section 6-1)-(10) Figures and illustrations in Manuscript preparation; https://ekja.org/index.php?body=instruction

4) Resolution; in KJA, it is represented by “contrast.”

5) Pixel is a minimum unit of an image and contains information of a dot and color. It is derived by multiplying the number of vertical and horizontal dots regardless of image size. For example, Full High Definition (FHD) monitor has 1920 × 1080 dots ≒ 2.07 million pixel.

6) Joint Photographic Experts Group.

7) Portable Network Graphics.

8) Graphics Interchange Format

9) Tagged Image File Format; TIFF

10) Encapsulated PostScript.

11) Computer Graphics Metafile.

12) Scalable Vector Graphics.

13) Portable Document Format.

• Augmentation therapy for depression study
• The STAR*D study in depression
• The COMBINE Study in alcoholism
• The Health and Retirement Study
• Serotonin transport study in mother-infant pairs
• Meta-analysis of clinical trials in schizophrenia
• Human laboratory study of menthol’s effects on nicotine reinforcement in smokers
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Got a Game? Boost Your Performance

Yale faculty discuss ways to improve sports performance, listen to "got a game boost your performance".

Excelling in sports isn’t just about training harder—there are many strategies that go into competing at your best.

Six Yale Department of Internal Medicine faculty members—many of whom are athletes in their own right—discuss evidence-based ways to enhance sports performance.

Sleep helps athletes perform at their highest potential, says Klar Yaggi, MD, MPH , professor of medicine (pulmonary, critical care and sleep medicine), who directs the Yale Center for Sleep Medicine. Sleep not only allows the body to recover but also boosts mental health, accuracy, cognitive function, and cardiovascular and metabolic health, among other benefits.

In fact, Yaggi says, many elite athletes, such as NBA players, nap before games. “There is strong evidence that shows naps significantly improve performance,” he said, adding that developing a sleep routine, or series of activities done in the same order to wind down before bed, can help improve sleep quality.

2. Interval training

As both a runner and researcher, Yasuko Iwakiri, PhD , professor of medicine (digestive diseases), is a strong advocate of interval training, a type of exercise that combines periods of fast activity with slower activity. “This type of training effectively boosts performance by improving cardiovascular fitness, endurance, muscle strength, and running efficiency,” Iwakiri said.

Iwakiri, who participates in the Faxon Law New Haven Road Race, alternates high-intensity running with lower-intensity recovery periods. Starting two months before the race, she participates in a weekly group run to prepare for and improve her performance in the half-marathon.

3. Carbohydrates

Athletes need an adequate supply of various carbohydrates for both quick energy bursts and endurance. Raimund Herzog, MD, MHS , associate professor of medicine (endocrinology) and cyclist, focuses on optimizing carbohydrate absorption and utilization when he rides.

“In the past, endurance studies used only glucose as fuel,” he said. “Newer research has shown that the addition of fructose and longer-chain—or more complex—carbohydrates such as maltodextrin can provide more energy. As a result, we now see increases in power output over time that were previously thought impossible.”

Herzog adds a combination of glucose or fructose and maltodextrin (more for longer-duration rides) to his drink to boost energy during bike rides.

4. Caffeine

As a physician, parent, and tennis player, Jensa Morris, MD , assistant clinical professor of medicine, finds that caffeine is key to performance in sports—and life. “Caffeine has been shown to improve muscular and aerobic endurance, strength, sprinting, and a wide range of sport-specific actions,” she said. “For optimal performance, the recommendation is three to six milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body mass.”

Morris drinks two to three cups of coffee an hour before a tennis match.

5. Cross-training

Engaging in a variety of athletic pursuits can prevent injuries and help maintain whole-body health, according to Richard Bucala, MD, PhD , Waldemar Von Zedtwitz Professor of Medicine (Rheumatology) and professor of pathology and of epidemiology.

Bucala points out that 80 percent of the body is muscle mass. “Since we are integrated physiologically and don’t exist as separate organ systems, we should be using muscle for overall mental, metabolic, cardiovascular, and immunologic health,” he said, noting that staying active is more important than the specific sport one chooses.

A lifelong distance runner, Bucala, who completed nine consecutive Boston marathons in his 50s, found that swimming both strengthened and relaxed core muscles stressed by running.

6. Mental strength

Mark Mamula, PhD , professor of medicine (rheumatology), stresses the importance of focusing on the mental aspect of whatever activity is about to be performed. Mamula, a former two-time All-American swimmer at UCLA, ranked sixth in the world in the individual medley when he retired.

The best performances at any level arise from the convergence of the physical and mental aspects, Mamula notes. “For example, the ability to eliminate distractions through concentration or to channel nervousness can lead to peak performance,” he said.

Another important mental component involves visualizing yourself in every important detail of the activity, from start to finish, according to Mamula. “In a strange way, it’s embracing the pressure of competition,” he said.

The Department of Internal Medicine at Yale School of Medicine is among the nation's premier departments, bringing together an elite cadre of clinicians, investigators, educators, and staff in one of the world's top medical schools. To learn more, visit Internal Medicine.

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• Endocrinology
• Digestive Diseases

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• Richard Bucala, MD, PhD Waldemar Von Zedtwitz Professor of Medicine (Rheumatology) and Professor of Pathology and of Epidemiology (Microbial Diseases); Chief, Rheumatology, Allergy, & Immunology; Rheumatologist in Chief, Rheumatology; Affiliated Faculty, Yale Institute for Global Health
• Raimund Herzog, MD, MHS Associate Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology)
• Yasuko Iwakiri, PhD Professor of Medicine (Digestive Diseases)
• Mark Mamula, PhD Professor of Medicine (Rheumatology)
• Jensa Morris, MD Director, Smilow Hospitalist Service; Hospitalist, Internal Medicine
• Henry Yaggi, MD, MPH Professor of Internal Medicine (Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine); Vice Chief of Research, Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine; Director, Yale Centers for Sleep Medicine, Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine

Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Budgeting > What is Reverse Budgeting?

What is Reverse Budgeting?

If you need help growing your savings, learn what reverse budgeting is and how it works. With reverse budgeting, you move a large portion of your paycheck directly into your savings account as soon as you receive it.

What is a Reverse Budget?

Reverse budgeting, also known as the “ pay yourself first ” method, emphasizes meeting your savings goals like putting money into your retirement fund before other expenses, even including your living expenses.

Turn data into insights with Excel

Make better decisions backed by data and insights

How to Create a Reverse Budget

Follow these steps to create a reverse budget:

Determine Your Financial Goals

Figure out your long-term and short-term savings goals, and your priorities for either. For example, your retirement fund is a long-term savings goal, while saving up for a new household appliance is a short-term savings goal. But you might also need to replace your current car. Determine how much you can put towards retirement or investments, an emergency savings fund , and a lesser amount towards major purchases. The rest of your paycheck can go toward necessities, like rent, utilities, or student loan payments.

Start With the 50/15/5 Rule

Use the 50/15/5 budgeting rule as a starting point for your reverse budget. This rule states that you should put 50% of your monthly income towards necessities such as rent , mortgages, and utilities, 15% towards your retirement savings, and 5% of your income toward short-term savings and debt repayment. For example, if you make$4,000 per month, you’d put $2,000 for necessities, $600 for things you want, and $200 for your savings. The remaining 30% that you bring home can be used to pad your accounts with additional money, save for various goals, or used for gifts or a night out.

Modify Your Reverse Budget as Needed

If you feel like your savings aren’t growing, look at your “wants” and “needs” spending. Is there anywhere you can cut back on those categories? On the other hand, there may be some months when you need to put less money toward your savings. For example, an emergency vet bill may require you to put less money toward your savings and more money toward your “needs” spending.

The Pros of Using the Reverse Budgeting Method

Since this budgeting method prioritizes your savings, it’s great for those who want to focus on expanding their savings and reach their savings goals even faster. Many people find that the reverse budgeting method is easier to keep up with than other budgeting methods. Since the primary focus of this budgeting method is expanding your savings, you don’t have to create an itemized list of everything you spend money on.

Another reason why the reverse budgeting method is so easy is because you can automate it. You can set up your bank account to automatically move money into your savings account or retirement funds each month which can help you save time and stay on track toward your goals.

The Cons of Using the Reverse Budgeting Method

If you’re someone who has a lot of debt, the reverse budgeting method may not be right for you. If you’re in a lot of debt, prioritizing paying off those debts first is more beneficial so that you’ll be closer to financial freedom .

Another disadvantage of the reverse budgeting method is that it might not be the best for those with a variable income. For example, if you’re a contractor with a varying paycheck, it may be difficult to determine how much you can put toward your monthly savings.

If you choose a reverse budget to guide your finances, be aware that it can lead to accidental overspending. For example, those who focus on their savings goals may forget to also focus on their “wants” and “needs” spending categories.

Reverse budgeting can help put you on track toward meeting your savings goals. If you’re interested in enhancing your financial knowledge, learn about the zero-based budget or how to make a monthly budget .

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• 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report

A PDF accessible version will be posted as soon as the ongoing accessibility and accommodation updates are concluded. Your patience is appreciated.

If you have questions about the 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report, please email  [email protected] .

• Message From the Secretary of State

Dear Reader:

Human trafficking is a stain on the conscience of our society.  It fuels crime, corruption, and violence.  It distorts our economies and harms our workers. And it violates the fundamental right of all people to be free.

Around the globe, an estimated 27 million people are exploited for labor, services, and commercial sex.  Through force, fraud, and coercion, they are made to toil in fields and factories, in restaurants and residences.  Traffickers prey on some of the world’s most marginalized and vulnerable individuals – profiting from their plight.

The State Department’s annual Trafficking in Persons Report provides the world’s most comprehensive assessment of this abhorrent practice, as well as efforts by governments and stakeholders around the globe to combat it.  By measuring progress in 188 countries – including the United States – we are advancing President Biden’s commitment to prevent trafficking, prosecute perpetrators, and protect survivors.

Even as this resource covers long-standing forms and methods of trafficking, it also examines the growing role of technology in both facilitating exploitation and countering it.

Digital tools have amplified the reach, scale, and speed of trafficking. Perpetrators use dating apps and online ads to recruit victims.  They use online platforms to sell illicit sexual content.  They leverage encrypted messaging and digital currencies to evade detection.

At the same time, technology is also one of our most powerful tools to combat this enduring scourge.  Mobile phones, social media platforms, and artificial intelligence make it possible for advocates and law enforcement to raise greater awareness about the rights of workers and migrants, locate victims and perpetrators of online sexual exploitation, and analyze large amounts of data to detect emerging human trafficking trends.

As technology makes it easier for traffickers to operate across geographies and jurisdictions, those of us committed to rooting out this horrendous crime – in government, businesses, civil society – can and must work together and coordinate our efforts.

I am grateful to everyone who contributed to this report, especially the State Department’s Human Trafficking Expert Consultant Network, who helps ensure our findings and recommendations are informed by those with lived experience of human trafficking.

I also want to recognize our TIP Report Heroes who have been essential partners in this work.  For the past 20 years, the Department of State has honored more than 170 such champions of human dignity and decency from over 90 countries – survivors, government leaders, law enforcement officials, lawyers, social workers.  Many of them have put their own safety at risk to support victims and share their stories.

The courage and persistence of survivors and advocates like these humble and inspire us all as we continue working to build a safer and more just world.

Antony Blinken

• Message From the Ambassador-at-Large

Innovation drives successful anti-trafficking work.  As criminals continually adapt to take advantage of new vulnerabilities and opportunities to exploit others, we must persistently keep pace with a rapidly evolving trafficking landscape.  This year’s introduction examines the role of digital technology, which has had a profound impact on trafficking methods and trends in recent years.  Traffickers use online platforms to recruit, groom, defraud, coerce, and exploit victims, taking advantage of the potential for anonymity offered by online spaces.  At the same time, when harnessed effectively, digital technology can strengthen our anti-trafficking response, providing opportunities for stakeholders to strengthen prevention efforts, protect victims, and partner with survivors and other stakeholders to combat the crime.

In our fight against human trafficking, we must constantly strive to connect and unite through innovation, including optimization of our use of digital technology.  Traffickers take advantage of the ever-shifting nature of the internet to exploit others; it is imperative that we too embrace technology to counter this trend.   Digital technology has given us new ways to prevent trafficking, protect victims, prosecute bad actors, and forge global partnerships to combat this crime.  This year’s report highlights a range of successful and promising innovations that set us on that path.  Developing partnerships and empowering communities most affected by human trafficking are key to combating this crime.  This report examines, for example, how current efforts to prevent and address forced labor are buoyed by strategic partnerships with workers, including worker-led approaches to advancing labor rights and standards.

The internet can provide spaces to share information, for example to train and educate youth regarding online safety, empower workers to know and protect their rights, and educate vulnerable populations to recognize indicators of exploitation.  Digital tools can provide human trafficking victims with streamlined access to services such as hotlines, peer support and therapy, and other resources for technical training and financial literacy to help survivors navigate the exit and recovery stages of human trafficking.  Technological advances can increase the speed and accuracy of data collection, an area that when harnessed effectively can aid in the identification of trafficking patterns and trends.  Stakeholders can use technology to strengthen communication and information-sharing tools that incorporate workers’ voices, increase transparency and accountability in supply chains, and streamline collaboration and data-sharing among stakeholders.

This year’s introduction also covers a topic of personal importance to me as a former prosecutor.   Utilizing strategic investigative processes can effectively shift the burden of proof away from a reliance on victim testimony, which can endanger and retraumatize victims, and onto the prosecuting authority to both strengthen criminal justice procedures and better facilitate the safety and long-term well-being of victims and survivors.  Strengthening partnerships with survivors and innovating for greater inclusion of historically marginalized communities such as those with disabilities, are crucial to the anti-trafficking movement.  Survivors must continue to be consulted early and often in the development and implementation of anti-trafficking work.  Their firsthand knowledge of the ways in which traffickers are utilizing technology for exploitation is critical to ensure effective prevention, protection, and prosecution efforts.

Governments have a responsibility to guide and leverage efforts, including the use of digital technology, to protect the rights and safety of their citizens; however, governments cannot do this alone.  Collaboration and partnerships among stakeholders – governments, tech companies, NGOs, survivor communities, and financial institutions – are more important than ever to creating a safer world without human trafficking.  A fierce commitment to innovation has the power to renew and strengthen the deep connections that bind together all of us working to end human trafficking.  The United States is proud to work alongside our partners at home and overseas as we document and disseminate efforts to end this terrible crime while also recognizing the heroes whose work around the globe brings hope to victims, empowerment to marginalized communities, and motivation to continue our collective efforts.

• Human Trafficking Defined

The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, as amended (TVPA), defines “severe forms of trafficking in persons” as:

• sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or
• the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.

A victim need not be physically transported from one location to another for the crime to fall within this definition.

Exploring the Role and Impacts of Digital Technology on Human Trafficking

In today’s rapidly evolving world, technology is often a double-edged sword.   While technology has provided innovative solutions to preventing and addressing human trafficking, it has also prompted complex ethical questions and created new opportunities for criminals, including human traffickers, to be increasingly sophisticated in exploiting individuals for profit.   Traffickers use technology to recruit, control, market and exploit vulnerable individuals while also evading detection.   Traffickers do this, for example, by using the Internet to advertise and sell children online for sex, advertise false jobs on social media platforms that are actually human trafficking schemes, transfer cryptocurrency to other traffickers, and perpetuate online scam operations.   At the same time, anti-trafficking stakeholders are using technological innovations to prevent human trafficking, protect victims, and prosecute traffickers.   The 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report (TIP Report) introduction explores the challenges associated with digital technology in the fight against human trafficking and highlights how it can be used effectively by the anti-trafficking community.

Defining “Digital Technology”

Digital technology refers to an ever-expanding set of electronic systems and resources that facilitate learning, communication, entertainment, and more.   Examples include hardware, such as computers, smartphones and mobile devices, and robotics; software, including mobile applications, geolocation, online games, financial databases, web-based and cloud-based systems, and artificial intelligence (AI); and other online services, such as websites, video streaming, blogs, and social media.   For the purposes of this report, digital technologies are explored through their use by traffickers as well as by key anti-trafficking stakeholders and beneficiaries.

The Intersection between Digital Technology and Human Trafficking

One way digital technology and human trafficking can intersect occurs when traffickers use online platforms to exploit victims.   While not a novel phenomenon, renewed attention was brought to the issue because many people shifted their daily activities online at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic.   Reports from several countries demonstrated drastic increases in online commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking, including online sexual exploitation of children (OSEC), and demand for and distribution of child sexual abuse material (CSAM).   Traffickers have continued to advance schemes to exploit individuals using digital tools to groom, deceive, control, and exploit victims.   Some of these schemes lure individuals hundreds of miles away, including across borders, while others do not require them to leave their homes.  Increasingly, victims and survivors of human trafficking have shared that they first connected with their traffickers online.   While traffickers continue to refine and advance their use of digital technologies, governments and other anti-trafficking stakeholders must do the same to combat human trafficking.

How Traffickers Use Technology to Facilitate Trafficking

Human traffickers use a wide range of tactics to manipulate and exploit victims—using technology at every stage of their criminal activities, from the initial planning and execution of the scheme to the way in which they coerce, monitor, and maintain individuals to further their exploitative purpose and increase their profits.

Traffickers use the Internet to facilitate the identification and grooming of potential victims.   Traffickers often target and victimize individuals in vulnerable situations such as those experiencing conflict, natural disasters, poverty, challenging home lives, systemic oppression, or a combination of hardships.   The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) identified “hunting” and “fishing” as two common strategies perpetrators use to deceive and recruit victims.   According to UNODC, online platforms help traffickers search proactively and anonymously for a specific type of individual who they believe is particularly susceptible to further their scheme (the hunting process), or passively attract potential victims by posting online and waiting for a response (the fishing process).   Perpetrators may use social media, online advertisements, websites, dating apps, and gaming platforms – or fraudulent or deceptive duplications of such tools – to hide their true identity through fake accounts and profiles while interacting with potential victims.   Once potential victims are identified and contact is established, communication through the Internet serves as a powerful tool to deceive individuals with false promises of education, employment, housing, or romantic relationships only to lure them into labor and sex trafficking situations.   For example, a trafficker may create an online business website, perhaps posing as a talent recruiter, on which they often include realistic photos to gain a victim’s trust and make them believe the opportunity is authentic and will help advance their career or improve their life.   In these cases, traffickers trick the victim into believing they can legitimately earn income not only for themselves, but for their families as well.   As trust is established, the trafficker manipulates and traps the individual in an exploitative situation through force, fraud, or coercion.   Tactics such as threatening physical abuse or harm to an individual, their reputation, future employment, financial prospects, or their loved ones, are used by traffickers to foster fear.   The internet can also serve as a platform to escalate the exploitative scheme further, including via sextortion.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines sextortion as a serious crime that occurs when a perpetrator threatens to distribute private and sensitive material if the victim does not provide images of a sexual nature, sexual favors, or money.   The perpetrator, who often poses as a love interest, entices individuals to send sensitive images, which the victim believes are being shared privately, but the perpetrator then uses the images to control and coerce their victims to produce more images, perform sexual favors, or give money in cases involving sex trafficking or forced labor.   In addition to blackmailing the victims for large sums of money, traffickers may also use the content to generate additional revenue by selling the sensitive material on illicit platforms.

Additionally, traffickers can use the Internet to facilitate forced criminality, an increasingly common mechanism involving traffickers coercing their victims to engage in or support criminal activities ranging from working as part of online scam operations to commercial sex.   In online scam operations, traffickers largely recruit victims through deceitful job listings online, confine them in gated compounds, and force them to engage in online criminal activity under threat of serious harm.   Online scam operations include illegal online gambling, cryptocurrency investment schemes, and romance scams, all of which involve the victim of trafficking forming relationships with individuals in order to defraud them of significant sums.   Some traffickers compel victims to continue to work by threatening that if they seek help, they will be prosecuted for the unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficked; while others are simply unaware that they are trafficking victims.

In sum, traffickers use digital tools like the Internet to amplify the reach, scale, and speed of their trafficking operations.   While the methods and means may have evolved with technological developments, the exploitation at the heart of trafficking persists, underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive and innovative approaches to investigate and combat this crime.

Challenges and Risks Technology Presents for the Anti-trafficking Community

Digital technology has broadened the scope and scale of operations for traffickers as it allows the flexibility to target and exploit victims across the world while remaining hidden and more difficult to trace.   Traffickers adapt their schemes to take advantage of the obscurity available with new online tools, such as hiding behind anonymization tools or software, and benefiting from loose regulations of online platforms.   These challenges make it increasingly difficult for law enforcement and anti-trafficking stakeholders to identify and implement coordinated solutions fast enough to effectively combat technology-facilitated human trafficking.  Constant evolution in digital technology and the ways in which it is being used also makes it difficult to concentrate efforts or decipher trafficking indicators on a given platform, because law enforcement agencies must continuously adapt their tactics, develop technical expertise, and collaborate with technology companies to effectively combat trafficking.   Additionally, NGOs and service providers with data relevant to the field may struggle with how to effectively share information while considering data ownership and ensuring privacy is being maintained and protected.

Cross-Sector Coordination Challenges  

Traffickers have widened their reach by communicating with and recruiting victims globally, which has created a need for greater global coordination among anti-trafficking stakeholders and technology experts.   These stakeholders face several challenges to coordinating a global response, including navigating diverse legal frameworks to address technology-facilitated human trafficking that transcends borders.   It is often difficult to determine which jurisdiction has authority to investigate and prosecute perpetrators and coordinate international investigation efforts involving multiple countries.   Even when the jurisdiction is established, the necessary evidence gathering and coordination often results in lengthier processes, causing further strain on law enforcement agencies.   Traffickers also take advantage of and operate with impunity due to gaps, inadequacies, or loopholes in laws and regulations to address technology-facilitated trafficking and associated activities.

The lack of sufficient funding for research and training on traffickers’ exploitation of digital tools can leave the anti-trafficking field responding reactively rather than proactively.   Capacity and resources are particularly acute challenges for law enforcement in regions with limited access to advanced technology.  Several technology-based anti-trafficking tools exist for data mining; however, many regions are unable to take advantage of these resources due to a lack of technological infrastructure and digital literacy.   Victims may also find themselves isolated and unable to easily seek help in geographical areas with limited technological capabilities, and poor internet connectivity or coverage may affect their ability to receive information and services from anti-trafficking NGOs in a timely manner.

Data Privacy, Protection, and Access

Data protection, data analysis, and data sharing are crucial methods of using digital technologies to prevent, identify, and reduce instances of human trafficking, but practitioners must consider potential negative effects on the safety and well-being of victims and survivors.   Collecting and sharing data on human trafficking cases, including victims’ personally identifiable information (PII) can be essential for law enforcement and victim support efforts, but could raise serious data privacy concerns for victims and survivors should their information be inadvertently released to the public through data breaches, which has become a common issue with digital technology in general.   NGOs and technology companies often use data mining techniques to support law enforcement in investigating offenses but may lack appropriate security protocols to properly safeguard the data and protect victims’ PII from bad actors.   Different standards for ensuring data privacy and protections across countries and concerns around national security hinder effective information sharing between governments.   Frameworks for data collection, storage, and sharing of personal data are often different, complicating international cooperation.   Governments should consider strengthening digital literacy and infrastructure, where possible, to improve data security standards and procedures, while listening to the recommendations from anti-trafficking stakeholders, including those with lived experiences of trafficking, to assess the best mechanisms for gathering, analyzing, and sharing data related to victims and survivors.    

Encryption & Anonymity

Encryption systems are one way to safeguard data in digital interactions including in web browsing, messaging apps, and financial transactions.   Such systems prevent third parties from accessing data by turning readable data into a scrambled code that can only be recovered by the receiver’s system, ensuring that only authorized parties can access the original data.   Anonymizing technology provides a high level of privacy and obscures the connection between an individual’s online activity and their real identity.   Encryption systems found in many online platforms are designed to protect the privacy and security of all online users; however, these systems and anonymizing technologies such as virtual private networks (VPNs), can also offer protection to bad actors, allowing them to avoid detection and accountability.

As with any crime, heightened anonymity may pose a major challenge for law enforcement and anti-trafficking stakeholders in identifying traffickers and their co-conspirators, whether it is the creator of a fraudulent social media account or author of an online advertisement scam.   Traffickers increasingly benefit from and rely on the protection that digital tools offer as it amplifies an offender’s ability to anonymize themselves through the entire transactional process – from the recruitment and the solicitation to the management of the transactions and relationships to the payment.  Virtual currency has even enabled a distance between those making and receiving payments and the movement of the money.  Traffickers may also hide their IP addresses and encrypt their communications, such as emails, chat messages, and file transfers.   Together this allows greater physical separation between the offender and the offense, impacting the crime itself and law enforcement’s ability to intercede.

Media or Misinformation

The proliferation of social media and online forums have increased the potential for false narratives and misinformation about human trafficking to circulate online and skew public perceptions of the crime.   Even accurate reporting on human trafficking cases and issues may unintentionally minimize the wide range of potential trafficking experiences.   Unfortunately, the most sensationalized and misleading stories tend to attract the most attention and mispresent what human trafficking is while also shifting focus away from more prevalent forms of trafficking and from marginalized populations whose exploitation may not receive the same coverage.   Such reports may also create a singular or limited perception within communities of what human trafficking looks like, perpetuating stereotypes and interfering with prevention efforts or victims’ ability to self-identify.

The Promise of Technology in Monitoring and Combating Human Trafficking

Technology also plays an important role in investigating and countering human trafficking.   Digital technology, including mobile applications, social media campaigns, and online hubs, can be used to further share information, resources, and training on human trafficking.   It can also be used to improve access to online support services for victims, survivors, and vulnerable populations.   Organizations are using data analytic tools to help identify current trends in fraudulent recruitment, map complex supply chains for links to forced labor, and detect emerging human trafficking schemes.   These tools help support information sharing used to bolster identification, investigation, and prosecution efforts by providing means to integrate and analyze data from multiple sources.

Enhancing Education and Outreach Efforts

Digital technology and literacy expand the reach of prevention efforts to raise awareness and educate the public on human trafficking globally.   Given the increase in online activity among children, governments and parents should even further prioritize education around online safety for children and youth, and could take advantage of online tools to inform children of the risks related to the internet.   Fortunately, there are already a number of beneficial training tools for young people using social media and mobile applications, as well as for parents and guardians, that help support early interventions to prevent technology-facilitated trafficking of youth.   One example of how technology is being used for public awareness is through online campaigns including the Can You See Me? campaign administered by A21, a global anti-trafficking organization in the United States, aimed at informing the general public on how to spot signs of human trafficking and where to report it.

Technology is also being used to improve awareness and outreach efforts to support worker engagement and empowerment.   Commonly used messaging apps and social media platforms, as well as specially designed worker engagement and empowerment platforms, are used to educate workers on their labor rights, including the right to organize; access legal and social services; and connect with legitimate employers and jobs.   Some tools also offer responsible employment training for managers, provide secure grievance mechanisms for workers, aggregate worker survey responses, and provide feedback opportunities, allowing workers to share information about their recruitment and work experiences.   One promising example comes from Polaris, an NGO based in the United States.   Through its Nonechka project, Polaris collaborated with technology partner Ulula on a platform that allows farmworkers in Mexico and now in the United States to share their experiences, including information on risky recruitment and employment processes.   This information also helps Polaris formulate prevention strategies, as well as inform workers about their rights, wages, and working conditions and how to access general services locally including emergency, transitional, or long-term services.

Victim Services

Digital technology tools can aid victims during the exit and recovery phases of a human trafficking experience.   Technology can play a pivotal role in victim identification, employing various methods and platforms for finding victims online and allowing for self-reporting exploitation.   For example, the Canadian NGO Center for Child Protection (C3P) operates Project Arachnid , a web crawler that searches for known CSAM.   When such material is detected, C3P sends a notice to the provider asking that the material be removed. The NGO Thorn also has an AI-powered tool that detects CSAM and tools that aid law enforcement in child sex trafficking investigations.   While digital investigative techniques, including those that make use of AI, can assist in trafficking detection, investigation, and successful prosecutions, basic communication tools such as messaging apps, SMS and text, and phone channels also offer lower-tech and straightforward avenues for victims to communicate with service providers in real time.   Successful tools to advance victim services include those that facilitate and increase access to victim resource hotlines, virtual peer community spaces, and financial inclusion resources.   There are also online tools to bolster training and technical assistance for professionals who wish to support victims and survivors during the aftermath of victimization and to navigate the criminal justice system.   Most of these tools are mobile applications and leverage web- and cloud-based solutions for victim services.   The GraceCity App, for example, developed by anti-trafficking advocates in Sacramento, California, is a mobile application that offers victims and survivors details on the community resources in their area.   The app can canvass thousands of first responders and provide users with useful resources including nearby NGOs, medical professionals, social workers, and therapists.   Technologically enhanced interventions can be instrumental in overcoming challenges to victim identification, outreach, and intervention, providing real-time communication channels that are accessible, secure, and more efficient in providing immediate assistance tailored to the individual’s situation and unique needs.

Data Collection and Sharing Efforts

As mentioned earlier, data collection, data analysis, and data sharing are crucial components of using digital technologies to prevent, identify, and reduce instances of human trafficking.   Anti-trafficking stakeholders have created tools and established new initiatives to improve their data collection and sharing to support investigation and prosecution efforts.   For example, social media and communication platforms are rich sources of information for law enforcement investigations, but combing through large-scale datasets can be time consuming and labor intensive.   A diverse group of stakeholders, including governments, international organizations, civil society organizations, private sector businesses, and information technology professionals developed technology tools to assist in anti-trafficking efforts.   These tools help anti-trafficking stakeholders collect and analyze vast amounts of qualitative and quantitative data through techniques such as data mining, machine learning, and natural language processing.   These digital tools not only enhance the utility and speed of traditional data collection methods used for case management and investigative purposes, but also make it easier for anti-trafficking actors to analyze the data to share real-time insights that better equip the field to address and combat trafficking.   Despite this potential, reports show that NGOs have traditionally underutilized such tools due to lack of knowledge, access, expertise, and funding, and more information is needed to better understand barriers to use.    

Anti-trafficking applications can help investigators perform pattern analyses from big-data searches encompassing structured and unstructured data from sources including social media.   These analyses allow investigators to understand traffickers’ online activities as well as their most frequently used platforms and profiles used to target and mislead victims.  For example, the Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative (CTDC), developed by the International Organization for Migration, brings together anti-trafficking organizations from around the world to make human trafficking data publicly available in a central, accessible online platform.   The goal of CTDC is to break down information sharing barriers and equip the anti-trafficking community with reliable data. CTDC offers primary, individual-level data scrubbed of personally identifiable information on victims of human trafficking that can be used to track human trafficking trends globally.

From identifying trafficking patterns to increasing accountability within supply chains to prevent forced labor, the multifaceted nature of data collection and sharing requires multidisciplinary partnerships for the benefits of data-related solutions to fully materialize.   Data collection and sharing among several anti-trafficking stakeholders is key to effectively developing anti-trafficking policies, identifying victims, prosecuting the perpetrators, and mapping where and how traffickers and transnational criminal networks operate.   Collaboration on data collection and sharing should particularly be encouraged between sectors and stakeholders equipped with capabilities to collect data and gather intelligence and insights.   Such stakeholders should include NGOs, survivor-led organizations, individuals with lived experience of human trafficking, and intelligence or investigative agencies.   The Traffik Analysis Hub is another example of a global solution that supports joint analysis of large AI-generated data sets, providing partners with the ability to pool data assets to generate new insights into patterns and hotspots of trafficking incidents.   Information from the Traffik Analysis Hub, which was developed with the support of IBM, is also shared with law enforcement so actions can be taken to disrupt trafficking operations.   The ability to use large quantities of data and data analytics also helps to minimize the use of individual victim information and victim testimony to support trafficking prosecutions.

However, the collection and analysis of large data sets present several significant risks and challenges including privacy and data security concerns, misuse of data, and bias and inaccuracies that could result from reliance on large data collections.   To mitigate these risks, it is crucial to implement data protection measures to ensure ethical data collection practices and protect individual’s right to privacy.

• Lessons Learned and Looking Ahead

The Role of Government

Governments have the responsibility to regulate the use of technology, including in anti-trafficking efforts, such as disincentivizing the abuse of online resources for trafficking.   Efforts to legislate and regulate tech companies to better prevent and address human trafficking will have broader impacts in areas such as privacy, security, and innovation, so careful consideration with a wide range of stakeholders will be needed.

Right now, government approaches to addressing emerging issues in the digital era continue to be fragmented, in part due to the scale and speed at which digital technology evolves.   Inconsistent policies make it difficult to combat tech-facilitated crimes due to their transnational and multi-jurisdictional elements.   Some governments are recognizing the importance of regulating digital platforms to protect and further national security, economic development, and human rights priorities and many have begun developing policies around the production, deployment, and use of digital technologies.   Collaboration and coordination at the international and national level will make it harder for perpetrators to continue their illicit activities.

Globally, government investment in digital technologies for anti-trafficking efforts remains low, despite significant potential.   Private sector and civil society stakeholders, including those with lived experience, will be critical to identifying additional government-funded research and development necessary to channel the positive aspects of technology and protect those who use it.   An OSCE and Tech Against Trafficking analysis found that out of 305 technology tools readily available to combat human trafficking, only 9 percent were developed through government investments.   Consideration should also be given as to how best to develop and share existing tech tools in regions of the world that lack such tools.    

The Role of Law Enforcement

Law enforcement agencies are tasked with combating technology-facilitated human trafficking by monitoring online platforms, investigating suspicious activity, and prosecuting perpetrators.   Law enforcement agencies can continuously look for new ways to proactively investigate trafficking cases by harnessing technological innovations to collect evidentiary material.   For proactive investigations, agencies can focus on increasing internal capacity to integrate data analytics and artificial intelligence tools into casework, as well as collaborate and coordinate with NGOs and technology companies in tool development, training, and information sharing – with due regard to privacy safeguards.

Law enforcement agencies have found ways to leverage technology to help identify, track, and monitor illicit activity by following its digital footprint.   A digital footprint could include online activity, from websites visited to social media posts published, and can help paint a clearer picture of a trafficker’s identity, location, and criminal activity.   Such publicly available digital evidence is often helpful in building a trafficking case.

Examples of law enforcement leveraging online data to support criminal investigations include:

• In September 2023, The Netherlands, supported by EUROPOL, coordinated a 3-day investigation targeting online criminal activities that enable human trafficking.   Law enforcement from 26 countries alongside representatives from European Labor Authority, European Police College (CEPOL), INTERPOL, OSCE, and International Justice Mission, focused on identifying online platforms and social media to recruit victims for sexual and labor exploitation.   This led to identifying 11 suspected human traffickers and 45 potential victims.
• In 2023, Operation Synergia led by INTERPOL, targeted human trafficking rings linked to cyber scam centers.   Partnering with a leading creator of cybersecurity technology, Group-IB’s Threat Intelligence and High-Tech Crime Investigation teams collected and shared information with INTERPOL and other law enforcement agencies to locate over 2,400 IP addresses associated with cybercrime, leading to the removal of the servers.   Over 60 law enforcement agencies from 50 countries participated in the search and seizure of 1,300 malicious servers and electronic devices, shutting down 70 percent of identified cybercrime command servers while the remaining 30 percent are under investigation.

Law enforcement agencies must be better resourced to combat technology-facilitated human trafficking or use technology for human trafficking investigations.   This can be achieved through greater investment in staff, training, and software.   Law enforcement officers must be trained on monitoring and evaluating online platforms and developing technical knowledge.   Law enforcement agencies can deepen their capabilities by establishing cybercrime units tasked with data analysis and decryption technology.   Cooperation protocols with NGO and private sector partners will further data sharing and the design and deployment of new tools that are victim-centric and trauma- and survivor-informed.   Multilateral knowledge exchange should also be considered when developing technology tools to prevent traffickers from exploiting the gaps in capacity and legislation between law enforcement agencies.   Governments should also focus on implementation of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children to address legislation gaps.   Lastly, law enforcement agencies with access to victims’ personal data must have protection standards in place on the collection and storage of such personal data.

The Role of the Financial Sector

The financial sector also plays a vital role in combating human trafficking.   According to the International Labour Organization, human trafficking is responsible for an estimated $236 billion in illicit profits annually.   All forms of currency, including both traditional and digital assets (e.g. cryptocurrency), can be laundered, requiring a multidimensional approach involving legislative measures, collaboration between justice and financial sectors, technological innovations, and ethical considerations to detect their use in criminal enterprises.   The financial sector’s role extends beyond upholding regulatory frameworks, often guided by promising practices in the area of corporate responsibility.  As illicit proceeds from human trafficking can intersect with formal financial systems at any stage of a human trafficking crime, it is essential that financial institutions proactively manage the risk of technology-facilitated human trafficking and train staff on the financial indicators and techniques used by human traffickers to launder money.   Coordination in this area should also include financial institutions working with law enforcement, technology companies, and survivors to inform their efforts, including on the development of training programs to enhance the ability of frontline staff and other industry professionals to detect transactions connected to human trafficking, how and when to intervene, and how to determine when a third party is benefitting from the exploitation of another.

Globally, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is the standard-setting body for anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism and weapons proliferation.   More than 200 countries have agreed to implement FATF recommendations, which provide guidance for member countries to identify, assess, and understand money laundering and illicit finance risks and to mitigate those risks.   Since 2019, the FATF has included guidance on how to assess and mitigate risks associated with digital assets and digital asset service providers, including recommendations on how member jurisdictions should regulate cryptocurrency transactions.   Countries are encouraged to adapt FATF recommendations to their specific context to establish or enhance efforts to tackle illicit financial transactions.

Following digital financial transactions human traffickers leave behind can identify broader criminal networks and make it more difficult to profit from human trafficking.   For this reason, responsible innovation in technology and proactive partnerships between governments, financial institutions, law enforcement, and civil society experts, including those with lived experiences are an important part of identifying illicit financial activity associated with human trafficking and safeguarding financial systems against human trafficking, money laundering, terrorist financing, and other serious financial crimes.

The Role of NGOs

NGOs are one of the primary users and drivers of the development of anti-trafficking technological tools, algorithms, and programs and use digital technology to provide survivors easier access to resources and support services such as online counseling and helplines.   NGOs are also well-positioned to build strong partnerships with and bridge the gap between technology companies, governments, survivors, and community organizations to enhance the creation and broaden the use of essential anti-trafficking application services.   NGOs can use these relationships to advocate for and consult on the creation of standardized response frameworks, data privacy for victims when using anti-trafficking technology tools, and solutions to other emerging concerns around technology.    

A result of a partnership between NGOs and international organizations (IOs) to advance work under the UN’s Global Compact on Decent Work in Global Supply Chains, the Interactive Map for Businesses of Anti-Human Trafficking Organizations was developed to be a user-friendly repository database that tracks global and local initiatives and organizations that businesses can partner with on anti-trafficking efforts.   The map provides NGOs an opportunity to optimize coordination, research, awareness, and prevention efforts through the ability to identify specific industry initiatives to combat human trafficking via a filter tool that organizes data based on industry, geography, or issue, among others.

The Role of the Technology Industry

The technology industry, while providing many benefits can also inadvertently create environments that facilitate trafficking and other crimes, including by creating a space that facilitates unsupervised access to children.  Many companies acknowledge that the popularity and simplicity of user-friendly application services contribute to unsafe environments by providing traffickers with easy access to communicate, advertise, and coordinate illicit activity. Some technology companies have taken steps to address these challenges, but ongoing efforts are needed to enhance security measures, improve content moderation, and collaborate with law enforcement to prevent technology from being used by bad actors for illicit activities. Technology can play several roles to include using data and algorithm tools to detect human trafficking patterns, identify suspicious and illicit activity, and report such activity to law enforcement.   Technology companies play a pivotal role in protecting victims and vulnerable individuals from being exploited through the use of their online platforms and must be part of the solution to combat human trafficking.

Some technology companies are increasingly investing in better language models and machine learning to allow computers to learn from and make predictions based on data trends.   These tools are a useful resource as they may provide law enforcement agencies with powerful tools to more efficiently target illicit activity and possible cases for investigation, but they are not required.   Language models can detect, translate, and categorize key words used by traffickers to identify trafficking communication patterns.   It can be used to aid international investigations and target traffickers since they often recruit individuals in different countries primarily communicating through technology and internet platforms in the victims’ native language.   Alongside language models, other machine learning tools have the ability to cross reference various data sets, such as combining law enforcement data and transit trends, to help stakeholders formulate specific algorithms that can trace traffickers’ patterns.   These tools can enhance collaboration between law enforcement agencies and other stakeholders, as well as quickly close the gap for countries that may not have established effective tools to track or investigate human trafficking.   As developers continue to build and enhance anti-trafficking applications for protection, prevention, or prosecution functions, they must be designed to tackle the unique challenges and scenarios that arise in the context of human trafficking.

Regardless of the progress provided by technology tools, it is crucial that anti-trafficking stakeholders be cautious of becoming overly reliant on using AI and facial recognition technology to identify victims of human trafficking and the traffickers.   These tools should enhance, not replace, existing methods.   Developers, policymakers, and anti-trafficking leaders seeking to improve anti-trafficking efforts with AI and facial recognition tools should prioritize establishing data privacy rights and ensuring individuals’ information is protected throughout data-sharing processes.

Taking Action: Considerations for Anti-Trafficking Stakeholders

Harnessing technology to advance the shared goal of governments, law enforcement actors, technology companies, and civil society to eliminate human trafficking will require proactive efforts by all actors to resolve the complex, often contradictory byproducts of technological progress.   Governments can adopt policies and legislation that recognize human traffickers’ use of technology and incentivize the positive use of technology tools to investigate and counter human trafficking, and must coordinate implementation of these policies through collaboration with the technology sector, the financial sector, anti-trafficking NGOs, and lived experience experts who can help build capacity to monitor online spaces, train staff, develop technology tools, and cultivate technical expertise.   Law enforcement entities can use technology to conduct data analytics on traffickers, their connections, and their modus operandi to inform human trafficking investigations and related money laundering activities, bolster the identification of victims online, and enhance safety nets.   Governments can also strengthen data security from unauthorized access to better protect victims and investigations and find technology-based solutions that further privacy, safety, and trust.   Multilateral forums offer important venues for governments to share best practices and develop new policies and standards that uphold current international frameworks but are also tailored to regional and local trafficking situations and existing technological capabilities.

NGOs can advocate for policies and tech solutions that empower vulnerable individuals, strengthen access to services, advance digital learning, and further privacy protections.   Local communities, NGOs, and those with lived experience know current trafficking trends and how technology is being used to facilitate crimes, and thus can recommend ways to enhance trauma-informed and victim-centric tech solutions and ways to get tech tools in the hands of those who most need them.   The technology sector should work to ensure their online platforms are being used for legitimate purposes and ensure privacy and safety for users.   The technology sector can also invest in new technologies that include detecting and countering child sexual abuse material, livestreaming trafficking offenses, and fraudulent cyber scams or job offers among other crimes occurring on their platforms.   Governments, anti-trafficking NGOs, companies, and innovators can also employ routine audits of technology tools as digital technologies evolve to limit negative consequences and better guarantee efficient, sustainable means to address human trafficking.

Collaborative efforts allow all relevant parties to inform and promote best practices for the responsible and safe use of technology by a variety of actors, including individuals vulnerable to technology-facilitated trafficking.   The challenge is immense, but political will, resource investments, innovation, and partnerships will help prevent traffickers’ use of technology for exploitation, and instead amplify and scale the best applications that assist all anti-trafficking stakeholders in meeting our obligations to combat the newest continuously evolving aspects of this pernicious crime.

• Understanding Human Trafficking

“Trafficking in persons” and “human trafficking” are umbrella terms—often used interchangeably—to refer to a crime whereby traffickers exploit and profit at the expense of adults or children by compelling them to perform labor or engage in commercial sex.  When a person younger than 18 is used to perform a commercial sex act, it is a crime regardless of whether there is any force, fraud, or coercion involved.

The United States recognizes two primary forms of trafficking in persons:  forced labor and sex trafficking.  The basic meaning of these forms of human trafficking and some unique characteristics of each are set forth below, followed by several key principles and concepts that relate to all forms of human trafficking.

More than 180 nations have ratified or acceded to the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (the UN TIP Protocol), which defines trafficking in persons and contains obligations to prevent and combat the crime.

The United States’ TVPA and the UN TIP Protocol contain similar definitions of human trafficking.  The elements of both definitions can be described using a three-element framework focused on the trafficker’s 1) acts; 2) means; and 3) purpose.  All three elements are essential to form a human trafficking violation.

Forced Labor

Forced Labor, sometimes also referred to as labor trafficking, encompasses the range of activities involved when a person uses force, fraud, or coercion to exploit the labor or services of another person.

The  “acts”  element of forced labor is met when the trafficker recruits, harbors, transports, provides, or obtains a person for labor or services.

The  “means”  element of forced labor includes a trafficker’s use of force, fraud, or coercion.  The coercive scheme can include threats of force, debt manipulation, withholding of pay, confiscation of identity documents, psychological coercion, reputational harm, manipulation of the use of addictive substances, threats to other people, or other forms of coercion.

The  “purpose”  element focuses on the perpetrator’s goal to exploit a person’s labor or services.  There is no limit on the location or type of industry.  Traffickers can commit this crime in any sector or setting, whether legal or illicit, including but not limited to agricultural fields, factories, restaurants, hotels, massage parlors, retail stores, fishing vessels, mines, private homes, or drug trafficking operations.

All three elements are essential to constitute the crime of forced labor.

There are certain types of forced labor that are frequently distinguished for emphasis or because they are widespread:

Domestic Servitude

“Domestic servitude” is a form of forced labor in which the trafficker requires a victim to perform work in a private residence.  Such circumstances create unique vulnerabilities.   Domestic workers are often isolated and may work alone in a house.  Their employer often controls their access to food, transportation, and housing.  What happens in a private residence is hidden from the world – including from law enforcement and labor inspectors – resulting in barriers to victim identification.  Foreign domestic workers are particularly vulnerable to abuse due to language and cultural barriers, as well as a lack of community ties.  Some perpetrators use these types of conditions as part of their coercive schemes to compel the labor of domestic workers with little risk of detection.

Forced Child Labor

The term “forced child labor” describes forced labor schemes in which traffickers compel children to work.  Traffickers often target children because they are more vulnerable.  Although some children may legally engage in certain forms of work, forcing or coercing children to work remains illegal.  Forms of slavery or slavery-like practices – including the sale of children, forced or compulsory child labor, and debt bondage and serfdom of children – continue to exist, despite legal prohibitions and widespread condemnation.  Some indicators of forced labor of a child include situations in which the child appears to be in the custody of a non-family member and the child’s work financially benefits someone outside the child’s family; or the denial of food, rest, or schooling to a child who is working.

Sex Trafficking

Sex trafficking encompasses the range of activities involved when a trafficker uses force, fraud, or coercion to compel another person to engage in a commercial sex act or causes a child to engage in a commercial sex act.

The crime of sex trafficking is also understood through the “acts,” “means,” and “purpose” framework.  All three elements are required to establish a sex trafficking crime (except in the case of child sex trafficking where the means are irrelevant).

The  “acts”  element of sex trafficking is met when a trafficker recruits, harbors, transports, provides, obtains, patronizes, or solicits another person to engage in commercial sex.

The  “means”  element of sex trafficking occurs when a trafficker uses force, fraud, or coercion.  Coercion in the case of sex trafficking includes the broad array of means included in the forced labor definition.  These can include threats of serious harm, psychological harm, reputational harm, threats to others, and debt manipulation.

The  “purpose”  element is a commercial sex act.  Sex trafficking can take place in private homes, massage parlors, hotels, or brothels, among other locations, as well as on the internet.

Child Sex Trafficking

In cases where an individual engages in any of the specified “acts” with a child (under the age of 18), the means element is irrelevant regardless of whether evidence of force, fraud, or coercion exists.  The use of children in commercial sex is prohibited by law in the United States and most countries around the world.

Key Principles and Concepts

These key principles and concepts relate to all forms of trafficking in persons, including forced labor and sex trafficking.

Human trafficking can take place even if the victim initially consented to providing labor, services, or commercial sex acts.  The analysis is primarily focused on the trafficker’s conduct and not that of the victim.  A trafficker can target a victim after a victim applies for a job or migrates to earn a living.  The trafficker’s exploitative scheme is what matters, not a victim’s prior consent or ability to meaningfully consent thereafter.  Likewise, in a sex trafficking case, an adult victim’s initial willingness to engage in commercial sex acts is not relevant where a perpetrator subsequently uses force, fraud, or coercion to exploit the victim and cause them to continue engaging in the same acts.  In the case of child sex trafficking, the consent of the victim is never relevant as a child cannot legally consent to commercial sex.

Neither U.S. law nor international law requires that a trafficker or victim move across a border for a human trafficking offense to take place.  Trafficking in persons is a crime of exploitation and coercion, and not movement.  Traffickers can use schemes that take victims hundreds of miles away from their homes or exploit them in the same neighborhoods where they were born.

Debt Bondage

“Debt bondage” is focused on human trafficking crimes in which the trafficker’s primary means of coercion is debt manipulation.  U.S. law prohibits perpetrators from using debts as part of their scheme, plan, or pattern to compel a person to work or engage in commercial sex.  Traffickers target some individuals with an initial debt assumed willingly as a condition of future employment, while in certain countries traffickers tell individuals they “inherited” the debt from relatives.  Traffickers can also manipulate debts after the economic relationship begins by withholding earnings or forcing the victim to assume debts for expenses like food, housing, or transportation.  They can also manipulate debts a victim owes to other people.  When traffickers use debts as a means to compel labor or commercial sex, they have committed a crime.

The Non-Punishment Principle 

A victim-centered and trauma-informed approach is key to successful anti-trafficking efforts.  A central tenet of such an approach is that victims of trafficking should not be inappropriately penalized solely for unlawful acts they committed as a direct result of being trafficked.  Effective implementation of the “non-punishment principle,” as it is increasingly referred to, not only requires recognizing and embracing the principle in regional and national laws, but also increasing proactive victim identification.

State-Sponsored Human Trafficking

While the TVPA and UN TIP Protocol call on governments to proactively address trafficking crimes, some governments are part of the problem, directly compelling their citizens into sexual slavery or forced labor schemes.  From forced labor in local or national public work projects, military operations, and economically important sectors, or as part of government-funded projects or missions abroad, officials use their power to exploit their nationals.  To extract this work, governments coerce by threatening the withdrawal of public benefits, withholding salaries, failing to adhere to limits on national service, manipulating the lack of legal status of stateless individuals and members of minority groups, threatening to punish family members, or conditioning services or freedom of movement on labor or sex.  In 2019, Congress amended the TVPA to acknowledge that governments can also act as traffickers, referring specifically to a “government policy or pattern” of human trafficking, trafficking in government-funded programs, forced labor in government-affiliated medical services or other sectors, sexual slavery in government camps, or the employment or recruitment of child soldiers.

Unlawful Recruitment or Use of Child Soldiers

Another manifestation of human trafficking occurs when government forces or any non-state armed group unlawfully recruits or uses children – through force, fraud, or coercion – as soldiers or for labor or services in conflict situations.  Children are also used as sex slaves.  Sexual slavery, as referred to here, occurs when armed groups force or coerce children to “marry” or be raped by commanders or combatants.  Both male and female children are often sexually abused or exploited by members of armed groups and suffer the same types of devastating physical and psychological consequences associated with sex trafficking.

Accountability in Supply Chains

Forced labor is well documented in the private economy, particularly in agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, construction, and domestic work; but no sector is immune.  Sex trafficking occurs in several industries as well.  Most well-known is the hospitality industry, but the crime also occurs in connection with extractive industries where activities are often remote and lack meaningful government presence.  Governments should hold all entities, including businesses, accountable for human trafficking.  In some countries, the law provides for corporate accountability in both the civil and criminal justice systems.  U.S. law provides such liability for any legal person, including a business that benefits financially from its involvement in a human trafficking scheme, provided that the business knew or should have known of the scheme.

Topics of Special Interest

• Trafficking in Persons for the Purpose of Organ Removal

Trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal is one of the least reported and least understood forms of trafficking – but one that experts believe may be growing.  Like sex trafficking and labor trafficking, it is ultimately a crime that exploits human beings for economic profit.  Trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal is “a form of trafficking in which an individual is exploited for their organ, including by coercion, deception and abuse of a position of vulnerability.”  The crime is sometimes confused with organ trafficking; however, organ trafficking refers more broadly to the illicit trade or exchange of organs for financial or other material gain.  In organ trafficking, the focus is on the organ itself; conversely, with trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal, the focus is on the individual.  The key global anti-trafficking instrument, the Palermo Protocol, defines exploitation to include at a minimum “the removal of organs,” alongside sexual exploitation, forced labor, and slavery or slavery-like practices.

Often, in cases of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal, would-be donors are tricked into organ donation.  Common deceptions include being told human beings have three kidneys or that kidneys regenerate after being removed, or being falsely told they will experience no negative side effects from a kidney removal (in fact, kidney donors may face serious lifelong medical challenges and be unable to work).  Although kidneys are the most common organ involved, other organs and tissues, such as livers, corneas, or skin, are also sought, although notably the Palermo Protocol’s definition covers only exploitation for the removal of organs, not of tissues or cells.  Victims may not be paid at all, or they may receive some payment; importantly, an individual can still be a victim of trafficking in persons or other human rights abuses even if they received some form of payment.

The 2022 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons noted trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal constituted only 0.2 percent of detected victims of trafficking compared to the much higher numbers for sex trafficking and forced labor.  UNODC has warned “existing barriers to reporting suggest that the full scale of this phenomenon is not yet known.”  The report also noted an uptick in cases (from 25 in 2017 to 40 in 2018), though the overall numbers are small.  Between 2008 and 2022, UNODC reported 700 victims of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal while noting “the scale of the problem is likely to be much larger.”

Trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal is difficult to detect for several reasons.  Data-collection efforts are scarce, and some instances of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal may be mistakenly classified or prosecuted as organ trafficking.  Moreover, unlike sex trafficking and labor trafficking, which can take place over months or years, trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal usually involves a brief, often one-time, interaction.  Like other forms of trafficking, transactions have increasingly shifted online and become more sophisticated, facilitating the emergence of smaller networks, and even independent brokers and suppliers, which may be more difficult to track.

Both the 2020 and 2022 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons and a 2021 INTERPOL report suggest North Africa and the Middle East have the highest share of detected victims, in part due to the prevalence of large vulnerable communities, limited access to medical care, and corruption.  The media and some NGOs have also reported instances of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal for ritual purposes.  However, instances of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal can occur worldwide.  In a case recently prosecuted in the United Kingdom, the victim was recruited in Nigeria and brought to London, where the organ removal was to take place (see inset box for additional information).  In another case reported by the BBC in late 2023, revealing the connection between organ trafficking and trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal, Pakistani police arrested eight members of an organ-trafficking ring that “lure[d] vulnerable patients from hospitals” and conducted transplants “often without the patient knowing;” several people died from these procedures.

The government of the People’s Republic of China, in particular, has been accused of systematically forcibly removing organs from political prisoners.  For example, a group of UN human rights experts noted in 2021:

Forced organ harvesting in China appears to be targeting specific ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities held in detention, often without being explained the reasons for arrest or given arrest warrants, at different locations.  We are deeply concerned by reports of discriminatory treatment of the prisoners or detainees based on their ethnicity and religion or belief.

(Note:  forced organ harvesting is not a term defined in the Palermo Protocol, but the phrase is commonly used to describe trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal.)

While there is a need for additional studies and reporting to thoroughly assess the geographic and numeric scope of trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal, stakeholders are taking steps to attempt to address the issue.  A number of regional instruments, including the Council of Europe Convention against Trafficking in Human Organs, the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, and the ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, recognize organ removal as a form of trafficking-related exploitation.

Experts have also proposed ideas to increase the supply of legally donated organs, with the intention of making trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal and organ trafficking less lucrative.  These ideas include transitioning deceased organ donation from an opt-in to an opt-out system; implementing paired exchanges matching donors and patients; creating awareness campaigns targeted at potential donors, including addressing barriers to altruistic organ donation and providing guidance on how to prevent trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal; building the capacity of law enforcement to detect and investigate these cases; and improving transparency and reporting around transplantation.

Twenty-one-year-old “Daniel” (not his real name) scraped out a living selling mobile-phone accessories at an outdoor street market in Lagos, Nigeria, but he thought his luck took a turn when he was offered a “life-changing opportunity” to work in the United Kingdom.   The people he believed were his employers instructed him to take a blood test, which he thought was required to secure a visa.   The people he had been working with put him on a flight and confiscated his passport.   Within days of arriving in London, Daniel was taken to the Royal Free Hospital, where doctors discussed the risks of the upcoming “operation” – something Daniel knew nothing about.   Seeing his confusion, the doctors sent Daniel away – but did not notify authorities.   Later, Daniel overheard a conversation among those who had brought Daniel to the UK speaking about sending him back to Nigeria to remove his kidney.   Scared, Daniel escaped, sleeping on the streets for several days until walking into a police station and telling his story.   Daniel’s bravery eventually led to the UK’s first prosecution of – and convictions for – human trafficking for the purpose of organ removal.   A prominent Nigerian politician and his wife who had arranged the trafficking scheme to provide their daughter with a kidney transplant, as well as a Nigerian doctor, were convicted in 2023.

This story was published by the BBC, Organ Harvesting:   Trafficked for His Kidney and Now Forced into Hiding , June 26, 2023 ( https://www.bbc.com/news/65960515 ); for additional details, see the Crown Prosecution Service, Updated with Sentence: Senior Nigerian Politician Jailed Over Illegal UK Organ-Harvesting Plot , May 5, 2023 ( https://www.cps.gov.uk/cps/news/updated-sentence-senior-nigerian-politician-jailed-over-illegal-uk-organ-harvesting-plot ).

• Connecting the Dots:  Preventing Forced Labor by Empowering Workers

Forced labor, a form of human trafficking, is universally condemned yet prevalent in nearly every industry globally.  The International Labour Organization (ILO) reports forced labor has grown in recent years – with no region of the world or private sector industry spared – and the majority of forced labor takes place in the private economy, meaning forced labor is connected to global supply chains.  These facts demand a re-examination of current efforts to prevent and address forced labor, including the need to elevate the voice and agency of workers and place them at the center of prevention efforts through strategic partnerships.  In addition, particular focus should be placed on vulnerable populations, such as migrant workers.  ILO research shows the rates of forced labor among migrant workers are higher if migration is irregular or poorly governed, or where recruitment practices are unfair or unethical.

Although prosecuting specific traffickers and assisting individual victims are critical for governments combating forced labor, successful interventions to prevent forced labor require a range of stakeholders willing to visualize and address broader systemic issues centered on worker’s labor rights, including those of migrant workers, as well as supply chain power imbalances.  For governments, this may require additional resources and oversight of workplaces, especially in key sectors where forced labor is often present; better monitoring of the labor recruitment industry; increased outreach to and protections for migrant workers; and improved screening measures by well-trained officials targeting populations at greater risk of exploitation.  For the private sector, it will mean proactively supporting workers and their ability to advocate for themselves, setting clear expectations of suppliers, and rooting out practices that create environments ripe for exploitation.

Worker-led Approaches to Prevent Forced Labor 

Over time, policymakers, academics, and other stakeholders have expanded their thinking to encompass worker-led approaches to address the vulnerabilities of workers and prevent forced labor.  Such approaches include advancing labor rights and standards – including freedom of association, collective bargaining, and the remediation of labor rights abuses – as well as worker-driven approaches that include migrants.  Research has demonstrated workers are most vulnerable to forced labor if they do not know their rights, are excluded from labor protection laws, and lack access to grievance mechanisms.  Workers in the informal sector and women and girls, who often face gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace, can be particularly vulnerable.  One of the most effective ways to prevent worker exploitation is to guarantee workers’ full rights to freedom of association and collective bargaining.  Independent and democratic labor unions, led by workers, are best able to represent workers’ collective interests at multiple levels, including at the national, subnational, regional, and international levels.  Collaborating with local workers, regional international organizations, and global union federations, these unions can reach the most vulnerable workers, organize across a labor sector, and advocate for key policy changes, including responsible migration management.  As a result, they are well positioned to engage powerful transnational companies to address forced labor in their supply chains.

According to ILO’s Director of the Bureau for Workers’ Activities, there have been positive developments over time with unions reaching outside of their traditional base to include the unionization of self-employed workers.  Many unions have also expanded to include more informal economy, migrant, and domestic workers, which is key as many of these workers are governed by a variety of working arrangements, including fixed-term and temporary contracts.

This diversification of representation is important as unions allow workers to negotiate for better working conditions, influence the laws and policies that impact them, and remediate labor rights abuses.  Unions play a pivotal role in securing legislated labor protections and rights, such as legally entitled wages and benefits, occupational safety and health protections, overtime pay, and medical leave.  Union-led efforts help raise the wages for the lowest paid and least skilled workers and lead to fewer hours of unpaid overtime work.  Unions play crucial roles in identifying labor rights abuses and enforcing rights on the job.  One of the most effective ways to prevent the exploitation of migrant workers is by guaranteeing their right to join unions in destination countries.  The multiplier impact is notable, as industries with strong union representation tend to have lower levels of labor rights abuse, the worst forms of child labor, and forced labor.

Where there is an absence of unions, there at least should be effective, secure mechanisms for worker communication and grievances.   Governments should strongly encourage employers to provide mechanisms so workers can advocate for their rights, discuss workplace issues of concern and interest, and communicate grievances, even if that takes place outside a formal union mechanism.  Such mechanisms are essential to preventing forced labor, as they position workers, including migrant workers, to better protect themselves against coercion, deception, discrimination, and other forms of exploitation.

Promising Practices in Improving Labor Conditions 

Several examples stand out as raising labor conditions for workers.  

Dindigul Agreement, India

Indian women and the Dalit-worker led union Tamil Nadu Textile and Common Labor Union (TTCU) signed in April 2022 a historic agreement with clothing and textile manufacturers and major fashion companies to end gender-based violence and harassment at factories in the southern state of Tamil Nadu.  This enforceable brand agreement resulted in multinational companies committing to support a worker- or union-led program at certain factories or worksites.  An assessment a year later by the multi-stakeholder oversight committee found that the workers are now effectively able to detect, remediate, and prevent gender-based violence and harassment.  In addition, the TTCU has conducted peer education training of more than 2,000 workers and management, held more than 30 meetings with management to resolve grievances, and recruited 58 workers as monitors to help remediate gender-based violence and harassment throughout the factory units.

Freedom of Association for Garment Workers, Honduras 

In the decade that has followed Honduran workers signing an agreement with major brand Fruit of the Loom, close to 50 percent of all Honduran garment workers are now employed at a factory where an independent union represents the workforce.  As a result of this signed collective bargaining agreement, workers have won increased wages and benefits and witnessed a reduction in verbal harassment and gender-based violence.

While unionization rates vary considerably across the globe, the ILO notes other encouraging examples.  In Uzbekistan, trade unions have organized seasonal workers and facilitated dual affiliation to different unions in other countries.  In Moldova, unions have begun to establish agreements with unions in destination countries so that migrants have protection when working abroad .  In Benin, Botswana, and Mauritius, trade unions have set up Joint Trade Union Councils, which have drawn up joint declarations, charters, and protocols on the modalities of working together in national social dialogue fora.  In Lithuania and Ukraine, unions have established structures of cross-border collaboration to improve the recruitment and representation of truck drivers in both countries.  

Overall, research has also shown that unionization has spillover effects that extend beyond union workers.  Competition means workers at nonunionized firms also often see increased wages and improved workplace safety norms.  Union members improve communities through heightened civic engagement and increased voter rates.  Unions can also boost business’ productivity by giving experienced workers more input into decisions that design better, more cost-effective workplace procedures.

Milestones, Momentum, and Motivation   

Over the last several years, government and private sector attention has become focused on resilient supply chains, and there are increasing supply chain transparency and due diligence policies, regulations, and laws globally.  In addition, various initiatives have been developed to raise the importance of workers’ agency.  It is notable that flower-sector leader Bloomia’s entire cut-flower supply chain, which encompasses farms in the United States, Chile, and South Africa, will now be certified for human rights protections by the Fair Food Program, pioneers in the worker-driven social responsibility model with its partnerships among retailers, growers, and workers.  Combined, the Partnership for Workers‘ Rights, launched by the United States and Brazil at the 2023 UN General Assembly; the Multilateral Partnership for Worker Organizing, Empowerment, and Rights (M-POWER), which is part of the U.S. Presidential Initiative for Democratic Renewal; and the 2023 U.S. Presidential Memorandum on Advancing Worker Empowerment, Rights, and High Labor Standards present a unique opportunity to proactively advance worker empowerment in the short and long term while simultaneously preventing labor rights violations and abuses, especially forced labor.  The independent UN Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery made a key theme for 2024 the role of trade unions and worker organizations in preventing contemporary forms of slavery.

The timing is ideal for all stakeholders committed to preventing forced labor to fully embrace the importance of supporting, elevating, and improving labor standards, bringing workers’ voices to the policy formulation and decision-making table, and working to help the public and private sector enforce rules against unfair labor practices.  Governments should take every step to use a whole-of-government approach to advance worker rights and address gaps in labor rights protection and compliance, including for migrant workers; the private sector should see free and fair unions as critical partners in competing in the global economy while protecting workers; and other civil society  stakeholders should ensure that workers’ voices are incorporated early and often, especially when their equities are at stake.

• Human Trafficking in Cuba’s Labor Export Program

Each year, the Cuban government sends tens of thousands of workers around the globe under multi-year cooperation agreements negotiated with receiving countries.  While medical missions remain the most prevalent, the Cuban government also profited from other similarly coercive labor export programs, including those involving teachers, artists, athletes and coaches, engineers, forestry technicians, and nearly 7,000 merchant mariners worldwide.    According to a report published by the Cuban government, by the end of 2023, there were more than 22,000 government-affiliated Cuban workers in over 53 countries, and medical professionals composed 75 percent of its exported workforce.  The COVID-19 pandemic increased the need for medical workers in many places around the world, and the Cuban government used the opportunity to expand its reach by increasing the number of its medical personnel abroad through the Henry Reeve Brigades, which Cuba first initiated in 2005 to respond to natural disasters and epidemics.  Experts estimate the Cuban government collects $6 billion to $8 billion annually from its export of services, which includes the medical missions.  The labor export program remains the largest foreign revenue source for the Cuban government.

There are serious concerns with Cuba’s recruitment and retention practices surrounding the labor export program.  While the conditions of each international labor mission vary from country to country, the Cuban government subjects all government-affiliated workers to the same coercive laws.  Cuba has a government policy or pattern to profit from forced labor in the labor export program, which includes foreign medical missions.  The Cuban government labels workers who leave the program without completing it as “deserters,” a category that under Cuban immigration law deems them as “undesirable.”  The government bans workers labeled as “deserters” and “undesirables” from returning to Cuba for eight years, preventing them from visiting their families in Cuba.  It categorizes Cuban nationals who do not return to the country within 24 months as having “emigrated.”  Individuals who emigrate lose all their citizen protections, rights under Cuban law, and any property they left behind.  These government policies and legal provisions, taken together, coerce workers and punish those seeking to exercise freedom of movement.  According to credible sources, by 2021, the Cuban government had sanctioned 40,000 professionals under these provisions, and by 2022, there were approximately 5,000 children forcibly separated from their parents due to the government’s policies surrounding the program.

Complaints filed with the International Criminal Court and the UN indicate most workers did not volunteer for the program, some never saw a contract or knew their destination, many had their passports confiscated by Cuban officials once they arrived at their destination, and almost all had “minders” or overseers.  According to the complaints and survivors, Cuban heads of mission in the country subjected workers to surveillance, prevented them from freely associating with locals, and imposed a strict curfew.  Cuba also confiscated between 75 and 90 percent of each worker’s salary.  As a result of the well-founded complaints and information about the exploitative nature of Cuba’s labor export program, at the end of 2023, the UN Special Rapporteur for Contemporary Forms of Slavery filed a new communication outlining the persistent concerns with the program, particularly for Cuban workers in Italy, Qatar, and Spain.

While exploitation, including forced labor, of workers remains the primary concern with the program, Cuba’s practices can also negatively impact a host country’s healthcare system.  Survivors of the program have reported being forced by the Cuban in-country mission director to falsify medical records and misrepresent critical information to justify their presence and need to local authorities.  Some individuals reported discarding medications, fabricating names, and documenting medical procedures that never occurred.  When medical workers refused to comply with the demands of the Cuban in-country mission director, they faced punishment and retaliation.  While the Cuban government promotes workers as highly skilled medical professionals and specialists, these workers often lack adequate medical training to treat complex conditions.  These practices are unethical, negligent, exploitative, and risk the lives of those they serve.

Governments should make efforts to combat human trafficking, and this includes not purchasing goods or services made or provided with forced labor.  Governments that utilize Cuba’s labor export programs despite the serious concerns with the program should at a minimum conduct frequent and unannounced labor inspections to screen these workers for trafficking indicators and employ victim-centered interviewing techniques.  These host governments should ensure all Cuban workers are subject to the same laws, regulations, and protections as for other migrant workers and that they are not brought via a negotiated agreement with the Government of Cuba that limits these protections or exempts Cuban workers from Wage Protections Systems or other tools designed to strengthen transparency.  Officials should ensure workers maintain complete control of their passports and medical certifications and can provide proof of full salary payment to bank accounts under the workers’ control.  They should scrutinize medical reports produced by these workers, offer protection for those who face retaliation and punishment for terminating their employment, and raise awareness of trafficking risks for all foreign workers, including government-affiliated Cuban workers.

• Nothing About Us Without Us:   Human Trafficking and Persons with Disabilities

Human traffickers often take advantage of persons in vulnerable situations including individuals who lack access to services and programs or rely on the assistance of others.  Among this group of potential targets are persons with disabilities, who represent about 16 percent of the world’s population, or 1.3 billion people, according to the World Health Organization.

Of course, these 1.3 billion people are not monolithic.  Some people have a disability from birth; others experience disability later in their lifetime.  Some disabilities are life-long, and others may be temporary.  A disability can be visible, such as a physical disability, or non-apparent, such as an intellectual or psychosocial disability.  People with disabilities are of every age, race, sex and sex characteristics, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, economic status, and nationality.

Professors Andrea Nichols and Erin Heil have noted the “heightened risk as well as heightened prevalence” of human trafficking involving persons with disabilities, although the authors acknowledged the paucity of existing research.  Even when research about persons with disabilities is conducted, it rarely addresses additional intersecting identities, such as race, ethnicity, age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, or migratory status, that can exacerbate marginalization.

The intersection between disability and human trafficking can be cyclical.  On the one hand, persons with disabilities are more likely to be targeted by traffickers; on the other hand, the experience of being trafficked can lead to or exacerbate existing disabilities through physical injuries or emotional trauma that in turn could heighten vulnerability.

Even with access to support, persons with disabilities face increased risk of exploitation.  A caregiver may exploit their position to victimize the person they are assisting.  Persons with disabilities who receive financial assistance may be exploited for those benefits.  As the Human Trafficking Legal Center has explained with respect to the situation in the United States:  “While persons with disabilities may be trafficked into sex or labor, many cases include one additional element:  the theft of Social Security or disability benefits.  The opportunity to steal government benefits provides an added incentive for traffickers to target persons with disabilities.”  Persons with disabilities across the globe who receive benefits face similar challenges.

In light of this situation, it is perhaps not surprising that the centerpiece of the United States’ statutory framework to combat trafficking, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), was promulgated in part as a reaction to the Supreme Court’s decision in United States v. Kozminski , 487 U.S. 931 (1988), a case involving two men with intellectual disabilities held in what justices referred to as “slave-like” conditions on a farm.  In the case, the Court held that the law banning “involuntary servitude” was limited to circumstances involving “the compulsion of services by the use or threatened use of physical or legal coercion.”  However, Congress subsequently passed the TVPA, which recognized that psychological coercion and threats of nonviolent coercion can be every bit as powerful as physical force in overcoming the will of targeted individuals.

In 2009, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission brought a case involving Henry’s Turkey Service, which exploited 32 intellectually disabled men at a farm in Atalissa, Iowa.  For more than 30 years, the men endured physical and mental abuse and received virtually no pay.  The jury awarded the men what at the time was the largest-ever award in an employment-discrimination case – $240 million – although it was later reduced to $1.6 million due to a federal cap in the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Not only did the TVPA arise in part from trafficking crimes involving persons with disabilities, one of the first major trafficking prosecutions in the United States involved persons with disabilities.  In that case, dozens of immigrants with hearing disabilities, including young children, were forced to work 18-hour days as trinket vendors in New York City.  Traffickers targeted persons with disabilities who were also young migrants and did not speak English, exemplifying how disability can intersect with other forms of vulnerability.  Sadly, this form of exploitation of persons with disabilities continues to this day.

The TIP Report enhanced its coverage of the intersection of disability and trafficking, with the 2023 TIP Report referencing persons with disabilities in 65 country narratives, up from about 50 in the 2022 TIP Report.  These references also highlighted the existence or lack of specialized services for persons with disabilities who are victims of trafficking, and the particular challenges faced by persons with physical or intellectual disabilities.

The U.S. Department of State’s disability rights work is led by Special Advisor on International Disability Rights Sara Minkara.  In this appointed position, Ms. Minkara leads the comprehensive strategy to promote and protect the rights of persons with disabilities across U.S. foreign policy.  Special Advisor Minkara embodies the slogan “nothing about us without us,” which is often used by disability rights advocates to insist that persons with disabilities participate fully in policies affecting them.  The role of Special Advisor on International Disability Rights was first held by Judy Heumann, who served in the position from 2010 to 2017 and is widely regarded as the “mother of the disability rights movement.”  Sadly, Ms. Heumann passed away in March 2023, leaving behind an indelible legacy of disability advocacy in the United States and around the world.

From left:  Former Special Advisor on International Disability Rights (SAIDR) Judy Heumann, SAIDR Sara Minkara, and Special Assistant to the Special Advisor Hanah Nasri attend a celebration of the anniversary of the Americans with Disabilities Act at the official residence of the Vice President of the United States in July 2022.  Photo courtesy of Hanah Nasri. (Photo was published in State Magazine in March 2023:  https://statemag.state.gov/2023/05/0523office/ ) .

• Key Trafficking Issues in the Western Hemisphere Region

Human trafficking manifests itself differently around the world.  In the Western Hemisphere – North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean – there are broad commonalities in trafficking trends countries face and how their governments and authorities approach the crime.  Below is an overview of shared issues in the region to illustrate the overall situation and coordinate the anti-trafficking efforts of governments and other stakeholders .  These regional issues are extrapolated from the individual narratives for the countries in the region, including the United States.

Unprecedented irregular migration in the region affects all Western Hemisphere countries.  Migrants and asylum seekers are especially vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labor, including by large and small organized criminal groups.  Migrants who rely on migrant smugglers are at particularly high risk of exploitation as many assume debt to pay migrant smugglers.  Irregular migration may also include individuals already exploited by traffickers, as victims may be motivated to migrate and seek protection elsewhere.  While some countries enacted policies aimed at reducing migrants’ vulnerability to trafficking by providing temporary residency and access to formal employment, education, healthcare, and other services, we encourage all countries faced with irregular migration challenges to prevent trafficking and prioritize screening among migrants.

Countries across the region generally have a good understanding of and response to sex trafficking, especially in identification of women who are victims.  Governments also undertake and emphasize the importance of law enforcement and criminal justice approaches to address trafficking, even if implementation is uneven.  Many governments seek to tackle both internal and transnational human trafficking.  In broad terms, there is political will in many countries to address human trafficking, particularly sex trafficking.

Weak efforts targeting forced labor remain a concern in the Western Hemisphere.  Governments generally focus on addressing sex trafficking and have weaker, poorly enumerated procedures to prosecute labor traffickers and protect victims of forced labor.  Labor inspectorates are underfunded and understaffed and typically have limited or no authority to inspect informal sector worksites where many victims are exploited, especially along changing migration routes.  Governments’ lack of attention to labor trafficking leaves victims unprotected in multiple sectors, including agriculture , mining , logging, maritime, and service .

Traffickers also exploit many victims in forced criminality .  Organized crime groups, including gangs and illegal armed groups, exploit girls in child sex trafficking, force children into street begging, forcibly recruit or use child soldiers, and coerce and threaten young men and women to transport drugs, commit extortion, act as lookouts, or commit acts of violence, including murder.  Organized crime groups target groups of migrants unable to enter a country due to border restrictions or awaiting asylum decisions, including at the U.S.-Mexico border.  State-sponsored forced labor is also a concern, specifically Cuba’s labor export program, including its medical missions – which the Cuban government continues to profit from by subjecting workers to forced labor and exploitation.

Gaps in trafficking victim protection are another broad concern in the Western Hemisphere.  For years governments have lacked (or failed to provide the necessary) financial and human resources to screen for and identify trafficking victims and provide them trauma-informed services.  Some governments have developed policies and protocols for screening victims and referring them to care, but implementation has been inconsistent or ineffective.  In addition, governmental interagency coordination is weak, with working groups often disjointed and disempowered, which is particularly detrimental to the cross-sectoral collaboration needed for victim protection efforts.  These problems are particularly notable among migrants, whom governments rarely screen for trafficking indicators.

Furthermore, governments make weak screening and identification efforts even with underserved populations and marginalized groups recognized as at high risk to trafficking, including Afro-descendant, Indigenous, and LGBTQI+ persons, as well as members of other ethnic and linguistic minorities, migrants, refugees, and displaced persons.  These populations also frequently experience discrimination from authorities, often making them fearful to report crimes or access care and justice.  Finally, there are insufficient trafficking-specific services for victims, particularly for men and boys, in most countries across the region.  Governments refer identified trafficking victims to support systems designed to serve other populations, such as migrants, individuals experiencing homelessness, or victims of gender-based violence, which do not meet the specific needs of trafficking victims.  Similarly, access to justice and services is concentrated in large urban areas, while the most vulnerable individuals frequently live in rural areas with limited government presence.  Lack of victim-centered and trauma-informed services can hinder victim identification, prevent healing, increase risk of re-trafficking, and fuel impunity by making survivors less likely to participate in the case against their traffickers.

Criminal justice responses and definitions of trafficking are concerning across the region.  Many governments have weaknesses in their legal systems and uneven judicial application of trafficking laws, including levying fines in lieu of imprisonment for trafficking crimes, imposing penalties not commensurate with those for other crimes, and failing to criminalize all forms of child sex trafficking.  Judges, in particular, may lack adequate training in applying trafficking laws and coercive methods traffickers use, which impacts their decisions and sentences.  Impunity for trafficking crimes fosters misperceptions about trafficking among both policymakers and the public.  Inadequate law enforcement efforts and insufficient capacity-building for law enforcement and other first responders hinders or impacts efforts in low-capacity countries , especially in the Caribbean.  Governments with limited resources often do not recognize or implement low-cost/high-impact anti-trafficking policies.  Official complicity within law enforcement, the prison system, and local government facilitates trafficking crimes across some governments, but criminal prosecution of complicit officials lags behind the already low number of convictions of other traffickers.  Child sex trafficking and extraterritorial commercial child sexual exploitation and abuse are also pervasive concerns, particularly due to the increased use of social media and online platforms to recruit victims.  Many officials conflate human trafficking with other crimes, including migrant smuggling, child labor, sexual violence against children, illegal commercial sex, and illegal adoption.  Because of this confusion, governments may misidentify trafficking victims, fail to give them adequate support, and therefore underreport trafficking crimes.  These problems lead to inadequate data collection and reporting on human trafficking and, therefore, an incomplete understanding of the extent of the crime in the hemisphere.

• A Framework for Balancing Prosecution, Prevention, and Victim Protection Priorities in Criminal Justice Systems

Holding human traffickers accountable is an essential component of the Palermo Protocol’s “3P” paradigm of prosecuting traffickers, protecting victims, and preventing the crime.   Prosecutions make powerful statements that human trafficking will not be tolerated, and perpetrators will be held accountable, and because it is important to recognize that prosecution, protection, and prevention efforts are all inextricably intertwined.   Victims are better able to assist in investigations and prosecutions when they have access to robust protections, and successful prosecutions protect individual victims from revictimization in addition to preventing the convicted trafficker from exploiting others.

Supporting victims throughout the criminal justice process is critical.   Cases often move slowly, leaving victims anxious about the uncertainty of the outcome, fearful of retaliation, re-traumatized by having to recount traumatic events, frustrated by proceedings that can disrupt their lives, and embarrassed, ashamed, or ostracized when information about their victimization becomes public.   These feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, trauma, frustration, and fear can be further intensified by the distrust of authorities that traffickers often instill and manipulate to compel victims’ silence and their compliance with the traffickers’ commands.   Victims often experience conflicting pressures from authorities encouraging them to cooperate, traffickers seeking to silence them, and their own efforts to put traumatic events behind them.   For some survivors, the opportunity to speak out, be believed, and play an active role in bringing traffickers to justice can be empowering and vindicating.   Yet for many, the process can be harrowing, especially when they do not receive sufficient services and support.

The difficulties victims often experience during investigations and prosecutions can further intensify the challenges authorities face when seeking to hold perpetrators accountable, protect their communities, and prevent traffickers from harming others.   In striving to bring traffickers to justice without unduly burdening, re-traumatizing, or endangering victims, prosecutors continually balance the interests of justice, public safety, and protection of the community with the rights and interests of individual victims.   Successful strategies for navigating these challenges will inevitably vary to some extent according to the relevant laws and criminal justice systems across various jurisdictions but the promising practices highlighted below can aid in effectively balancing these complex considerations in a wide range of contexts.   The end goal is to enhance support for victims and decrease the burdens they experience during the criminal justice process regardless of whether they are testifying — while also strengthening investigations and prosecutions to increase accountability for traffickers.

Vigorous Victim Protections at All Stages of the Criminal Justice Process

The best way for authorities to support human trafficking survivors is to ensure the provision and continuity of comprehensive services at all stages of the criminal justice process, including in coordination with civil society organizations who specialize in victim services.   Children survivors require specialized care and interventions.   Robust victim protections, including comprehensive victim-centered, trauma-informed services, are essential to support victims in rebuilding their lives, providing the security and stability they need to safely participate in the criminal justice process, and enabling them to recall and recount their experience.   Such services should include access to identity documents, mental health and medical services, housing, and other forms of relief to support physical and mental healing.   In addition, survivors should have access to legal support and services, ideally through an independent legal advocate.   This support should be tailored to assist the survivor with a range of legal needs, whether related to navigating the investigation and prosecution of the criminal case against the trafficker, to immigration relief, or other legal matters.

Investigators, prosecutors, and victim service providers should collaborate closely to ensure that the victim is stabilized and supported before expecting meaningful participation in the criminal justice process.   Trauma can impede a victim’s ability to recall and recount relevant events, so investigators and prosecutors should develop advanced expertise in victim-centered, trauma-informed, culturally appropriate methods for stabilizing survivors, building rapport, and conducting effective interviews.   Effective interviewing may entail consistent use of professional interpreters to ensure clarity of communication and often benefits from the use of specialized techniques that incorporate the expertise of survivor leaders.   These practices can make the victim’s participation in the process less burdensome and traumatic.   They can also strengthen prosecutions by eliciting more accurate statements, minimizing discrepancies that could later be used to attack the victim’s credibility, and enabling the victim to provide more detailed information that could lead to other sources of evidence.

Protection and services for trafficking victims should not be conditioned on whether the trafficker is charged or convicted.   In cases where a foreign victim chooses to return to their home country, relocation assistance should be provided and authorities should proceed with prosecutions involving repatriated victims when possible, by having them present evidence virtually where authorized by law or by funding their return travel for court proceedings as necessary.   Access to comprehensive support is not only in the best interest of survivors- it also increases the likelihood they will feel sufficiently safe and empowered to assist in the investigation and prosecution.   Whether survivors testify against the trafficker or provide more limited assistance to law enforcement, support for their long-term well-being should be a priority even after the case is closed.

Developing Evidence to Decrease Reliance on Victim Testimony

Another best practice in prosecuting trafficking cases is the use of strategic investigative processes to develop evidence that supports the statements or testimony of trafficking survivors.   In human trafficking prosecutions, every piece of evidence counts because each piece of corroborating evidence is important to reduce reliance on victim testimony, preventing undue credibility attacks, and to increase the likelihood of conviction.

All human trafficking victims who provide statements, declarations, or testimony are inevitably subjected to credibility challenges, whether by jurists in inquisitorial systems that decide whether the victim’s statements are sufficiently reliable or by the defense in adversarial systems.   Victims’ credibility is often scrutinized based on issues such as delays in reporting their victimization, trauma-related inconsistencies in recalling and recounting certain details, or involvement in unlawful acts related to their victimization.   Corroborating evidence can be essential to countering such credibility attacks, increasing the likelihood of the victim’s statements or testimony being believed, and leading to higher rates of convictions.   Investigators and prosecutors should engage in early and continuous collaboration to assess ways to pursue other sources of evidence beyond victim testimony and to corroborate available statements and evidence through sources such as electronic records, physical evidence, and other potential witnesses.

In some cases, other admissible evidence uncovered during a thorough investigation may minimize the need for victim testimony and can become essential to enabling a prosecution to proceed even if the victim is not able to participate in the trial.   Even evidence that provides only limited circumstantial corroboration of one small aspect of a trafficker’s conduct can, when combined with other evidence, provide significant substantiation of a survivor’s account.   Investigators and prosecutors should clearly communicate to survivors that they are not “responsible” for the successful investigation and prosecution, that services and protections are not dependent on the outcome of the criminal case, and that authorities are responsible for gathering relevant evidence from all available sources.   Such evidence can also significantly reduce the burdens felt by the victim and the risks of re-traumatization associated with participating as a witness.

Victim-Centered, Trauma-Informed Charging and Prosecution Practices

One of a prosecutor’s most serious responsibilities is to utilize all available avenues to protect the victim and prevent witness intimidation efforts that could compromise both the victim’s sense of safety and the integrity of the investigation.   Such avenues include seeking court orders, including restraining orders, orders of protection, and no-contact orders to prohibit the defendant from attempting to contact the victim either directly or indirectly.   They also include working with law enforcement and victim advocates to prepare a safety plan and document any attempted contact.   Prosecutors should encourage survivors to seek help from a trusted point of contact with the police or other authorities and to immediately disclose to the prosecutor or advocate any attempt by the traffickers to contact them.   Documented attempts to contact or intimidate the victim should be used in appropriate instances to bring additional obstruction-of-justice or witness tampering charges and may be relevant to explain a victim’s reluctance to cooperate as a witness or recant earlier statements.   Proof of the trafficker’s efforts to contact the victim may also allow the prosecutor to introduce otherwise inadmissible evidence.

Even if the survivor is able and willing to testify, the prosecutor should introduce corroborating evidence to bolster and support their testimony, which is especially important when a survivor’s trauma has caused inconsistency in their statements or memory.   Prosecutors may also consider using expert testimony in appropriate instances to explain the impacts of trauma on memory and recall.   Admissible evidence may include the survivor’s medical records, testimony from first responders or other witnesses to relevant incidents, certain statements made by the accused, electronic messages, physical evidence recovered from relevant locations, and video recordings.   Additional evidence gathered using well-designed and implemented strategic investigative processes can in some instances serve, when possible, as a substitute for the victim’s critical testimony, either completely or on select issues, if the victim becomes unavailable or has difficulty testifying effectively.

Unfortunately, despite all efforts to develop other evidence, some cases of the underlying trafficking offenses cannot proceed without the testimony of the victim.   In those instances, certain practices can be used to pursue prosecutions and accountability while minimizing undue burdens and adverse impacts on survivors.   Prosecutors can strategically focus charges on the most readily provable aspects of the criminal conduct such as assaults, threats, financial crimes, possession of illicit images, or witness tampering, which may be less reliant on victim testimony but may still provide significant opportunities to hold offenders accountable.   Prosecutors can also seek to resolve cases through guilty pleas in appropriate instances to secure substantial justice without the need for victim testimony at trial.

When a victim does need to testify, prosecutors should file all applicable motions to limit the scope of their testimony to relevant facts and preclude inappropriate cross-examination about the victim’s prior bad acts or sexual history.   When allowed by law, prosecutors should consider seeking the court’s permission to present the victim’s testimony virtually or in any other manner that preserves the defendant’s right to confront the accuser while physically separating the victim from the defendant.   Victim services and security should be provided throughout all stages of trial preparation, trial, and sentencing.

Human trafficking survivors with lived experience are uniquely positioned to provide insight, guidance, and expertise on establishing appropriate support systems, strategic investigative processes, and prosecutorial practices that allow victims to be heard and supported at all stages of investigations and prosecutions.   Incorporating survivor-informed expertise is essential to providing the security, stability, and support survivors need to participate safely and effectively as witnesses, while reducing the burdens and risks of re-traumatization often associated with the criminal justice process and strengthening efforts to hold traffickers accountable.

• The Intersection of Forced Marriage and Human Trafficking

The question of whether forced marriage constitutes a human trafficking crime is complex, and the answer can vary depending on the circumstances of the forced marriage and the applicable national laws.

Governments around the world have taken different approaches to the issue, both in terms of the laws they have enacted and of the way those laws are implemented in practice.   While the governing international law on trafficking in persons, the UN TIP Protocol, allows for flexibility in how State Parties criminalize human trafficking under domestic legislation, establishing exploitative intent is critical to considering whether the conduct constitutes trafficking in persons.

What is forced marriage?

The 2022 update to the U.S. Strategy to Prevent and Respond to Gender-Based Violence Globally defines forced marriage as a marriage at any age that occurs without the free and full consent of both parties, including anyone under the age of 18 who is not able to give full consent.   Forced marriage may occur when family members or others use physical or emotional abuse, threats, fraud, or deception to obtain an individual’s agreement.   In such cases, an individual cannot be considered to have consented to the marriage.   The terms “early marriage” and “child marriage” are often used interchangeably to refer to any marriage in which at least one of the parties has not attained the age of 18.   There is overwhelming evidence that child, early, and forced marriages can increase individuals’ vulnerability to future exploitation and abuse – with long-term consequences for their health, wellbeing, safety, and opportunities.

Is Forced Marriage a Form of Trafficking under International Law?

Article 3 of the UN TIP Protocol defines “trafficking in persons” to require three essential elements—an act, conducted using one or more means, for an exploitative purpose.   Article 3 does not list forced marriage explicitly as a form of exploitation; instead, it provides that “exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.”   Accordingly, when a forced marriage involves any of the acts, means, and purposes of exploitation listed in Article 3, it would be considered trafficking under the UN TIP Protocol.   For example, forced marriages that also involve forced labor or services, or slavery or practices similar to slavery would also be trafficking in persons if the relevant acts and means are present.   However, the non-exhaustive list of forms of exploitation in Article 3 allows State Parties to decide to expand the list of forms of exploitation within their own domestic definition of trafficking in line with the purpose and scope.

While the UN TIP Protocol does not explicitly include forced marriage within the definition of trafficking, many stakeholders argue that if all the elements of trafficking are present (i.e., there is an act, a prohibited means, done for the purpose of exploiting another person), it should not matter that the exploitation takes the form of a forced marriage.   These stakeholders point to the identical practices used by unscrupulous recruiters who are paid by business owners or prospective husbands to deceive and obtain the consent of individuals to marry “loving wealthy husbands” or accept “lucrative job offers,” in both instances only to leave victims trapped and exploited.

Countries that have chosen to include forced marriage within their domestic definitions of trafficking, either explicitly or implicitly, have taken three common approaches:

Forced Marriage Included as a Form of Exploitation

By leaving the list of forms of exploitation under Article 3 open-ended, the UN TIP Protocol allows State Parties to choose to expand the list of forms of exploitation included under domestic anti-trafficking laws.   As such, some countries have chosen to include forced marriage as an exploitative purpose under their respective anti-trafficking laws.   Several countries have taken this approach, including, but not limited to: Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Cambodia, Chad, Costa Rica, Croatia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Haiti, Kenya, Lithuania, Nicaragua, North Macedonia, Seychelles, and Uganda.

“Practices Similar to Slavery” Interpreted to Include Some Forms of Forced Marriage

Other countries interpret the inclusion of “practices similar to slavery” within Article 3 of the UN TIP Protocol to include certain forms of forced marriage.   “Practices similar to slavery” is defined in the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery.   Under Article 1(c) of this convention, “practices similar to slavery” refers to, inter alia, “Any institution or practice whereby: (i) A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or (ii) The husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person for value received or otherwise; or (iii) A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person …”   For countries that use this definition of “practices similar to slavery” to interpret the scope of the definition of trafficking in persons under the UN TIP Protocol, some, but not all, forms of forced marriage could constitute trafficking in persons.

Forced Marriage and Trafficking in Persons as Distinct Crimes .

It is also worth mentioning that there are many countries that choose to address forced marriage and trafficking in persons as separate offenses.   In its 2020 Issue Paper “Interlinkages Between Trafficking in Persons and Marriage,” the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) acknowledges the viability of these different approaches and explains that there is “no one-size-fits-all approach to most effectively counter cases involving interlinkages between trafficking in persons and marriage.”

Establishing Exploitative Intent is Critical in All Approaches

At the heart of the question of whether a forced marriage constitutes a human trafficking crime is the question of whether the intention was to exploit a person or persons through the marriage.   Recently, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union recognized the gravity of and increasing linkages between forced marriages and human trafficking. They formally adopted a directive noting that the exploitation of forced marriages “fall[s] within the scope of offenses concerning trafficking in human beings…to the extent that all the criteria constituting those offenses are fulfilled.”

While States that choose explicitly to include forced marriage within their definition of exploitation, or implicitly, through the inclusion of “practices similar to slavery,” consider “forced marriage as inherently exploitative,” such an interpretation is neither required nor shared by all States.   As UNODC explains,

…cultural and national contexts are relevant in determining exploitation, especially in relation to forced and servile marriage.   Cultural and other context-specific factors can play a role in shaping perception of what constitutes exploitative conduct for the purposes of establishing that trafficking has occurred.

Marriages generally involve domestic work and sexual relations between spouses, neither of which is generally understood to constitute abuse or exploitation.   However, there are circumstances in which individuals may be exploited in connection with each of these under the guise of marital obligations.   Taking into consideration the cultural and national contexts in which marriages transpire is a complex but necessary task when determining whether all three elements of a human trafficking offense are present in a case involving forced marriage.

While it is understood forced marriage is inherently harmful, rooted in gender inequality, and can often dramatically increase the risks of individuals to trafficking in persons, gender-based violence (GBV), and other abuses or crimes, it is important to acknowledge there may be circumstances in which a forced marriage has occurred, but the offense of human trafficking has not, because the purpose of the marriage was not to exploit another individual.   For example, in some communities, even an untruthful allegation of sexual indiscretion or promiscuity can irreparably damage a girl’s prospects of marriage or place her in physical danger.  Parents in these communities may attempt to protect their daughters by marrying them at a young age to avoid such allegations and safeguard their reputations.  Similarly, families who live in refugee camps or other unstable situations where there is high prevalence of multiple forms of violence, including GVB, may view marriage as a protective mechanism that will prevent their daughters from being victims of physical or sexual violence or offer them greater economic security.   In these instances, such marriages commonly occur without an individual giving their full, free, and informed agreement to marry.   By definition, such an arrangement would constitute a forced marriage and depending on the country, potentially a violation of domestic criminal laws.   However, if no one involved in arranging the marriage (not the spouse, parents, matchmaker, etc.) is participating for the purpose of exploiting the individual , then the necessary elements of trafficking in persons are not met.   Other crimes or human rights abuses may have occurred and should be addressed, but the specific crime of human trafficking has not occurred because the marriage was not for the purpose of exploitation.   To the contrary, taking into account the relevant cultural and social norms, these actors may believe they are acting in the best interest of the individual.   As in all criminal cases, the knowledge and intent of the individual matters and therefore, in the case of forced marriages as a potential trafficking crime, one must consider if an individual intended to exploit someone, or whether they intended, even misguidedly and mistakenly, to do what was believed to be in the individual’s best interest.   These complicated dynamics must be determined in other trafficking contexts as well.

Therefore, when allegations of forced marriage are presented, they must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine whether they constitute trafficking in persons.   Such an assessment neither legitimizes forced marriage nor detracts from serious concerns around such practices.   Rather, it simply ensures the appropriate criminal prosecution, protection, and prevention responses are utilized to address the conduct in question because, as UNODC explains, “….qualifying a particular type of conduct as trafficking in persons has extensive consequences for both the alleged perpetrators and victims of the crime.”

* NOTE:   U.S. law does not explicitly recognize forced marriage as a “severe form of trafficking in persons” or reference it in criminal trafficking laws.   Therefore, forced marriage, per se, is not automatically considered a form of trafficking in persons under U.S. law.   The facts and circumstances of the forced marriage must be considered to determine whether the conduct falls under a relevant definition or legal provision.   Generally, if the person forced to marry is also compelled to work or to engage in commercial sex, then the forced marriage would likely fall within the definition of trafficking in persons and be a crime under U.S. law.   Because the definition of “severe forms of trafficking in persons” established under the Trafficking Victims Protection Act governs the Department’s minimum standard assessments for the purposes of the TIP Report, the Department accordingly includes governments’ efforts to combat forced marriage if there is credible evidence that those efforts address forced marriage in which the objective of the marriage was to exploit another person for labor or services or commercial sex.

An Example of When a Forced Marriage Involved Human Trafficking:   United States of America v. Zahida Aman, et al.

In United States of America v. Zahida Aman, et al., the United States successfully prosecuted and convicted three individuals for trafficking crimes relating to a forced marriage.   On January 24, 2023, the traffickers were sentenced to five, ten, and 12 years of imprisonment, respectively, and ordered to pay restitution to the victim.   The case serves as an example of how forced marriage and human trafficking can intersect and result in complex and devastating exploitation of vulnerable individuals, as abuse often goes undetected for long periods of time due to its hidden nature within the confines of familial relationships.

A federal jury sitting in Richmond, Virginia, found defendants Zahida Aman, Mohammad Nauman Chaudhri, and Mohammad Rehan Chaudhri guilty of conspiracy to commit forced labor for compelling the domestic labor of a Pakistani woman for 12 years.   The jury further found defendant Aman guilty of forced labor and document servitude, and defendant Rehan Chaudhri guilty of forced labor.

According to the evidence presented in court, defendant Zahida Aman arranged for her son’s marriage to the victim in 2001.   The victim moved to the United States and lived in a house in Midlothian, Virginia, with her husband and the three defendants (the husband’s mother and his two brothers).   The defendants compelled the victim to serve the family as a domestic servant, using physical and verbal abuse, restricting communication with her family in Pakistan, confiscating her immigration documentation and money, and eventually threatening to separate her from her children by deporting her to Pakistan.

The defendants slapped, kicked, and pushed the victim, even beat her with wooden boards, and on one occasion hog-tied her hands and feet and dragged her down the stairs in front of her children.   Even after the victim’s husband moved away, the defendants kept the victim in their Virginia home, often forcing her to perform increasingly laborious tasks… 

The evidence further showed that the defendants required the victim to work every day, beginning early each morning.   They restricted her food, forbade her from learning to drive or speaking to anyone except the defendants’ family members and prohibited her from calling her family in Pakistan.

Press Release, U.S. Department of Justice

• 2024 TIP REPORT HEROES

This year marks a major milestone—the 20th anniversary of the TIP Report Heroes awards program.   Each year, the Department of State honors individuals around the world who have devoted their lives to the fight against human trafficking.   These individuals include NGO workers, lawmakers, government officials, survivors of human trafficking, and concerned citizens.   They are recognized for their tireless efforts—despite some working in challenging environments where human trafficking concerns remain pervasive and facing resistance, opposition, or threats to their lives—to protect victims, punish offenders, and mitigate the underlying factors that cause vulnerabilities traffickers often target.

For more information about current and past TIP Report Heroes, please visit the TIP Report Heroes Global Network at www.tipheroes.org .

Al Amin Noyon Manager BRAC Migration Centre

Md. Al-Amin, or Noyon, is a welcoming first face to trafficking survivors and migrants as they return to Bangladesh.  As a fellow trafficking survivor, Noyon is uniquely qualified and motivated to help them rebuild their lives. In his capacity as manager of the BRAC Migration Welfare Centre onsite at the Dhaka airport, Noyon has supported more than 34,000 Bangladeshi trafficking survivors and migrants over the last 15 years.

Born to a family of modest means, Noyon’s dream of a better life turned into a nightmare when he was exploited in trafficking in Malaysia in 2007, beaten, tortured, and held captive in the jungle.  But as the 41-year-old now shares, that is not how his story ends.  His motivation to support fellow survivors has long motivated him to serve as a member of ANIRBAN (‘the flame that will not fade ‘ ), a trafficking support platform made up of survivors who raise awareness about human trafficking and advocate for survivors and their rights.

Noyon believes education is one of the best ways to insulate Bangladesh’s next generation from the perils of human trafficking.  He assists with safe migration campaigns at schools across Bangladesh and has supported thousands of students whose families are migrants or trafficking survivors secure academic scholarships.

Known by anti-trafficking stakeholders in the Bangladesh government, multilateral organizations, and likeminded partners, Noyon steadfastly supports others despite very real risks to his own safety.

Marcela Martinez Activist/Lawyer

Ms. Martinez is an accomplished Bolivian lawyer from La Paz and a leading anti-trafficking activist, who has demonstrably changed the direction of Bolivian and regional efforts to combat trafficking in persons, providing hope for families affected by human trafficking in Bolivia.

In 2017, Ms. Martinez formed the Social Responsibility Area of her law firm, from which the #RedAlertTempranaZar 🦋 hashtag operates.  This hashtag is modeled after the Amber Alert system in the United States to help activate searches for victims in Bolivia.  They also provide training, talks, workshops, and prevention webinars to schools, universities, neighborhood associations, and other civil society organizations.  To date, more than 18,000 volunteers participate in the network and have helped authorities locate more than 150 victims.

Ms. Martinez’s work has been instrumental in the prosecution of traffickers, protection of survivors, and prevention of victims.  She helped draft and lobbied for the passage of the first comprehensive Bolivian national law that gives law enforcement and prosecutors new tools and resources to combat trafficking in persons.  She also created the National Trafficking in Persons Council to coordinate all Bolivian government efforts to fight human trafficking.

She was part of the NinaSonko Heart of Fire Women’s Circle, which provides support and holistic and business coaching to survivors of trafficking and violence and supports social reintegration.  She has also served as a trainer through UNODC, training judges, prosecutors, and police officers on victim care at the national level.  Through her tireless efforts, Ms. Martinez has reduced human trafficking in Bolivia.

Maria Werlau Founder/Executive Director Free Society Project

Maria Werlau is co-founder and Executive Director of Free Society Project, also known as Cuba Archive, a non-profit think tank that defends human rights through information.  She began in 2009 researching, documenting, and denouncing exploitation and forced labor in Cuba’s labor export program and advocating for its victims and survivors.  In 2010, she published her first academic work on the issue and authored an opinion piece in The Wall Street Journal denouncing the labor export program as a trafficking scheme benefiting the Cuban government.  At the time, Cuba’s “internationalism” was mostly known from the slanted narrative of altruistic solidarity.

Since then, Maria has interviewed dozens of Cuban workers, mostly doctors coerced to work across the globe.  Through her work at Cuba Archive, she has exposed the dark aspects of Cuba’s medical missions, emphasizing the abuses faced by the workers: violence, sexual harassment, family separation, exploitation, forced labor, wage confiscation, restriction of movement, passport retention, repression, forced exile, psychological trauma, loss of life, and more.  She has also documented and exposed the labor export program’s lesser-known impact on the public health systems of Cuba and host countries, as well as its economic, political, and geostrategic value to the Cuban regime.

Maria has authored numerous works on Cuba in English and Spanish, including on healthcare, and provided expert testimony on Cuban labor trafficking to the U.S. Congress and at the OAS and the European Parliament.

Mustafa Ridha Mustafa al-Yasiri Director – Anti-Human Trafficking Directorate Ministry of Interior

Brigadier General Mustafa Ridha Mustafa al-Yasiri has courageously worked in Iraq’s Ministry of Interior (MOI) to combat trafficking in persons throughout a career dedicated to defending Iraq’s most vulnerable.  Brigadier General Mustafa vastly improved the Government of Iraq’s efforts to combat trafficking in persons and enhanced services for women trafficking victims, only months after being appointed in March 2023 as the Director of MOI’s Anti-Human Trafficking Directorate.  With support from the Minister of Interior, Brigadier General Mustafa immediately increased government resources dedicated to fighting trafficking in persons; appointed women Trafficking in Persons officers and employees to better assist trafficking victims; and appointed new investigative officers and officials knowledgeable on trafficking in persons, victim identification, and violence against women.  Together with the Iraqi judiciary, Mustafa established a strategy to identify victims more accurately and better address sexual exploitation and other forms of trafficking.

In addition, Brigadier General Mustafa worked with hiring companies to ensure they publish and display signs detailing Iraqi workers’ rights and the MOI’s Trafficking in Persons hotline.  On a weekly basis, he visited shelters to speak with victims, compile lists of needed food and hygienic and medical supplies, and help victims make calls to their families.  He also personally accompanied trafficking victims to court to help with their hearings and legal procedures.  Every day, motivated by personal conviction, Brigadier General Mustafa is realizing a professional goal to serve and protect many of the most vulnerable citizens of Iraq.

Edith Murogo Founder/Chief Executive Officer Centre for Domestic Training and Development

Edith Murogo is a beacon of hope on the frontlines of the fight against human trafficking and labor exploitation.  When Edith started training domestic workers more than two decades ago, she met victims of human trafficking and gender-based violence.  This experience prompted her to pioneer initiatives that transformed anti-trafficking efforts in Kenya.

After establishing the Centre for Domestic Training and Development (CDTD) in 2001, Edith became a leading advocate for domestic workers’ rights and lobbied the government for strengthened protections of migrant workers.  Edith initiated training to professionalize domestic workers and convinced the government to develop the curriculum and establish a certificate program for domestic workers seeking employment abroad.  Since opening, CDTD has assisted over 50,000 domestic workers with advocacy, skills, and knowledge to prevent them from becoming victims of trafficking.

In 2012, Edith opened the Talia Agler Girls Shelter (TAGS) – a safe house providing comprehensive assistance to girls and young women, especially for survivors of sexual and gender-based violence exploited in human trafficking. TAGS has assisted over 1,000 girls with removal from trafficking situations, recovery, and reintegration support services as well as education, mentorship, and leadership opportunities.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Edith established Kenya’s National Shelters Network to coordinate shelter services across Kenya and ensure all survivors receive crucial protection services.  Edith is a tireless advocate working with government and civil society to strengthen anti-trafficking laws and responses.  The Department of Labor and BBC have highlighted her work in several documentaries about human trafficking.

Oumou Elkhairou Niaré Samaké Coordinator National Integrated Program for the Fight Against Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime; National Committee for the Fight Against Trafficking in Persons and Similar Practices

Oumou Elkhairou Niaré Samaké (Oumou), a well-known Malian magistrate, currently serves as the coordinator of Mali’s National Integrated Program for the Fight against Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime and as Coordinator of the National Committee for the Fight Against Trafficking in Persons and Similar Practices.  Oumou is a fierce advocate for human rights, gender-based violence, and trafficking in persons issues.  She has spearheaded Mali’s recent adoption of a new Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons; championed the development of Mali’s new draft penal code to criminalize trafficking in persons; and fought to increase prosecutions over the past year of hereditary slavery cases.

In 2020 and 2021, the Trafficking in Persons Committee became relatively inactive.  However, upon her appointment in 2022, Oumou reinvigorated Mali’s anti-trafficking efforts.  First, she reestablished regular coordination meetings and published the Trafficking in Persons Committee’s overdue 2021 and 2022 annual reports.  Next, she spearheaded the development, drafting, and adoption of Mali’s new National Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in persons, launched in October 2023.  She has maintained high level standard of contacts with partners, donors, and national and international stakeholders in the fight against trafficking in persons and hereditary slavery.

Samson Inocencio Jr. Vice President International Justice Mission Philippines Program Against Online Sexual Exploitation of Children

Samson “Sam” Inocencio has dedicated over 20 years to combating trafficking in persons through his work with the International Justice Mission (IJM) Philippines.  He has contributed to 147 convictions for commercial sexual exploitation and 220 for online sexual exploitation (OSEC) crimes since 2005.  After becoming National Director of IJM in 2016, Sam assisted in the removal of 544 children from situations of commercial sexual exploitation and 1,237 children who were at risk of OSEC.

Sam led IJM’s efforts under the U.S.-Philippine Child Protection Compact (CPC) Partnership to combat OSEC crimes and advocated for a 347 percent budget increase for the Philippine National Police – Women and Children Protection Center.  As IJM’s representative to the Government of the Philippines’ Interagency Council Against Trafficking, Sam has assisted the Philippines in its efforts to combat the commercial sexual exploitation of children and OSEC related crimes, to hold offenders accountable in courts of law, and to safeguard Filipino children.

He collaborated with the Government of the Philippines in 2016 to develop a “roadmap to Tier 1” in the U.S. Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report.  The Philippines has been ranked Tier 1 for eight years due to the merits of its efforts.  Sam’s leadership and dedicated service have strengthened the government and civil society’s response to trafficking and protected thousands, especially children, from exploitation.

Marijana Savić Founder/Director Atina

Marijana Savić, the founder and director of NGO Atina, is an activist dedicated to advancing women’s and girls’ rights.  For over two decades, she has provided vital support and recovery programs for survivors of trafficking and gender-based violence in Serbia.  Her efforts have led to important progress in policy reform to combat human trafficking and support women and girls, who were victims of commercial sexual exploitation.

Under Marijana’s guidance, Atina has become a pivotal organization in Serbia’s anti-trafficking sector.  Marijana also actively contributes by helping integrates survivor experiences into law and human rights policies, in Serbia and abroad.  Her commitment extends to economic empowerment through the social enterprise Bagel Bejgl, which she founded in 2015.  This initiative – which provides employment to trafficking survivors – supports Atina’s sustainability by directing its profits to anti-trafficking programming.

Marijana works with international bodies, including the Council of Europe, as an expert in combating trafficking, especially labor exploitation.  An alumnus of the Human Rights Advocates Program at Columbia University, Marijana is also involved in global advocacy as a member of the Global Fund for Children’s board, Canada’s Equality Fund Investment Advisory Council, and the UN Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Human Trafficking board.

Marijana’s relentless activism and leadership have earned widespread acclaim and numerous awards for Atina, highlighting her role in shaping a safer, more equitable society for women and girls across Serbia and globally. Her work exemplifies a profound commitment to human rights and the empowerment of the most vulnerable groups.

Rosa Cendón Advisor – Human Trafficking and Gender-based Violence Catalonia Regional Ministry for Equality and Feminism

Rosa Cendón has devoted her life to assisting victims, raising awareness, and combating human trafficking in Spain.

As a social worker and educator based in Barcelona, Rosa has led advocacy and institutional relations for SICARcat, the largest anti-trafficking NGO in the Catalonia region, for 20 years.  SICARcat offers assistance to women and children survivors of trafficking by providing them with shelter and legal, psychological, medical, and social support.  Since 2022, Rosa has served as an expert advisor for combating human trafficking and gender-based violence at the Catalonia regional Ministry of Equality and Feminism.  She continues to promote change by raising awareness of human trafficking and designing public policy.

Rosa is at the forefront of anti-trafficking efforts in Catalonia.  Her victim-centered approach has influenced regional and national anti-trafficking and victim protection policies.  She contributed to designing the regional Catalonian and Barcelona city protocols for victim protection.  Under her leadership, SICARcat developed tools for the detection and intervention of human trafficking cases working closely with law enforcement agencies.  She regularly conducts specialized training for key actors.

During the height of the European migration crisis, Rosa helped found the ASIL.CAT network of human rights NGOs that coordinated shelter, protection, and services for the influx of refugees.  She worked to ensure that anti-trafficking efforts were included in the asylum reception system.  As a result of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, Spain has received over 200,000 Ukrainian refugees and Rosa has been at the forefront in providing support to the refugees arriving to Barcelona.

Letitia Pinas Inspector of Police – Head of the Trafficking in Persons Unit Suriname Police Force

Inspector Letitia Pinas launched her career with the Suriname Police Force in 1998.  After serving in the Youth Affairs Department and the Public Relations Department, she was assigned the role of Acting Head of the 14-person Trafficking in Persons Unit in November 2020, to determine its continued usefulness.  Inspector Pinas overhauled the underperforming unit by drafting a strategic plan that improved the unit’s ability to investigate suspects and identify and serve victims, its presence in and outreach to the community, and the public’s trust in it.

With no NGOs working on human trafficking, Inspector Pinas assumed a disproportionate burden not only to investigate cases properly and effectively but also ensured efforts continued in the areas of protection and prevention, including expanded awareness.  Despite the government facing a multi-year financial crisis, she successfully lobbied for funds from the police to establish an emergency shelter within her office to house victims in the initial stages of an investigation.  She closely collaborated with the Prosecutors’ Office for funding to create a long-term shelter for both male and female victims.  Through improved collaboration with the Maritime Police and the Military Police, the Trafficking in Persons Unit actively participates in inspections of incoming vessels, while also checking for potential victims amongst incoming travelers at the airport.  These efforts have led to increased numbers of identified victims, including many who have trusted the police enough to self-report.  Her collaboration with senior police officials resulted in the development of a website that raises awareness on human trafficking and provides society with a tool to anonymously report suspected cases of trafficking.

• Child Soldiers Prevention Act List

Section 402 of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act, as amended (CSPA) requires publication in the annual TIP Report of a list of foreign governments identified during the previous year as having governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces, or government-supported armed groups that recruit or use child soldiers, as defined in the CSPA.  These determinations cover the reporting period beginning April 1, 2023 and ending March 31, 2024.

For the purpose of the CSPA, and generally consistent with the provisions of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, the term “child soldier” means:

•  any person under 18 years of age who takes a direct part in hostilities as a member of governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces;
• any person under 18 years of age who has been compulsorily recruited into governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces;
• any person under 15 years of age who has been voluntarily recruited into governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces; or
• any person under 18 years of age who has been recruited or used in hostilities by armed forces distinct from the armed forces of a state.

The term “child soldier” includes any person described in clauses (ii), (iii), or (iv) who is serving in any capacity, including in a support role, such as a “cook, porter, messenger, medic, guard, or sex slave.”

Governments identified on the list are subject to restrictions, in the following fiscal year, on certain security assistance and commercial licensing of military equipment.  The CSPA prohibits assistance to governments that are identified in the list under the following authorities: International Military Education and Training, Foreign Military Financing, Excess Defense Articles, and Peacekeeping Operations, with exceptions for some programs undertaken pursuant to the Peacekeeping Operations authority.  The CSPA also prohibits the issuance of licenses for direct commercial sales of military equipment to such governments. Beginning October 1, 2024, and effective throughout Fiscal Year 2025, these restrictions will apply to the listed countries, absent a presidential waiver, applicable exception, or reinstatement of assistance pursuant to the terms of the CSPA.  The determination to include a government in the CSPA list is informed by a range of sources, including first-hand observation by U.S. government personnel and research and credible reporting from various UN entities, international organizations, local and international NGOs, and international and domestic media outlets.

The 2024 CSPA List includes governments of the following countries: Afghanistan, Burma, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iran, Libya, Mali, Russia, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Türkiye, Venezuela, and Yemen.

• When the Government is the Trafficker: State-Sponsored Trafficking in Persons

While the TVPA Minimum Standards for the Elimination of Trafficking In Persons and the UN TIP Protocol call on governments proactively to address trafficking crimes, some governments are part of the problem, directly compelling their citizens or other individuals into sex trafficking or forced labor.   Some governments exploit individuals in forced labor in local or national public works projects, military operations, economically important sectors, as part of government-funded projects or missions abroad, or in sexual slavery on government compounds.   Governments extract this work or service by threatening the withdrawal of public benefits; withholding salaries; intentionally failing to adhere to limits on national service; manipulating the lack of legal status of stateless individuals and other minority groups; threatening to punish family members; or conditioning services, food, or freedom of movement on labor or sex.

In 2019, Congress amended the TVPA to acknowledge that governments can also act as traffickers, referring specifically to a “government policy or pattern” of human trafficking; human trafficking in government-funded programs; forced labor (in government-affiliated medical services, agriculture, forestry, mining, construction, or other sectors); sexual slavery in government camps, compounds, or outposts; or employing or recruiting child soldiers.   While the TVPA already directs the Secretary to consider the extent to which “officials or employees of the government have participated in, facilitated, condoned, or were otherwise complicit in” trafficking when determining whether the government is making significant efforts to meet the minimum standards, this section directly links a government’s “policy or pattern” of trafficking to a Tier 3 ranking.

The 2024 TIP Report includes the following 13 countries with a documented “policy or pattern” of human trafficking, trafficking in government-funded programs, forced labor in government-affiliated medical services or other sectors, sexual slavery in government camps, or the employment or recruitment of child soldiers:    

• Afghanistan*
• China, People’s Republic of
• Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of
• South Sudan
• Turkmenistan

* The TIP Report describes the state of human trafficking within a country and with respect to Afghanistan, assesses the actions of Afghan ministries, as well as the Taliban, without implying recognition of the Taliban or another entity as the government of Afghanistan.

• Methodology

The Department of State prepared this report using information from U.S. embassies, government officials, nongovernmental and international organizations, published reports, news articles, academic studies, consultations with authorities and organizations in every region of the world, and information submitted to [email protected] .   This email address provides a means by which organizations and individuals can share information with the Department of State throughout the year on government progress in addressing human trafficking.

U.S. diplomatic posts and domestic agencies reported on the human trafficking situation and governmental action to fight trafficking based on thorough research that included meetings with a wide variety of government officials, local and international NGO representatives, officials of international organizations, journalists, academics, and survivors.   U.S. missions overseas are dedicated to covering human trafficking issues year-round.   The 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report covers government efforts undertaken from April 1, 2023 through March 31, 2024, to the extent concurrent reporting data is available.

Tier Placement

The Department places each country in this report onto one of four categories.   This placement is based not on the size of a country’s problem but on the extent of government efforts to meet the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s (TVPA) minimum standards for the elimination of human trafficking (see page XX), which are generally consistent with the Palermo Protocol.

While Tier 1 is the highest ranking, it does not mean that a country has no human trafficking problem or that it is doing enough to address the crime.   Rather, a Tier 1 ranking indicates that a government has made efforts to address the problem that meet the TVPA’s minimum standards.   To maintain a Tier 1 ranking, governments need to demonstrate appreciable progress each year in combating trafficking.   Tier 1 represents a responsibility rather than a reprieve.

Tier rankings and narratives in the 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report reflect an assessment of the following:

• enactment of laws prohibiting severe forms of trafficking in persons, as defined by the TVPA, and provision of criminal punishments for trafficking crimes;
• criminal penalties prescribed for human trafficking crimes which are sufficiently stringent and commensurate with those prescribed for other grave crimes;
• implementation of human trafficking laws through vigorous prosecution of the prevalent forms of trafficking in the country and adequate sentencing of traffickers;
• proactive victim identification measures with systematic procedures to guide law enforcement and other government-supported front-line responders in the process of victim identification;
• government funding and partnerships with NGOs to provide victims with access to primary health care, counseling, and shelter, allowing them to recount their trafficking experiences to trained counselors and law enforcement in an environment of minimal pressure;
• victim protection efforts that include access to services and shelter without detention and with legal alternatives to removal to countries in which victims would face retribution or hardship;
• the extent to which a government ensures victims are provided with legal and other assistance and that, consistent with domestic law, proceedings are not prejudicial to victims’ rights, dignity, or psychological well-being;
• the extent to which a government ensures the safe, humane, and, to the extent possible, voluntary repatriation and reintegration of victims;
• governmental measures to prevent human trafficking, including efforts to curb practices identified as contributing factors to human trafficking, such as employers’ confiscation of foreign workers’ passports and allowing labor recruiters to charge fees to prospective migrants; and
• governmental efforts to reduce the demand for commercial sex acts and extraterritorial sexual exploitation and abuse.

Tier rankings and narratives are NOT affected by the following:

• efforts, however laudable, undertaken exclusively by nongovernmental actors in the country;
• general public awareness events—government-sponsored or otherwise—lacking concrete ties to the prosecution of traffickers, protection of victims, or prevention of trafficking; and
• broad-based law enforcement or developmental initiatives.

A Guide to the Tiers

Countries whose governments fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.

Countries whose governments do not fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards.

Tier 2 Watch List

Countries whose governments do not fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards, and for which:

• the estimated number of victims of severe forms of trafficking is very significant or is significantly increasing and the country is not taking proportional concrete actions;
• there is a failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat severe forms of trafficking in persons from the previous year, including increased investigations, prosecutions, and convictions of trafficking crimes, increased assistance to victims, and decreasing evidence of complicity in severe forms of trafficking by government officials.

Countries whose governments do not fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so.

The TVPA, as amended, lists additional factors to determine whether a country should be on Tier 2 (or Tier 2 Watch List) versus Tier 3:

• the extent to which the country is a country of origin, transit, or destination for severe forms of trafficking;
• the extent to which the country’s government does not meet the TVPA’s minimum standards and, in particular, the extent to which officials or government employees have been complicit in severe forms of trafficking;
• reasonable measures that the government would need to undertake to be in compliance with the minimum standards in light of the government’s resources and capabilities to address and eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons;
• the extent to which the government is devoting sufficient budgetary resources to investigate and prosecute human trafficking, convict and sentence traffickers; and obtain restitution for victims of human trafficking; and
• the extent to which the government is devoting sufficient budgetary resources to protect victims and prevent the crime from occurring.

In addition, the TVPA directs the Secretary of State to consider, as proof of a country’s failure to make significant efforts to fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards, a government policy or pattern of: human trafficking; human trafficking in government-funded programs; forced labor (in government-affiliated medical services, agriculture, forestry, mining, construction, or other sectors); sexual slavery in government camps, compounds, or outposts; or employing or recruiting child soldiers.

The TVPA also provides that any country that has been ranked Tier 2 Watch List for two consecutive years and that would otherwise be ranked Tier 2 Watch List for the next year will instead be ranked Tier 3 in that third year.   The Secretary of State is authorized to waive the automatic downgrade only once, in that third year, based on credible evidence that a waiver is justified because the government has a written plan that, if implemented, would constitute making significant efforts to meet the TVPA’s minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is devoting sufficient resources to implement the plan.   The following year, a country must either go up to Tier 2 or down to Tier 3.   Additionally, the TVPA limits a country to one year on Tier 2 Watch List after that country received a waiver to stay on Tier 2 Watch List and was subsequently downgraded to Tier 3.

Funding Restrictions for Tier 3 Countries

Pursuant to the TVPA, governments on Tier 3 may be subject to certain restrictions on foreign assistance, whereby the President may determine not to provide U.S. government nonhumanitarian, nontrade-related foreign assistance as defined in the TVPA.   In addition, the President may determine to withhold funding for government official or employee participation in educational and cultural exchange programs in the case of certain Tier 3 countries.   Consistent with the TVPA, the President may also determine to instruct the U.S. Executive Director of each multilateral development bank and the International Monetary Fund to vote against and use their best efforts to deny any loans or other uses of the institutions’ funds to a designated Tier 3 country for most purposes (except for humanitarian, trade-related, and certain development-related assistance).   Alternatively, the President may waive application of the foregoing restrictions upon a determination that the provision to a Tier 3 country of such assistance would promote the purposes of the TVPA or is otherwise in the national interest of the United States.   The TVPA also authorizes the President to waive these restrictions if necessary to avoid significant adverse effects on vulnerable populations, including women and children.

Applicable assistance restrictions apply for the next Fiscal Year, which begins October 1, 2024.

• TVPA Minimum Standards for the Elimination of Trafficking in Persons

Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, Div. A of Pub. L. No. 106-386, § 108, as amended.

(1) The government of the country should prohibit severe forms of trafficking in persons and punish acts of such trafficking.

(2) For the knowing commission of any act of sex trafficking involving force, fraud, coercion, or in which the victim of sex trafficking is a child incapable of giving meaningful consent, or of trafficking which includes rape or kidnapping or which causes a death, the government of the country should prescribe punishment commensurate with that for grave crimes, such as forcible sexual assault.

(3) For the knowing commission of any act of a severe form of trafficking in persons, the government of the country should prescribe punishment that is sufficiently stringent to deter and that adequately reflects the heinous nature of the offense.

(4) The government of the country should make serious and sustained efforts to eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons.

Indicia of “Serious and Sustained Efforts”

1. Whether the government of the country vigorously investigates and prosecutes acts of severe forms of trafficking in persons, and convicts and sentences persons responsible for such acts, that take place wholly or partly within the territory of the country, including, as appropriate, requiring incarceration of individuals convicted of such acts.   For purposes of the preceding sentence, suspended or significantly reduced sentences for convictions of principal actors in cases of severe forms of trafficking in persons shall be considered, on a case-by-case basis, whether to be considered an indicator of serious and sustained efforts to eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons.   After reasonable requests from the Department of State for data regarding investigations, prosecutions, convictions, and sentences, a government which does not provide such data, consistent with a demonstrably increasing capacity of such government to obtain such data, shall be presumed not to have vigorously investigated, prosecuted, convicted or sentenced such acts.

2. Whether the government of the country protects victims of severe forms of trafficking in persons and encourages their assistance in the investigation and prosecution of such trafficking, including provisions for legal alternatives to their removal to countries in which they would face retribution or hardship, and ensures that victims are not inappropriately incarcerated, fined, or otherwise penalized solely for un-lawful acts as a direct result of being trafficked, including by providing training to law enforcement and immigration officials regarding the identification and treatment of trafficking victims using approaches that focus on the needs of the victims.

3. Whether the government of the country has adopted measures to prevent severe forms of trafficking in persons, such as measures to inform and educate the public, including potential victims, about the causes and consequences of severe forms of trafficking in persons, measures to establish the identity of local populations, including birth registration, citizenship, and nationality, measures to ensure that its nationals who are deployed abroad as part of a diplomatic, peacekeeping, or other similar mission do not engage in or facilitate severe forms of trafficking in persons or exploit victims of such trafficking, a transparent system for remediating or punishing such public officials as a deterrent, measures to pre-vent the use of forced labor or child labor in violation of international standards, effective bilateral, multilateral, or regional information sharing and cooperation arrangements with other countries, and effective policies or laws regulating foreign labor recruiters and holding them civilly and criminally liable for fraudulent recruiting.

4. Whether the government of the country cooperates with other governments in the investigation and prosecution of severe forms of trafficking in persons and has entered into bilateral, multilateral, or regional law enforcement cooperation and coordination arrangements with other countries.

5. Whether the government of the country extradites persons charged with acts of severe forms of trafficking in persons on substantially the same terms and to substantially the same extent as persons charged with other serious crimes (or, to the extent such extradition would be inconsistent with the laws of such country or with international agreements to which the country is a party, whether the government is taking all appropriate measures to modify or replace such laws and treaties so as to permit such extradition).

6. Whether the government of the country monitors immigration and emigration patterns for evidence of severe forms of trafficking in persons and whether law enforcement agencies of the country respond to any such evidence in a manner that is consistent with the vigorous investigation and prosecution of acts of such trafficking, as well as with the protection of human rights of victims and the internationally recognized human right to leave any country, including one’s own, and to return to one’s own country.

7. Whether the government of the country vigorously investigates, prosecutes, convicts, and sentences public officials, including diplomats and soldiers, who participate in or facilitate severe forms of trafficking in persons, including nationals of the country who are deployed abroad as part of a diplomatic, peacekeeping, or other similar mission who engage in or facilitate severe forms of trafficking in persons or exploit victims of such trafficking, and takes all appropriate measures against officials who condone or enable such trafficking.   A government’s failure to appropriately address public allegations against such public officials, especially once such officials have returned to their home countries, shall be considered inaction under these criteria.   After reasonable requests from the Department of State for data regarding such investigations, prosecutions, convictions, and sentences, a government which does not provide such data, consistent with a demonstrably increasing capacity of such government to obtain such data, shall be presumed not to have vigorously investigated, prosecuted, convicted, or sentenced such acts.

8. Whether the percentage of victims of severe forms of trafficking in the country that are non-citizens of such countries is insignificant.

9. Whether the government has entered into effective, transparent partnerships, cooperative arrangements, or agreements that have resulted in concrete and measurable outcomes with –

a. domestic civil society organizations, private sector entities, or international nongovernmental organizations, or into multilateral or regional arrangements or agreements, to assist the government’s efforts to prevent trafficking, protect victims, and punish traffickers; or

b. the United States toward agreed goals and objectives in the collective fight against trafficking.

10. Whether the government of the country, consistent with the capacity of such government, systematically monitors its efforts to satisfy the criteria described in paragraphs (1) through (8) and makes available publicly a periodic assessment of such efforts.

11. Whether the government of the country achieves appreciable progress in eliminating severe forms of trafficking when compared to the assessment in the previous year.

12. Whether the government of the country has made serious and sustained efforts to reduce the demand for –

a. commercial sex acts; and

b. participation in international sex tourism by nationals of the country.

• Countries in the 2024 TIP Report that are not Party to the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking In Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
• Congo, Republic of the
• Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of the
• Marshall Islands
• Papua New Guinea
• Solomon Islands

Between April 2023 and March 2024, Uganda became a State Party to the Protocol.

• Global Law Enforcement Data

The 2003 reauthorization of the TVPA added to the original law a new requirement that foreign governments provide the Department of State with data on trafficking investigations, prosecutions, convictions, and sentences in order to fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking (Tier 1).  The 2004 TIP Report collected this data for the first time.  The 2007 TIP Report showed for the first time a breakout of the number of total prosecutions and convictions that related to labor trafficking, placed in parentheses.

The above statistics are estimates derived from data provided by foreign governments and other sources and reviewed by the Department of State. Aggregate data fluctuates from one year to the next due to the hidden nature of trafficking crimes, dynamic global events, shifts in government efforts, and a lack of uniformity in national reporting structures.

“As we work to help people disproportionately affected by human trafficking, including members of racial and ethnic minorities, women and girls, the LGBTQI+ community, and migrants, we remain committed to learning from and partnering with survivors to support their recoveries and to recruit their help in better spotting and preventing these too often overlooked crimes.”

President Joseph R. Biden Jr. President

“I believe history will show that this was the moment when we had the opportunity to lay the groundwork for the future of AI.  And the urgency of this moment must then compel us to create a collective vision of what this future must be.  A future where AI is used to advance the public interest.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, United States

“Combating trafficking requires a strong coalition of local and global partners to share resources and information, better equip front-line workers, and track and respond to evolving trafficking trends.”

Antony Blinken, Secretary of State

“The Intelligence Community in close partnership with law enforcement has been improving its production of detailed data analysis and reporting to better discern patterns and trends in human trafficking of migrants.  And with the help of new tools for conducting such analysis, we’re investing in these efforts, we think to good effect, as we also work to continually improve our connection to both local and federal law enforcement as well as the Department of Homeland Security to assist them in their work to countering the problem.”

Avril Haines, Director of National Intelligence 

“Survivors are the real experts.  Their experiences and their perspectives can help inform and motivate our policies so that we will do more, not less, and accelerate our efforts to combat this heinous cruelty.”

U.S. Representative Chris Smith   (R-NJ)

“Yet traffickers continue to operate with impunity.  Their crimes are receiving not nearly enough attention.  This must change.  We must invest much more in detection and protection.  We must strengthen law enforcement to bring criminals that commodify human beings to justice.  And we must do more to help survivors rebuild their lives.”

A ntonio Guterres, UN Secretary-General

“We need to step up our efforts to reach every trafficking victim, by strengthening detection, investigating cases, and prosecuting the criminals involved.  We also need to proactively identify, assist, and support survivors of this crime to truly leave no one behind.  This requires support from all sectors of society, from healthcare to social services to law enforcement.”

Ghada Waly, Executive Director of UNODC

“The scourge of human trafficking continues to evolve.  Civil unrest and war across the globe, natural disasters, climate change, and the advent and increasing reach of social media all pose significant challenges.”

Sameer Jain, Member of U.S. Advisory Council on Human Trafficking

“If we are to ever defeat trafficking, and this undoubtedly must be our shared ambition, effective approaches to prevention must be the bedrock upon which our anti-trafficking efforts are built.  Preventing trafficking in human beings from taking place is the best way to truly protect vulnerable groups and deprive traffickers of the illicit proceeds the crime generates.”

OSCE Secretary General Helga Maria Schmid

“Traffickers prey on the marginalized and most vulnerable.  But we are witnessing an emerging trend where the demographic profile of trafficking victims is also expanding, at pace with the digital developments in which we are living.”

Dr. Kari Johnstone , OSCE Special  Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Human Trafficking

“We have to talk about those things that make us uncomfortable, especially if we want to work for an end to human trafficking.  Part of that is acknowledging that when we say nothing and do nothing in the face of many of these issues we are perpetuating the same violence that was done to us.”

Rafael Bautista, Member of the U.S. Advisory Council on Human Trafficking

“Building consensus around an affirmative vision is the first line of our tech diplomacy.  But the rules, the standards, the norms that societies follow are going to determine whether this technology is used for good or whether it’s used for ill.”

• Tier Placements List

A note on Kiribati:  Reports during the 2024 reporting period indicated human trafficking crimes may have occurred in Kiribati.  However, information on anti-trafficking efforts from the Government of Kiribati and the nature and scope of trafficking in persons in Kiribati were insufficient to undertake a full assessment for the 2024 Report.  The Department of State will continue gathering information in the coming year and assess appropriate reporting for the 2025 TIP Report.

• Regional Maps

The Regional Maps will be included in the PDF accessible online version.  Below includes the region-specific Global Law Enforcement Data.

• Stopping Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) by International Peacekeepers and Civilian Personnel

This section summarizes actions taken by the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) to prevent trafficking in persons or the exploitation of victims of trafficking during calendar year 2023.

• Relevant International Conventions

The chart below shows the Ratification, Accession (a), or Acceptance (A) of relevant international conventions for those countries that have ratified, acceded to, or accepted any such conventions between April 2023 and March 2024.  A complete list that includes the status of all of the countries covered by the Trafficking in Persons Report is available at: https://www.state.gov/international-conventions-relevant-to-combating-trafficking-in-persons/

• International, Regional, and Sub-Regional Organizations Combating Trafficking in Persons

For the 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report, the Framework Documents and other Relevant Guidance section has been consolidated to show only documents published during the reporting year: April 1, 2023 – March 31, 2024.  If you would like to review documents from previous years, please refer to the 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report .

• Annual Report to Congress on the Use of Child Soldiers under Section 405(c) of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008

This report is submitted in accordance with section 405(c) of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008 (22 U.S.C. 2370c-2(c)) (CSPA).  Section 1 lists the countries identified as being in violation of the standards under the CSPA in 2023.  Section 2 provides a description and the amounts of assistance withheld pursuant to section 404(a) of the CSPA.  Section 3 provides a list of waivers or exceptions exercised under the CSPA.  Section 4 contains the justifications for such waivers.  Section 5 provides a description and the amounts of assistance provided to countries pursuant to such waivers.

Section 1. Countries in Violation of the Standards Under the CSPA in 2023.

The Secretary of State identified the following countries as having governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces or government-supported armed groups that recruited or used child soldiers within the meaning of section 404(a) of the CSPA during the reporting period of April 1, 2022 – March 31, 2023: Afghanistan, Burma, Central African Republic (CAR), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Libya, Mali, Russia, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Syria, Türkiye, Venezuela, and Yemen.

Section 2. Description and Amount of Assistance Withheld Pursuant to Section 404(a).

No security assistance subject to section 404(a) of the CSPA was planned to be provided to Afghanistan, Burma, Eritrea, Iran, Mali, Russia, Rwanda, South Sudan, Syria, or Venezuela in fiscal year (FY) 2024.

Section 3. List of Waivers or Exceptions Exercised under Section 404(a).

On September 15, 2023, the President determined that it is in the national interest of the United States to waive the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Egypt; to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Türkiye for International Military Education and Training (IMET) and Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) assistance, issuance of direct commercial sales (DCS) licenses, and support provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333, to the extent that the CSPA would restrict such assistance or support; to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Libya and Somalia to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance, and support provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333, to the extent that the CSPA would restrict such assistance or support; to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance and issuance of DCS licenses in connection with the reexport of transport aircraft, to the extent that the CSPA would restrict such assistance; to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to the Central African Republic and Yemen to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance, to the extent that the CSPA would restrict such assistance; and to waive the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA to allow for the issuance of DCS licenses related to other U.S. government assistance for the above countries and, with respect to the Russian Federation, solely for the issuance of DCS licenses in connection with the International Space Station (ISS).  The President has further certified that the governments of the above countries are taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

Section 4. Justifications for Waivers and Exceptions.

Pursuant to section 404(c) of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008 (CSPA) (22 U.S.C. 2370c-1(c)), the President has determined that it is in the national interest of the United States to waive the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Egypt; to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition with respect to the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Libya, Somalia, Türkiye, and Yemen, including to allow for the issuance of direct commercial sales (DCS) licenses related to other U.S. government assistance for these countries that is not subject to the prohibition in section 404(a); and, with respect to Russia, to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition solely for DCS licenses in connection with the International Space Station.  The President has further certified that the governments of the above countries are taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.  The justification for this determination and certification with respect to each country is set forth in this Memorandum.

The Central African Republic (CAR)

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to CAR to allow for the provision of International Military Education and Training (IMET) and Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) assistance and has certified that the CAR Government (CARG) is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

Armed groups in CAR continue to threaten civilians and pose a longstanding risk to stability.  The waiver for PKO and IMET assistance for CAR will support the professionalization of the military to better provide security to the people of CAR while respecting human rights and international humanitarian law (IHL).  Additionally, IMET programming allows the United States to invest in CAR military officers to promote professional military education and foster relationships with foreign military personnel rooted in democratic values.

The CARG is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers through meaningful engagement with U.S. and UN officials in seeking assistance to eradicate trafficking in persons, including the recruitment or use of child soldiers by CAR security forces and armed groups.  Recent efforts have included the adoption of a national plan to counter trafficking in children, government directives prohibiting the presence of children around military bases, and collaboration with the UN and implementing partners to reintegrate children affected by conflict.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to DRC to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance and issuance of licenses for DCS in connection with the reexport of transport aircraft and has certified that the Government of the DRC (GDRC) is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

The proliferation of armed groups amidst ongoing conflict in eastern DRC continues to threaten security and stability for the people of the DRC.  IMET and PKO assistance for the DRC enables the United States to continue professionalization efforts of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) by enhancing its capacity to provide security within its territory while respecting human rights and IHL.  IMET and PKO assistance provide mechanisms to support security sector governance reforms and training in areas such as military justice, civil-military relations, respect for human rights and IHL, military engineering, and resource management and logistics, which enhance security and help make the FARDC a more transparent, accountable institution.

The GDRC is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers through sustained commitment to implement its 2012 Action Plan to end and prevent the recruitment and use of child soldiers in partnership with the UN.  Additionally, in 2022 the GDRC adopted a national strategy for the implementation of the Demobilization, Disarmament, Community Recovery and Stabilization Program, which signals an important step in prioritizing children affected by armed conflict, particularly in eastern DRC.

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United State to waive, in full, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Egypt and has certified that the Government of Egypt is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

Egypt is an important U.S. partner in counterterrorism, anti-trafficking, and regional security operations, which advance both U.S. and Egyptian security. The decades-long defense partnership is a pillar for regional stability and key to securing peace with Israel, supporting the Multinational Force and Observers missions, and enhancing security of the Suez Canal.  Since 1978, the United States has provided more than $54 billion in military assistance for Egypt, which has contributed to Egypt’s capabilities to protect and defend its land, air, and maritime borders and to confront an evolving terrorist threat, including in the Sinai Peninsula.

The Government of Egypt is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers, even as the scope and intensity of the counterterrorism fight in the Sinai continues to see a significant downturn; 2023 is on track to report the lowest levels of violence in the Sinai since the conflict began in 2011.  The U.S. government is not aware of the Egyptian military, police, or other security forces recruiting or using child soldiers.  Consistent with Egypt’s domestic laws and its obligations under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, the Egyptian government effectively prohibits persons under the age of 18 from being forcibly recruited into the armed forces.  The Government of Egypt provides critical influence in addressing the recruitment or use of child soldiers by tribal militias, and the U.S. government will continue to engage the Egyptian government regarding reports of recruitment of child soldiers by government-supported Sinai tribal forces.

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Libya to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance and DoD support provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333 and has certified that the Government of National Unity (GNU) in Libya is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

The U.S. government selected Libya as a priority country for implementation of the U.S. Strategy to Prevent Conflict and Promote Stability.  The Department of State further assesses that in Libya the most durable solution to the unlawful recruitment of child soldiers, including by GNU-aligned units and the self-styled Libyan National Army, is a negotiated political settlement that ends Libya’s instability and the cycles of conflict.  IMET assistance will facilitate English language proficiency to improve interoperability and promote civil-military relations, including civilian control of a unified military.  PKO assistance will build upon the October 2020 ceasefire and support U.N. efforts to advance Libya’s transition to a unified, democratically elected, and inclusive political system based on respect for human rights.  PKO provides the U.S. government a tool to support UNSMIL in its ceasefire monitoring function.  Department of Defense support will build the capacity of Libyan military institutions in support of progress towards civilian-controlled, accountable, defense institutions that uphold human rights, combat terrorism, and address security challenges.

The GNU is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers through engagement with the UN and the U.S. government in the context of our recurring bilateral Security Dialogue.  Through cooperation with UNSMIL, representatives of the Libyan 5+5 Joint Military Commission, comprised of senior military officers from both the east and west, engage with UNICEF on preventing child soldier recruitment.  The U.S. government is not aware of the GNU’s military, police, or other governmental security forces recruiting or using child soldiers.  Further, GNU security sector leaders provide critical influence to prevent and end the recruitment or use of child soldiers by armed groups in Libya and mitigate the reliance on external forces or groups for internal security.

Russian Federation

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United State to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to the Russian Federation to allow for issuance of licenses for DCS solely in connection with the International Space Station (ISS) and has certified that the Government of the Russian Federation is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

It is in the U.S. national interest to work with Russia to maintain the safety of ISS operations.  Maintaining longstanding U.S.-Russia ISS operations requires the ability to issue DCS licenses for defense articles and defense services in support of the ISS until the planned termination of its operation, which the National Aeronautics and Space Administration estimates will be in 2030.  This waiver will allow such activities to continue and will enable the issuance of licenses necessary to support the safe operation of the ISS, U.S.-Russia integrated crew missions to the ISS, and the safety of U.S. and other personnel onboard the ISS.

The Russian Federation is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.  In accordance with the Russian Federation’s Law on the Ratification of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict of 2008, the Government of the Russian Federation effectively prohibits persons under the age of 18 from being forcibly recruited into the armed forces.

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Somalia to allow for the provision of IMET and PKO assistance, and DoD support provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333 and has certified that the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

Foreign terrorist organizations including al-Shabaab continue to threaten security and stability for the people of Somalia.  The waiver for IMET and PKO assistance for Somalia enables the United States to continue professionalization efforts of the Somali National Army (SNA) by enhancing their capacity to provide security within their territory while respecting human rights and IHL.  Further, a waiver for support provided by the Department of Defense pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333 will allow for U.S. government assistance to build the Somali military’s capacity to conduct effective, sustained counterterrorism operations against al-Shabaab and help reinforce U.S. values, including those related to preventing and ending the unlawful recruitment or use of child soldiers.

The FGS is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers through sustained commitment to implement its 2019 “road map” to accelerate progress on its 2012 Action Plan on ending the recruitment and use of children by the Somali National Armed Forces in partnership with the UN.  The SNA’s Child Protection Unit continued to make progress in implementing screening procedures, training, and disseminating media to prevent the recruitment and use of child soldiers.  The FGS also continued implementation of standard operating procedures for the handover of children allegedly associated with armed groups.

The President has determined it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Türkiye for IMET and PKO assistance, issuance of DCS licenses, and DoD support provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 331 and 10 U.S.C. 333 and has certified that the Government of Türkiye is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

Türkiye has been an important U.S. security partner and valued NATO Ally since 1952, regulating passage, in accordance with international law, through the straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which link the Black Sea with the Mediterranean. Further, Türkiye’s military capability and geographic location are vital to the United States’ integrated deterrence strategy and ability to respond to regional events including with respect to counterterrorism, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations. Türkiye’s support, including defense and security cooperation, to NATO Allies and partners deters malign influence in the region. This waiver will assist in maintaining NATO cohesion and continued interoperability, bolster regional security, and advance bilateral cooperation.

The Government of Türkiye is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers, including those present in elements of the Syrian National Army receiving support from the Government of Türkiye.  The United States is not aware of the Turkish military, police, or other security forces recruiting or using child soldiers.  Consistent with Türkiye’s domestic laws and its obligations under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, the Turkish military effectively prohibits persons under the age of 18 from being forcibly recruited into the armed forces.  Further, the Government of Türkiye provides critical influence in addressing the problem of child soldiers with respect to the Syrian National Army.

The President has determined that it is in the national interest of the United States to waive, in part, the application of the prohibition in section 404(a) of the CSPA with respect to Yemen to allow for provision of IMET and PKO assistance and has certified that the Government of the Republic of Yemen (ROYG) is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers.

It is in the U.S. national interest to support UN-led efforts to achieve an inclusive negotiated political resolution to the conflict in Yemen.  The waiver for IMET assistance for Yemen enables the United States to continue to support professionalization and interoperability efforts of the Yemeni Armed Forces (YAF) by enhancing their capacity to provide inclusive security within their territory while respecting human rights and IHL.  Further, this waiver will improve the YAF’s capacity to conduct effective, sustained counterterrorism operations, ensuring freedom of navigation through the Bab Al-Mandeb Strait, and securing the space for restoring effective governance institutions.

The ROYG is taking effective and continuing steps to address the problem of child soldiers through sustained commitment to implement its 2018 “road map” to accelerate progress on its 2014 Action Plan to end and prevent the recruitment of children by Yemeni Armed Forces in partnership with the UN.  The ROYG established child protection units within all military regions, issued directives banning child recruitment, and conducted numerous senior government field visits to monitor the implementation of screening procedures to prevent child recruitment and remove children from military units.

Section 5. Description and Amount of Assistance Provided Pursuant to a Waiver.

The information provided below only includes assistance obligated as of April 20, 2024.  Additional assistance will be obligated during FY 2024.

Central African Republic

International Military Education Training $101,124

As of April 20, 2024, IMET funding was obligated for the following activity: professional military education and training.

Democratic Republic of the Congo

International Military Education Training $177,238

International Military Education Training $1,352,782

International Military Education Training $31,284

Peacekeeping Operations $31,917,530.44

As of April 20, 2024, PKO funding was obligated for Somali National Army and Somali Ministry of Defense for the following activities:

logistical support; advisory support; equipment; and program oversight.

10 U.S.C. 333 $4 ,668,640.56

As of April 20, 2024, 333 funding was obligated for the following activities: training and equipment.

International Military Education Training $182,098

International Military Education Training $339,662

As of April 20, 20, 2024, IMET funding was obligated for the following activity: professional military education and training.

• GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS

Notes:  Local currencies have been converted to U.S. dollars ($) using the currency exchange rates reported by the U.S. Department of the Treasury on December 31, 2023.

• Acknowledgments

The Staff of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons Is:

Mekhribon Abdullaeva

Sylvia Amegashie

Katrina Askew-Alston

Andrea Balint Garza

Shonnie R. Ball

Suzanne Balson

Matt Becker

Getoria Berry

Brooke Beyer

Caris Boegl

Michelle C. Bloom

Alexandria Boling

Katherine Borgen

Gregory Borgstede

Kelsey Brennan

Joshua Bull

Carla M. Bury

Renée Callender

Jessica Cisneros

Kate Cooper

Camila Crowley

Reena Dalwadi

Sarah Davis

Steven Davis

Anca DiGiacomo

Daniel Evensen

Anna Fraser

Lauren Frey

Mark Forstrom

Lucia Gallegos

Beatriz Garcia Velazquez

Brianna Gehring

Chauna Gibson

Natasha Greenberg

Andrew Grimmer

Takiyah Golden

Denise Harrison

Jocelyn Harrison

Emmanuel Hector

Caitlin B. Heidenreich

Ashley Hernandez

J. Brett Hernandez

Matthew Hickey

Crystal Hill

Megan Hjelle-Lantsman

Jennifer M. Ho

Marta Hoilman

Ariana Holly

Moira Honohan

Renee Huffman

Veronica Jablonski

Harold Jahnsen

Sarah Jennings

Devin Johnson

Maurice W. Johnson

Kari A. Johnstone

Chelsea Kaser

Patrick Kelly

Emily Korenak

Kendra L. Kreider

Mary Lagdameo

Valery Lavigne

James Lensen-Callas

Rebecca Lesnak

Abigail Long

Samantha Lord

Jean McAnerney

Cameron Malcom

Bryan Marcus

LaTina Marsh

Sunny Massa

Kerry McBride

Rendi McCoy

Tamara McCoy

Maura K. McManus

Leah F. Meyer

Rebecca Morgan

Ericka Moten

Ryan Mulvenna

Dan Muncaster

Cristina Narvaez

Amy O’Neill Richard

Zury Palencia

Lauren Parnell

Ashlei Perry

Marissa Pietrobono

Sanjana Polapragada

Justin D. Pollard

David Rabinovich

Patrick Read

Andrea E. Reed

Casey Risko

Angie Rivas

Amy Rustan Haslett

Manith Sarik

Aram Schvey

Tori Jamese Scott-Senghor

Adrienne Sgarlato

Jessica Singh

Stephen Shade

Kaela Shear

Soumya Silver

Cornelius Slayton

Susan Snyder

Megan Stalder

Latoshae Summers

Desirée Suo Weymont

Jamie Sutter

Francesca J. Tadle

Atsuki Takahashi

James Taylor

Anna Thiessen

Cecilia Thompson

Juan Jose Tierjo

Wanda Toney

Andrea Ugolini

Melissa Verlaque

Matthew Villemain

Myrna E. Walch

Frances Wallman

Bianca Washington

Pauline Werner

Danielle (Nikki) Wetsel

Terry Whenry

Sharifa White

Joshua Williams

Willow Williamson

Joshua Youle

Salia Zouande

Special thanks to Brian Piaquadio, Julia Maruszewski, LeGrand Latney, Kimberly Ross, and the creative services team at Global Publishing Solutions.  Special thanks also to the ECA Bureau and technical project managers Tasha Wilkinson and Ed Williams.

Special thanks to Bukola Oriola, Dawn Schiller, Christine Cesa, Jeri Moomaw, Harold D’Souza, Jessa Crisp, Jill Brogdon, Megan Lundstrom, Rafael Bautista, Tanya Gould, and other subject matter experts with lived experience of human trafficking from the Department of State’s Human Trafficking Expert Consultant Network for their contributions to the TIP Report.

On This Page

U.s. department of state, the lessons of 1989: freedom and our future.

• Open access
• Published: 24 June 2024

Astrocytic stress response is induced by exposure to astrocyte-binding antibodies expressed by plasmablasts from pediatric patients with acute transverse myelitis

• Chad Smith 1 ,
• Kiel M. Telesford 1 ,
• Sara G. M. Piccirillo 2 , 3 ,
• Yamhilette Licon-Munoz 2 , 3 ,
• Wei Zhang 1 ,
• Key M. Tse 1 ,
• Jacqueline R. Rivas 1 ,
• Chaitanya Joshi 1 ,
• Dilan S. Shah 1 ,
• Angela X. Wu 1 ,
• Ritu Trivedi 1 ,
• Scott Christley 4 ,
• Yu Qian 5 ,
• Lindsay G. Cowell 4 ,
• Richard H. Scheuermann 5 , 6 ,
• Ann M. Stowe 7 ,
• Linda Nguyen 1 ,
• Benjamin M. Greenberg 1 &
• Nancy L. Monson 1 , 8  

Journal of Neuroinflammation volume  21 , Article number:  161 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

269 Accesses

Metrics details

Pediatric acute transverse myelitis (ATM) accounts for 20–30% of children presenting with a first acquired demyelinating syndrome (ADS) and may be the first clinical presentation of a relapsing ADS such as multiple sclerosis (MS). B cells have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of adult MS. However, little is known about B cells in pediatric MS, and even less so in pediatric ATM. Our lab previously showed that plasmablasts (PB), the earliest B cell subtype producing antibody, are expanded in adult ATM, and that these PBs produce self-reactive antibodies that target neurons. The goal of this study was to examine PB frequency and phenotype, immunoglobulin selection, and B cell receptor reactivity in pediatric patients presenting with ATM to gain insight to B cell involvement in disease.

We compared the PB frequency and phenotype of 5 pediatric ATM patients and 10 pediatric healthy controls (HC) and compared them to previously reported adult ATM patients using cytometric data. We purified bulk IgG from the plasma samples and cloned 20 recombinant human antibodies (rhAbs) from individual PBs isolated from the blood. Plasma-derived IgG and rhAb autoreactivity was measured by mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) in neurons and astrocytes of murine brain or spinal cord and primary human astrocytes. We determined the potential impact of these rhAbs on astrocyte health by measuring stress and apoptotic response.

We found that pediatric ATM patients had a reduced frequency of peripheral blood PB. Serum IgG autoreactivity to neurons in EAE spinal cord was similar in the pediatric ATM patients and HC. However, serum IgG autoreactivity to astrocytes in EAE spinal cord was reduced in pediatric ATM patients compared to pediatric HC. Astrocyte-binding strength of rhAbs cloned from PBs was dependent on somatic hypermutation accumulation in the pediatric ATM cohort, but not HC. A similar observation in predilection for astrocyte binding over neuron binding of individual antibodies cloned from PBs was made in EAE brain tissue. Finally, exposure of human primary astrocytes to these astrocyte-binding antibodies increased astrocytic stress but did not lead to apoptosis.

Conclusions

Discordance in humoral immune responses to astrocytes may distinguish pediatric ATM from HC.

Pediatric acute transverse myelitis (ATM) is an immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the spinal cord with an incidence rate of 1.7–2 pediatric cases per million children per year [ 7 , 13 , 46 ]. ATM typically presents with limb weakness, sensory deficits, and/or bladder/bowel dysfunction evolving over hours to days. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the primary tool for diagnosis of ATM, particularly as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) protein and cell counts can be normal in 20–50% of pediatric ATM cases [ 2 ]. ATM accounts for 20–30% of children presenting with a first acquired demyelinating syndrome, and can occur as an isolated syndrome, known as idiopathic TM. However, it can also be the first clinical presentation of other acquired demyelinating syndromes (ADS), including multiple sclerosis (MS), aquaporin-4-IgG positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) or myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) diagnosis [ 3 , 7 ].

Compared to adults, children with ATM appear to have a lower incidence of MS. Epidemiological studies have shown approximately one-third of adult patients presenting with ATM evolve to a diagnosis of MS [ 15 , 22 , 28 , 35 , 39 ] while only 22% of pediatric patients evolve to a diagnosis of MS [ 8 , 18 ] . Additionally, compared to adults, children usually improve within 2 weeks following acute immunotherapy (eg corticosteroids, IVIG and plasmaexchange) and have better outcomes, with nearly one-half making a complete recovery by 2 years [ 2 ]. One possible difference could be variations in the composition of lymphocytes involved in the autoimmune pathology of children compared to adults.

B cells in particular, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of CNS autoimmune diseases, including MS. CSF or blood B cell biomarkers to identify the extent of neuronal and glia inflammation, stress and irreversible injury are however lacking in ATM. We previously demonstrated that plasmablasts (PBs), the earliest B cell subtype producing antibody, are expanded in adults with ATM [ 30 ]. Plasmablasts are a recently activated antigen-experienced B cell subtype whose default program is to produce high affinity neutralizing antibodies against non-self antigens [ 4 ], mature into long-lived plasma cells, and home to the bone marrow where they can produce antibodies for decades [ 38 ]. Autoreactive PBs are typically undetectable in healthy individuals, but in the context of adult ATM, 28% of PBs that we isolated from the expanded PB pool produce self-reactive antibodies that target cytoplasmic antigens within neurons. These autoreactive PBs also tend to utilize antibody variable heavy chain 4 (VH4) family genes.

Little is known about B cell involvement in pediatric ATM, although altered B cell subset distributions are reported in pediatric MS [ 44 ]. Therefore, we investigated pediatric ATM patients and healthy controls to profile B cells for evidence of involvement in CNS autoimmunity associated with pediatric ATM. We found that the frequency of peripheral blood PBs was reduced in pediatric ATM patients compared to pediatric HC. Pediatric ATM patients had a similar frequency of VH4 + PB compared to pediatric HC. Most autoreactive PBs from pediatric ATM patients recognized astrocytes in CNS tissue and primary human astrocytes in cell culture. Accumulation of somatic hypermutation into the antibody heavy chain genes increased binding intensity to astrocytes. Exposure of human primary astrocytes to astrocyte-binding antibodies cloned from PBs of pediatric ATM subjects induced astrocytic stress, but did not advance to apoptotic events.

Materials and methods

Human blood acquisition and processing.

All subjects and/or their legally authorized study partners signed the written informed consent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the UT Southwestern Medical Center (UTSW), in accordance with the Federal-wide Assurance on file with the Department of Health and Human Services (USA). The age, gender, diagnosis, and other patient information is reported in Table  1 . Treatment-naïve pediatric ATM patients at high risk for developing MS (ages 3–13) and pediatric healthy controls (HC) (ages 3–12) were included and were matched by age. As pediatric ATM cases are rare, no power analysis was performed to determine the number of subjects needed to detect a difference between the groups. Pediatric patients were classified as high risk for MS if they presented with at least one non-enhancing white matter lesion by MRI and/or a high Ig index in the cerebrospinal fluid. None of these patients had evidence of autoantibody titers to MOG or AQP4. We collected whole blood in Acid Citric Dextrose (ACD) tubes for this study. After collection, ACD tubes were centrifuged to collect plasma and the non-plasma portion subjected to Ficoll centrifugation to isolate peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Plasma was stored in aliquots at -80˚C and PBMCs were stored in aliquots at -140˚C. Immunogenetics of pediatric TM and HC were compared to adult CIS patients at high risk for developing MS presenting with transverse myelitis, which were reported previously [ 39 ].

Mass cytometry (CyTOF)

Cryopreseved PBMCs were thawed in complete RPMI, counted, filtered, and treated with cisplatin (2.5μM, Enzo Life Sciences, Farmingdale, NY, USA) in serum free RPMI to confirm viability [ 14 ]. Cell staining for mass cytometry was performed as described previously [ 9 ], using antibody panels in table S6. Samples were mass-channel barcoded, pooled, and stained as a single sample [ 56 ]. Readouts were recorded on a CyTOF2 mass cytometer (Fluidigm, South San Francisco, CA, USA). Data were analyzed in Cytobank (cytobank.org) and with FlowJo software (flowjo.com), including viSNE [ 6 ], and FlowSOM [ 49 ] analysis.

Single-cell antibody immunogenetics

Individually sorted antigen-experienced CD19 + CD27 + CD38+ B cells from the blood were lysed, mRNA was reverse-transcribed, and immunoglobulin variable regions were amplified with multiple rounds of PCR as previously described (32). Sanger sequencing was performed at the UTSWMC (University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center) sequencing core to generate the antibody variable domain reads. Sequences were analyzed using the VDJServer analysis portal (33). V, D, J gene calls, FR and CDR regions were annotated using IgBlast v1.14.1 (34) with VDJServer IMGT 2019.01.23 germline database.

Recombinant human antibody cloning, expression, and isolation

HEK293T cells (ATCC, Manassas, VA) were maintained in HyClone Dulbeccos Modified Eagles Medium (DMEM) (GE Healthcare Life Sciences). All recombinant human antibodies (rhAbs) were transiently transfected into HEK293T cells with the lipid transfection reagent JetPEI (PolyPlus Transfection) as done previously [ 29 , 39 ]. Supernatants from these cultures were collected on days 3, 5, 7 and 10. The cell pellets were spun down and supernatants were passed through 0.2um filters and subjected to antibody purification on the NGC QUEST 10 system. The concentration of the antibodies were determined by sandwich ELISA as done previously [ 29 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

Purification of IgG from plasma

To purify bulk IgG from plasma samples obtained from ACD whole blood collections, we employed protein G chromatography (Cytiva Life Sciences). We quantified pure IgG preparations with an in-house IgG ELISA to facilitate normalization across all samples for assays.

Fluorescent immunohistochemistry

At the height of EAE symptoms, mice were perfused transcardially with PBS and 4% PFA, and their brains and spinal cords were extracted. After a further 48 h post-fix with 4% PFA, tissue was washed with PBS and embedded in paraffin. Sagittal brain slices and transverse cord slices (5 μm) were obtained by the UT Southwestern Histo Pathology Core. Slices were deparaffinated with 2 × 10 min washes with xylenes (Fisher), then washed with successive ethanol solutions: 2 × 100% ethanol, 95% ethanol, 70% ethanol, 50% ethanol, 30% ethanol. Slices were washed with PBS for 3 min, then 1% Glycine (Sigma) for 15 min. Slices underwent antigen retrieval by submersion in boiling Citrate Retrieval Buffer (Vector BioLabs H-3300) in a pressure cooker for 5 min. Slides were washed 2 × 5 min with PBS, then with 0.2% Triton X-100 (Sigma) for 10 min. Slides were blocked for 2 h with 5% Goat Serum (ThermoFisher 50062Z) + 0.1% Triton X-100 in a humidified chamber, then incubated overnight at 4C in a humidified chamber with primary antibodies diluted in blocking buffer: rhAbs (20 μg/mL), purified human IgG (2 μg/mL), Rabbit anti-GFAP (1:100 Abcam ab16997), Mouse anti-MAP2 (1:200 ThermoFisher MA5-12826). The next day, slides were washed 3 × 5 min with 0.025% Triton X-100, then incubated for 1 h at RT in a humidified chamber with secondary antibodies diluted in blocking buffer: Goat anti-Human conj AlexaFluor 488 (1:1000 ThermoFisher A-11013), Goat anti-Rabbit conj AlexaFluor 568 (1:1000 Abcam ab175471), Goat anti-Mouse conj AlexaFluor 647 (1:500 Abcam ab150115). The rinses were repeated, then slides were counterstained with DAPI. Slides were washed twice with PBS and coverslips were mounted with Fluoromount G (ThermoFisher 00-4958-02). Slides were visualized on a Zeiss LSM780 confocal microscope with a 40 ×/1.45NA oil immersion lens.

Human astrocytes

Human astrocytes were purchased from ScienCell Research Laboratories (Carlsbad, CA), grown in DMEM (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (Gemini Bio-Products, Sacramento, CA, USA), 1% 100 × Penicillin–Streptomycin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and 1% 200 mM l -glutamine (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA).

Fluorescent immunocytochemistry

Cells were plated on laminin-coated coverslips (Sigma L2020) and rested overnight in an 37 °C/5% CO 2 incubator. The next day, cells were fixed with ice-cold 4% PFA for 10 min, then washed with PBS for 5 min. Cells were washed with 0.2% Triton X-100 + 2 mg/mL BSA (Sigma A9647) for 10 min, then blocked with 0.1% BSA + 1% Goat Serum + 3% BSA for 2 h. Cells were incubated overnight at 4 °C with primary antibodies diluted in blocking buffer: rhAbs (20 μg/mL), Rabbit anti-GFAP (1:200). The next day, cells were washed 4 × 3 min with 0.05% Triton X-100 + 1% Goat Serum + 1% BSA, then incubated for 1 h at RT with secondary antibodies diluted in blocking buffer: Goat anti-Human conj AlexaFluor 488, Goat anti-Rabbit conj AlexaFluor 568. The washes were repeated, then cells were counterstained with DAPI and washed twice with PBS. Coverslips were mounted on glass slides with Fluoromount G, then visualized on a Zeiss Axioscope.A1 fluorescent microscope with a 20×/0.45NA lens.

Commercial cell based assays

For measuring reactivity of rhAbs to AQP-4, we used cell-based assays according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Euroimmun FA1128-1010-50). This assay expresses AQP-4 in fixed HEK293 cells [ 52 ]. For measuring reactivity to Hep-2 cells, we used a cell-based assay according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Aesku.Bion ANK-120). This assay consists of fixed Hep-2 cells. In both assays, the rhAbs were diluted to 20 μg/mL in 0.1% Tween-20 (Fisher) + 1% Goat Serum and cells were counterstained with DAPI. Cells were imaged as described above and quantified with FIJI. Positive staining of a rhAb was defined as fluorescence intensity equal to or greater than the mean fluorescent intensity of the negative control plus 20 standard deviations.

Internalization procedure

After plating cells and resting overnight, rhAbs were diluted in 6 mM Glucose (Sigma) + 1% BSA + 2% Fetal Bovine Serum + 1 mM Pyruvate (Gibco 111360-070) and added to cell cultures at 20 μg/mL. After incubation, cells were washed 3 × with ice-cold PBS, then fixed with 2% PFA + 0.5% Triton X-100 for 2 min. Of note, exposure of the cells to Triton X-100 does not occur until after the internalization step is complete. Cells were fixed for an additional 15 min with 4% PBS, then washed 3 × with PBS. Cells were blocked with 0.01% saponin (Sigma 47036) + 2% BSA + 0.1% lysine (Sigma 62840) for 30 min, then incubated with primary antibodies in blocking buffer for 1 h: Rabbit anti-Clathrin (1:100 Cell Signaling 4796S), Mouse anti-EEA1 (1:100 Cell Signaling 48453S). Cells were washed 6 × 5 min with blocking buffer, then incubated with secondary antibodies and DAPI in blocking buffer for 1 h: Goat anti-Human conj AlexaFluor 488, Goat anti-Rabbit conj AlexaFluor 568, Goat anti-Mouse conj AlexaFluor 647. Cells were washed 6 × 5 min with PBS, then fixed for 10 min with 4% PFA and washed 2 more times. Coverslips were mounted with FluoroMount G and visualized with a Nikon CSU-W1 spinning disk confocal microscope.

Quantification of autoreactivity by rhAbs

Autoreactivity was quantified using Fiji [ 43 ]. Cells were identified by using the Threshold function to detect nuclei and were added to the Region of Interest (ROI) manager. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of positively-stained cells was measured, and the MFI of the background (regions where no cells were detected) was subtracted from this value.

Toxicity procedure

rhAbs were added to cell cultures as described above. Human astrocytes were incubated for 6 h prior to heat shock or remaining at 37 °C for 1.5 h. Cells were incubated with 6 μM Caspase-3/7 Green Detection Reagent (Invitrogen C10423) for the last 30 min of the incubation. Cells were fixed with 4% PFA then underwent immunocytochemistry with the following antibodies: Mouse anti-G3BP1 (1:100 BD Biosciences 611126), Goat anti-Human conj AlexaFluor 568 (1:1000 ThermoFisher A-21090), Goat anti-Mouse conj AlexaFluor 647. Coverslips were mounted and visualized with a Nikon CSU-W1 spinning disk confocal microscope.

Statistical analyses

Analyses were performed with GraphPad Prism 7 software (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). One-way ANOVA was used to compare flow cytometry and CyTOF data, unless there were less than three groups in which case a Student’s T-test was appropriate. For immune repertoire data additional corrections were performed for multiple comparisons of frequencies [ 39 ]. Frequencies subjected to arcsine transformation and non-parametric ANOVA was used with a post-hoc analysis (the Dunnett multiple comparison method) for pairwise comparison of patient groups with healthy donors.

Patient plasmablast frequency correlates with age

Adult patients presenting with ATM symptoms demonstrate an increased frequency of CD19 +/low CD27 HI plasmablasts in the blood compared to controls [ 30 ]. We hypothesized that pediatric patients presenting with ATM symptoms would also demonstrate an increased frequency of plasmablasts in the blood. To investigate this, we used conventional flow cytometry to identify (Fig.  1 A) and calculate the frequency of plasmablasts in the blood of 5 pediatric ATM patients and 10 pediatric healthy controls (HC). While the frequency of plasmablasts in the blood of the pediatric ATM patients and pediatric HC was no different (2.1% vs 2.5%, p = NS) (data not shown), we did note that the frequency of plasmablasts in the blood of pediatric and adult ATM patients increases with age (Fig.  1 B) whereas plasmablasts in the blood of pediatric and adult HC does not (Fig.  1 C).

Profiling of B cell subsets. A Gating strategy to obtain the frequency of plasmablast (PB) in each sample using traditional flow cytometry. B Plasmablast frequency correlation with age in patients with acute transverse myelitis using traditional flow cytometry. C Plasmablast frequency correlation with age in healthy controls using traditional flow cytometry. D–G Plasmablast subset frequencies in pediatric acute transverse myelitis and healthy controls using CyTOF data. H, I TSNE plots of CyTOF data identifying 20 distinct B cell subsets in the cohort

Pediatric patient plasmablast frequency is reduced compared to HC

To further our understanding of this early immune profiling data, we subjected the pediatric cohort (5 TM patients and 10 HC) to CyTOF technology which provided frequency information on 15 B cell subsets using a traditional gating strategy (Supplemental Fig. 1A and Supplemental Table 1). This data demonstrates that the overall frequency of plasmablasts in pediatric HC is significantly higher compared to pediatric ATM patients (p = 0.0007; Fig.  1 D). Class-switched plasmablasts constituted the majority of the plasmablast population in pediatric HC (p = 0.002; Fig.  1 E), while the frequency of IgM + plasmablasts was higher in pediatric ATM (Fig.  1 F), resulting in a switched:unswitched plasmablast ratio that was higher in the pediatric HC compared to ATM (Fig.  1 G). Next, we used FlowSOM analysis on the OMIQ platform comparing pediatric ATM and HC cohorts using the CD3 − CD14 − live singlets (Supplemental Fig. 1B) as the input to the FlowSOM clustering which generated 20 unique B cell clusters in the dataset (Fig.  1 H, I). Of those, Cluster 12 (CD27 + CD38 + plasmablasts) displayed discordant frequency between the ATM and HC cohorts, confirming our findings by traditional gating of the dataset. Cluster 13 (IgM + CD22 + ) was also noted to display discordant frequency between the ATM and HC cohorts.

Pediatric patient serum IgG displays autoreactivity

Plasmablasts, and more specifically, class-switched plasmablasts were not expanded in the pediatric ATM patients, but the antibodies produced by this reduced fraction of plasmablasts may be enriched for autoreactivity. To address this, we asked whether serum IgG from these patients displayed binding to neurons or glia in spinal cord tissue. We tested for binding on mouse spinal cord since transverse myelitis symptoms originate with pathology in this tissue. We used spinal cord from wild type (WT) mice with no evidence of neuroinflammation (Fig.  2 A and Supplementary Fig. 2) and spinal cord from mice that had experienced hind limb paralysis due to neuroinflammation following induction of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalitis (EAE) (Fig.  2 B and Supplementary Fig. 2). Using wild type spinal cord, we did not observe discordance in mean MFI binding to neurons or astrocytes between serum IgG from the pediatric ATM and HC groups (Fig.  2 C). Serum IgG samples from these groups also demonstrated similar mean MFI binding in neurons of EAE spinal cord (Fig.  2 D). However, the mean MFI binding of astrocytes by pediatric ATM serum IgG was significantly reduced in EAE spinal cord compared to mean MFI astrocyte binding by pediatric HC serum IgG (Mean MFI 731 vs 275, p = 0.039) (Fig.  2 D).

IgG purified from serum samples bind neurons and astrocytes in mouse spinal cord. A, B Representative images from the lumbar spinal cord of WT ( A ) and EAE ( B ) mice. Green: IgG staining. Red: GFAP. Blue: MAP2. In the merge panels, yellow indicates co-stain of GFAP with the rhAb. The MFI of astrocytic staining is indicated in parentheses. Scale bar: 20 μm. C, D Scatter plots of the mean fluorescent intensity of neuron and astrocyte binding in WT ( C ) and EAE ( D ) tissue using IgG purified from patient and control serum. The average MFI of each cohort is provided below the x-axis

Pediatric patient plasmablast discordance in heavy chain family use

The observations of reduced plasmablast frequency and reduced mean MFI binding to astrocytes in EAE spinal cord by serum IgG of these pediatric ATM patients compared to pediatric HC prompted us to examine potential discordance in antibody gene distribution between pediatric ATM and HC. To do this, we sorted plasmablasts from the blood of pediatric ATM patients and HC, then used our single cell PCR pipeline to obtain the frequency of heavy chain family usage among the plasmablast populations of each subject. Adult ATM patients display a robust expansion of VH4 family use compared to controls [ 30 ], but we did not observe enrichment of VH4 family use in the pediatric ATM patients compared to pediatric HC (Table  2 ). VH3 family use in the pediatric ATM patients was significantly reduced in comparison to pediatric HC (p = 0.016), but this did not alter the VH4:VH3 ratio of pediatric ATM patients compared to HC. The plasmablasts from pediatric ATM patients did display a higher mutation accumulation in comparison to pediatric HC (p = 0.047), but this was not specific to plasmablasts from pediatric ATM patients expressing VH4 family genes.

Low prevalence of neuron binding to EAE spinal cord by VH3 + and VH4 + antibodies from pediatric subjects

To further our understanding of whether plasmablast immunogenetics influence binding properties of the antibodies they produce, we cloned antibodies expressed by 20 plasmablasts from the cohort in 4 categories: VH3 + with no mutations (VH3 + SHM−), VH3 + with high mutation accumulation (VH3 + SHM +), VH4 + with no mutations (VH4 + SHM−) and VH4 + with high mutation accumulation (VH4 + SHM +) (Supplemental Table 2). We cloned and expressed these antibodies as recombinant human antibodies (rhAbs) as previously described [ 29 , 39 ] to determine reactivity. In each category, 2 rhAbs originated with pediatric HC and 3 rhAbs originated with pediatric ATM patients for a total of 20 rhAbs. We tested for binding on mouse spinal cord since transverse myelitis symptoms originate with pathology in this tissue. We used spinal cord from wild type (WT) mice with no evidence of neuroinflammation and spinal cord from mice that had experienced hind limb paralysis due to neuroinflammation associated with induction of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalitis (EAE). Of the 20 rhAbs tested, one bound neurons in WT spinal cord, 4 bound neurons in EAE spinal cord and one bound neurons in both WT and EAE spinal cord (Supplemental Table 2). Thus, 6 of the 20 rhAbs (30%) bound neurons in WT or EAE spinal cord. Of note, the two rhAbs that bound neurons in WT spinal cord were VH3+, while three of the five rhAbs that bound neurons in EAE spinal cord used VH4 antibody heavy chain genes. Both pediatric ATM and HC subjects had PBs producing neuron-binding rhAbs.

Somatic hypermutation enhances glia binding to EAE spinal cord by VH3 + and VH4+ antibodies from pediatric ATM subjects

In contrast to the low frequency of neuron-binding rhAbs, we observed that 11 of the 20 rhAbs (55%) bound astrocytes in WT or EAE spinal cord (Fig.  3 , Supplemental Fig. 3 and 4). All 5 of the EAE spinal cord neuron-binding rhAbs also bound astrocytes in EAE spinal cord (Supplemental Table 2). An additional 6 rhAbs acquired astrocyte binding in EAE spinal cord, but did not bind neurons in EAE spinal cord. Figures  3 A, B display PTM-6 rhAb as an example of binding astrocytes in both WT and EAE spinal cord and PTM-12 rhAb as an example of binding astrocytes in EAE spinal cord only. Of the 11 that bound astrocytes in EAE spinal cord, 4 used VH3 family genes and 7 used VH4 family genes (Fig.  3 C). Astrocyte binding intensity in EAE spinal cord was dependent on somatic hypermutation accumulation in the pediatric ATM cohort (Fig.  3 D), since antibodies with somatic hypermutations bound astrocytes in EAE spinal cord with significantly higher mean MFI (2.5-fold) than antibodies without SHM (565 v 1407, p = 0.0008). The pediatric HC cohort had similar mean MFI binding to astrocytes in EAE spinal cord, independent of SHM accumulation.

To determine if binding was specific to astrocytes in spinal cord, we also investigated binding of the rhAbs to astrocytes in WT and EAE mouse brain (Fig.  4 , Supplemental Table 2, and Supplemental Figs. 5 and 6). Of the 11 that bound astrocytes in EAE spinal cord, 9 bound astrocytes in EAE brain. Two of the 11 that bound astrocytes in EAE spinal cord did not bind astrocytes in EAE brain and one acquired astrocyte binding to EAE brain but did not bind astrocytes in EAE spinal cord. Figures  4 A, B display the PTM-6 and PTM-12 rhAbs as examples of binding astrocytes in both WT and EAE brain. Thus, 5 of the 20 rhAbs (25%) displayed astrocyte binding in WT brain and 12 of the 20 rhAbs (60%) displayed astrocyte binding in EAE brain (Fig.  4 C). Astrocyte binding in EAE brain by rhAbs was highly skewed towards those that originated from plasmablasts of pediatric HC (8 of 8 in HC compared to 4 of 12 in ATM). Astrocyte binding strength by rhAbs from pediatric HC in EAE brain was independent of SHM accumulation as we observed for EAE spinal cord (data not shown).

Plasmablast rhAbs bind neurons and astrocytes in mouse spinal cord. A, B Representative images of rhAbs binding neurons and astrocytes in the lumbar spinal cord of WT ( A ) and EAE ( B ) mice. Green: IgG staining. Red: GFAP. Blue: MAP2. In the merge panels, yellow indicates co-stain of GFAP with the rhAb. The MFI of astrocytic staining is indicated in parentheses. Scale bar: 20 μm. C Pie charts summarizing the number of rhAbs binding astrocytes in WT and EAE spinal cord tissue. D Scatter plots of the mean fluorescent intensity of the 11 astrocyte-binding rhAbs in EAE spinal cord tissue where the rhAbs are binned according to cohort (ALL, HC or ATM) and somatic hypermutation (SHM) accumulation status of the antibody heavy chain where “SHM−” indicates there is no SHM in the rhAb heavy chain and “SHM + ” indicates there is SHM in the rhAb heavy chain. Horizontal dashed line indicates the threshold of positivity which is set at 366.3. The average MFI of each cohort is provided below the x-axis

Plasmablast rhAbs bind neurons and astrocytes in mouse brain. A, B Representative images of rhAbs binding neurons and astrocytes in the brain of WT (A) and EAE ( B ) mice. Green: IgG staining. Red: GFAP. Violet: MAP2. Blue: DAPI. In the merge panels, yellow indicates co-stain of GFAP with the rhAb. The MFI of astrocytic staining is indicated in parentheses. Scale bar: 20 μm. C Pie charts summarizing the number of rhAbs binding astrocytes in WT and EAE spinal cord tissue. Positive binding rhAbs are binned according to antibody variable heavy chain use (VH3+ or VH4+)

Primary human astrocyte binding is similar in pediatric ATM patients and controls

Next, we investigated the binding properties of the 20 rhAbs to primary human astrocytes (Fig.  5 , Supplemental Fig. 7). Of the 20 rhAbs tested, 8 bound to human primary astrocytes (Fig.  5 A). Five of the 8 rhAbs that bound primary human astrocytes were from the pediatric ATM patients and the remaining 3 were from pediatric HC. Primary human astrocyte binding was observed with both VH3 + rhAbs and VH4 + rhAbs independent of SHM accumulation. The mean MFI of human primary astrocyte binding by rhAbs from the pediatric ATM cohort was similar to the mean MFI of human primary astrocyte binding by rhAbs from the pediatric HC cohort (Fig.  5 B). No general immunogenetic features (including VH gene use, JH gene use, CDR3 length or charge) of the 5 rhAbs from pediatric ATM patients that bound primary human astrocytes displayed commonalities that might infer preference for astrocyte binding (Table  3 ). However, we did observe 3 motifs in FR2 and FR3 shared among rhAbs from either pediatric ATM or HC that bound human primary astrocytes (Fig.  5 C). We also performed immunocytochemistry on the human epithelial cell line Hep-2 (Supplemental Fig. 8), a test commonly employed to detect anti-nuclear antibodies in SLE and a cell line expressing AQP4 (Supplemental Fig. 9), which identifies subjects that may be diagnosed with Neuromyelitis Optica. None of the rhabs in this cohort was reactive to AQP4 + HEK293 cells or Hep-2 cells.

Plasmablast rhAbs bind to human primary astrocytes. A Representative images for the 8 rhAbs that bind primary human astrocytes. Green: rhAb staining. Red: GFAP. Blue: DAPI. In the merge panels, yellow indicates co-stain of GFAP with the rhAb. The MFI of astrocytic staining is indicated in parentheses. Scale bar: 20 μm. B Scatterplots of the MFI of human primary astrocytes where the rhAbs with positive binding are binned according to cohort (HC or ATM). The average MFI of each cohort is provided to the left of the x-axis. C Alignment of the antibody heavy chain sequences using Clustal Omega (EMBL-EBI). Only those sequences of rhAbs with positive binding to human primary astrocytes are shown and are binned according to cohort (ATM above and HC below). Green boxes demarcate the 3 motifs shared between astrocyte binding rhAbs. One letter codons that underwent replacement mutation are indicated in red letters. Codon positions which have a fully conserved residue in all sequences are indicated by “*”. Conservation between groups of strongly similar properties are indicated by “:”. Conservation between groups of weakly similar properties are indicated by “.”

Astrocyte binding rhAbs from pediatric ATM patients enhance stress granule formation, but are not toxic to astrocytes

To investigate whether astrocyte binding impacts astrocyte health, we first determined the optimal time of rhAb internalization (Supplemental Fig. 10) in primary human astrocytes. Then the cultured primary human astrocytes were incubated with two of the rhAbs that displayed the highest intensity of human astrocyte binding (PTM-6 and PTM-12; Fig.  5 B) and one rhAb that does not bind astrocytes as a negative control (PTM-8). Following this incubation, the percentage of cells with G3BP1 + puncta was measured as an indication of astrocyte stress, and the percentage of Caspase 3/7 + cells was measured as an indication of astrocyte toxicity (Fig.  6 ). We used heatshock as a known inducer of G3BP1 punctate formation to provide a threshold of expected astrocyte stress [ 45 ]. Indeed, primary human astrocytes incubated with the negative control rhAb displayed a 2.5-fold increase of G3BP1 + puncta following heatshock (p = 0.012) (Fig.  6 C). Incubation of human astrocytes with PTM-6 rhAb resulted in a sixfold greater frequency of cells with G3BP1 + puncta than the negative control rhAb (p = 0.001) (Fig.  6 C). Incubation of human astrocytes with PTM-12 rhAb resulted in a fourfold greater frequency of cells with G3BP1 + puncta than the control (p = 0.001) (Fig.  6 C). Heatshock treatment did not further increase the frequency of G3BP1 + puncta exposed to PTM-6 or PTM-12 (Fig.  6 C). While both PTM-6 and PTM-12 induced astrocytic stress, neither rhAb induced astrocytic toxicity as measured by the frequency of Caspase 3/7 + cells (Fig.  6 D).

Astrocyte binding rhAbs induce astrocyte stress, but not apoptosis. A Representative images of untreated and heatshock treated human primary astrocytes to demonstrate G3BP1 + puncta formation. White arrowheads indicate G3BP1 + puncta. B Representative images of primary human astrocytes incubated with PTM-6 or PTM-12 rhAbs showing induction of G3BP1 + puncta. Green: rhAb. Red: G3BP1. Blue: DAPI. Violet: Active caspase 3/7. In the merge panels, yellow indicates co-stain of G3BP1 with the rhAb. Scale bar: 20 μm. C Summary statistics for G3BP1 puncta + cells as an indication of stress. D Summary statistics for Caspase 3/7 + cells as an indication of apoptosis

Patients of any age experiencing initial acute transverse myelitis symptoms are at a critical point when intervention could impact prognosis [ 23 , 37 ]. For example, use of immunosuppressive therapeutics such as corticosteroids and plasma exchange have shown efficacy in the adult ATM population [ 48 ]. However, the use of immunotherapy in the pediatric population could introduce additional issues with extended use. For example, prolonged use of corticosteroids can lead to bone, skin and endocrine complications particularly in pediatric populations [ 5 ]. Thus, a deeper understanding of the biology at these early stages of disease in the pediatric ATM population could reveal which pediatric ATM cases would benefit from immunosuppressive therapeutics. We previously demonstrated that adult ATM patients display an expansion of VH4 + PB in the blood, producing antibodies that bind to neurons. The initial focus here was to determine if these same features are displayed in pediatric ATM patients. We began our profiling of pediatric ATM by comparing the frequency of peripheral B cell subsets in pediatric ATM and HC (Fig.  1 ). In this analysis, we observed that the frequency of PB was significantly reduced in the pediatric ATM cohort compared to pediatric HC (p = 0.0007). One explanation for this observation is that PBs in pediatric ATM cases are not readily detected in the blood because they have extravasated to the central nervous system, presumably in response to inflammation in this compartment. However, we further observed that the total PB population in pediatric ATM was enriched for IgM + PB resulting in a ratio of switched:unswitched PB that was significantly higher in pediatric HC compared to pediatric ATM. This finding was further confirmed using FlowSOM analysis. Thus, the frequency of class-switched PBs in particular is reduced in the blood of pediatric ATM. Others have demonstrated that class-switched (IgA+) PB suppress CNS inflammation in mouse models of MS [ 40 ], which may support the notion that suppression of class-switched subsets allows for the CNS inflammation displayed in pediatric ATM patients. However, none of these pediatric ATM cases advanced to MS diagnosis within the 2 years of this study, despite reduced frequency of class-switched PBs. Future investigations should thus focus on the contribution of PB subsets (IgM + versus class-switched) and longitudinal profiling in pediatric ATM which is likely crucial to understanding the potential cause of a first (and perhaps only) ATM episode versus conversion to life-long autoimmune disease (expected 22%) [ 8 , 18 ].

We next sought to investigate whether this reduced PB population in pediatric ATM maintained its capacity to produce autoreactive immunoglobulin. To address this, we investigated the binding potential of purified IgG from serum samples (Fig.  2 ) and rhAbs cloned from individual PBs (Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 ). We had expected to observe substantial neuronal binding by purified IgG and rhAbs from pediatric ATM patients compared to pediatric HC as an extension of our adult ATM patient data observations. Instead, these two populations displayed similar frequencies and binding intensities to neurons in all tissue types tested. However, in EAE spinal cord tissue, we observed that purified IgG from pediatric HC had an increased mean MFI of binding to astrocytes compared to purified IgG from pediatric ATM. Astrocyte binding was also similar in these two populations in WT tissue samples. To examine this at the single cell level, we cloned 20 antibodies expressed by single PB from the cohort and found that 11 of them bound to astrocytes in EAE spinal cord. The 3 with the highest MFI were from pediatric ATM patients with high accumulation of SHM. A similar observation was made with EAE brain tissue with an enrichment of astrocyte binding by rhAbs that had high accumulation of SHM. While astrocyte reactivity of most of the rhAbs was confirmed in human primary astrocytes (Fig.  5 ), we did not observe any features of immunogenetics that inferred binding as both VH3 + and VH4 + rhAbs bound human primary astrocytes independent of SHM accumulation. Also, while the 5 rhAbs from the pediatric ATM PBs bound to astrocytes with a similar cytoplasmic pattern, one of the 3 astrocyte binding rhAbs from the pediatric HC cohort (PHC-5) bound exclusively in the nucleus of human primary astrocytes, not the cytoplasm. The PHC-5 rhAb and purified IgG from this same pediatric HC subject displayed typical astrocytic binding in the EAE spinal cord and brain tissue. Of note, the PHC-5 rhAb contains the 3 codon motifs associated with astrocyte binding by 5 of the pediatric TM rhAbs and the other 2 pediatric HC rhAbs, suggesting that other immunogenetic features may contribute to binding of PHC-5 rhAbs to the specific antigen target located in the nucleus. Curiously, none of these three motifs were in codon positions that had undergone SHM but were instead, original to the germline configuration in conserved framework regions of the variable domain. Future investigations should focus on (1) elucidating the impact of these 3 motifs on astrocyte binding properties, and (2) identifying the antigen targets as the binding patterns of these astrocyte-binding rhAbs are distinct.

The PTM-6 and PTM-12 rhAbs displayed the highest MFI of the human primary astrocyte binders (Fig.  5 ). To address the impact of these rhAbs on astrocyte function, we incubated human primary astrocytes with these two rhAbs and calculated the frequency of human primary astrocytes with G3BP1-marked cytoplasmic puncta as an indication of astrocytic stress [ 16 ], and Caspase 3/7 + human primary astrocytes as an indication of apoptotic events (Fig.  6 ) [ 45 ]. Our results indicated that incubation with PTM-6 and PTM-12 alone induced astrocytic stress but did not advance the human primary astrocytes to apoptosis. Subjecting the human primary astrocytes to a heatshock-induced stress event following incubation with PTM-6 did not further exacerbate astrocytic stress and did not advance the human primary astrocytes to apoptosis. Of note, PTM-6 displayed a higher MFI of human astrocyte binding than PTM-12, which may have facilitated its ability to induce a greater astrocytic stress response compared to PTM-12. A comparison of antibodies derived from pediatric ATM subjects to those derived from HC subjects (such as PHC-5 and PHC-6) may clarify whether induction of stress is common to the codon motifs associated with astrocyte binding, or distinct to pediatric ATM subjects.

Stress granules are membrane-less organelles that assemble during stress, injury, and neurological disease [ 20 , 42 , 47 ]. They consist of stalled mRNA transcripts, translation factors, ribosomal subunits, RNA-binding proteins, as well as G3BP1 which is a core component and required for their assembly [ 53 ]. While they are thought to be an adaptive response to unfavorable conditions and are normally cleared upon resolution of stress, their chronic presence is cytotoxic in certain cell types [ 55 ]. Exposure to IgG against a particular target can induce stress granules in neurons resulting in death [ 27 ], but this is the first report demonstrating that exposure to IgG can induce stress granules in astrocytes, but does not lead to death. In future studies, it would be valuable to determine whether chronic exposure to astrocyte-binding antibodies is cytotoxic, or whether presence of complement is required to induce cytotoxicity [ 32 ]. Examination of other mechanistic pathways in live-cell incubation assays will also determine the pathogenicity of astrocyte-binding antibodies [ 21 ].

The impact of this stress response by astrocytes mediated by astrocyte-binding antibodies on CNS health remains unknown. Astrocytes are essential to BBB integrity [ 25 ] and outnumber neurons 50:1 [ 50 ]. Astrocytes also transport nutrients to neurons and oligodendrocytes, and astrocyte activation after antibody binding [ 10 ] can induce production of cytotoxic factors and enhance immune responses, ultimately forming glial scars that impair remyelination and axonal regeneration [ 12 , 26 ]. Astrocyte release of inflammatory cytokines disrupts the BBB in MS by activating endothelial cells [ 1 , 34 ], so astrocyte-binding autoantibodies could challenge BBB integrity and affect entire regions of neurons as observed in NMO with autoantibodies against AQP4 [ 41 , 54 ]. Given these potentially deleterious effects of astrocyte-binding antibodies on astrocyte function, it stands to reason that it would be beneficial to suppress PB expansion in pediatric ATM patients experiencing CNS inflammation to reduce further injury caused by astrocyte-binding antibodies that PBs from pediatric ATM patients could potentially produce.

However, this conclusion does not resolve the observation that pediatric HC subjects display increased astrocyte binding of purified IgG from serum, and antibodies expressed by individual PB from pediatric HC subjects also bind astrocytes. It is possible that this dichotomy may relate to emerging data suggesting that astrocyte engagement is an important mechanism to reduce neuroinflammation and initiate/sustain neuroprotection [ 11 , 33 ] . This concept was originally established by observations that ischemic preconditioning (IPC) promotes neuroprotection from stroke through mechanisms involving astrocyte activation, including mild responses that would be deleterious to cellular health if larger in magnitude [ 24 ]. For example, astrocyte release of nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) following preconditioning resulted in neuroprotection from neuroinflammation associated with stroke [ 17 ]. Astrocyte activation through the P2X7 receptor has also been strongly implicated in neuroprotection from stroke [ 19 ] and astrocyte activation is important in recovery from traumatic brain injury [ 36 ]. In the context of Multiple Sclerosis, astrocyte activation through Oncostatin M release activates a feed-forward loop that reduces disease severity in a mouse model of MS [ 51 ]. Astrocytes can also modulate both acute and progressive mouse models of MS through a mechanism involving PD-L1 [ 31 ].

None of these previous studies investigated the impact of astrocyte-binding antibodies on astrocyte activation. We present evidence here that exposure of astrocytes to astrocyte-binding rhAbs induces astrocytic stress, but not astrocytic death. This raises the intriguing possibility that astrocyte-binding rhAbs may induce a stress response similar to the paradigm of ischemic preconditioning as a pathway to neuroprotection. This study is limited in that (1) we did not have access to cells in the CSF for further study of CNS autoimmunity in pediatric cases, (2) the impact of multiple vaccinations and increased frequency of viral illnesses during childhood is not considered and (3) antigen targets were not identified. Nevertheless, our observations of increased plasmablast frequencies in pediatric HC, increased titers of serum-derived IgG from pediatric HC that bind astrocytes, and increased astrocyte reactivity by rhAbs in the pediatric HC population without the need for SHM to drive astrocyte reactivity all support the concept that astrocyte-binding rhAbs may promote a neuroprotective astrocyte population at early stages of life. Indeed, the differences between pediatric ATM and adult ATM B cell repertoires may suggest that the two immune mediated spinal cord pathologies have distinct pathogenensis and should be studied separately. Such subjects would be protected from clinical manifestations of neuroinflammatory disease, whereas those with a less robust astrocyte-focused humoral immune response (as observed in our pediatric ATM patients using purified IgG pools) would manifest neuroinflammatory disease. To our knowledge, none of the current immunotherapies used in the treatment of pediatric ATM are designed to specifically modulate this potential mechanism. Further investigations of the impact astrocyte-binding antibodies have on astrocyte activation would further elucidate this potential mechanism of neuroprotection and lead to novel therapies specifically beneficial to the pediatric population.

Pediatric ATM patients display reduced frequency of peripheral PB and reduced titer of astrocyte-binding IgG purified from serum samples compared to pediatric HC. Nevertheless, astrocyte-binding antibodies expressed by PBs identified from pediatric ATM patients induce an astrocyte stress response, but not astrocytic apoptosis. The downstream impact of this astrocytic response has not been elucidated, but introduces an intriguing possibility of antibody-mediated neuroprotection.

Data and materials availability

Data are available upon request to the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the patients and healthy subjects who participated in these studies, as well as their parents, relatives, and the clinicians for making this work possible. Special thanks to Denny and Sandy Miller for use of their retreat home to write this paper. This manuscript is dedicated to the memory of Sara J. Ireland (d. 9.3.2022), our beloved colleague and friend who introduced us to the world of advanced immune profile platforms for this paper.

REDCap was used to archive clinical data associated with samples and was funded by NIH to UTSW (Grant UL1 TR003163). This manuscript was funded by grants awarded to Dr. Nancy Monson from the Transverse Myelitis Foundation and the National Institutes of Health (NS098229, NS102417 and NS123398). KT was supported by NIH grant K22 NS123508.

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CS, KielMT, SGMP, YLM, WZ, KeyMT, JRR, CJ, DSS, AW, RT, SC, and YQ participated in data generation; CS, KielMT, WZ, KeyMT, YQ and NLM prepared the figures, CS, SGMP, LGC, RHS, AMS, LN, BMG and NLM edited the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Smith, C., Telesford, K.M., Piccirillo, S.G.M. et al. Astrocytic stress response is induced by exposure to astrocyte-binding antibodies expressed by plasmablasts from pediatric patients with acute transverse myelitis. J Neuroinflammation 21 , 161 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-024-03127-2

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