do essay have table of contents

How to Format an APA Table of Contents

Do I need a table of contents in APA? How do I format an APA table of contents? Do I still use the standard APA paper format guidelines? While not every paper needs a table of contents, the ones that do need it should adhere to a specific format. In this guide, we explain everything you need to know about the correct table of contents format for APA.

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What is an APA table of contents?

In general, a table of contents is a small section or page at the beginning of a work that outlines all the chapters or section titles and their page numbers. It’s a navigational guide for the convenience of readers, so they can jump straight to the part that interests them.

Typically, papers in the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences use the APA format . Business papers sometimes do, too. APA guidelines don’t require a table of contents, but the guidelines describe the format to use if you do include a table of contents. So, if you’re working with APA style but want to include (or have been told to include) a table of contents, the following will tell you how.

Do I need a table of contents in APA?

No, you do not need a table of contents in APA; it is not a requirement. However, longer papers like a dissertation or thesis paper still benefit from a table of contents because they contain so many parts. While tables of contents are not mandatory, long papers in APA should still include them as a courtesy to the reader.

Table of contents format for APA

An APA table of contents follows the same general guidelines of the standard APA paper format. Specifically, follow these rules for a perfect APA table of contents:

1 The APA table of contents comes after the title page and before the introduction or start of the body text. Although the APA has no formal rules about where to put it, the table of contents is still considered supplemental—not a part of the main paper. If your paper has an abstract , ask your professor or superior whether to put it before or after the table of contents.

2 Begin the table of contents on a new page. At the end of the table of contents, include a page break and start the next section on a separate page.

3 Use 1-inch margins on each side of the page, the standard APA paper format.

4 Use pages that are 8½ by 11 inches—another part of the standard APA paper format.

5 The APA paper format uses a header (called the “running head”) on every page, including the table of contents. For student papers, this includes only the page number, flush right. For professional papers, this includes the page number flush right and also the work’s title, shortened to fifty characters or less, flush left.

6 The APA format is somewhat flexible when it comes to font types and sizes. While you’re free to experiment, we suggest using either Arial (11 points), Calibri (11 points), Lucida (10 points), or Times New Roman (12 points). (Microsoft has a new default font, called Aptos, which replaces Calibri. You can probably use 11-point Aptos instead of one of the others we named, if it’s available in your software.)

7 Your table of contents, like the rest of your paper, should be double-spaced: every other line should be blank.

8 Add a title for the table of contents on the first line. The title should be bolded and centered, but use the same font type and size as the rest of the paper. The actual title should be something simple like “Table of Contents” or “Contents.”

9 The table of contents should be structured in order by page number, not alphabetical order.

10 Include every section and subsection title in the table of contents, along with its starting page number. Every time you use a Heading 1, Heading 2, or Heading 3 title in your paper, that section heading should go in the table of contents.

11 The titles for each main section or chapter start at the left margin (1 inch from the edge of the paper), with no indentation. All subsections are listed underneath the main section title they relate to, and they use an extra indentation of ½ inch. If the subsections have their own sub-subsections, list their titles underneath with another extra indentation, totaling 1 inch from the margin.

12 Use title capitalization for section names (capitalize the first letter of each major word).

13 Include the reference page , appendices , and index in the table of contents if applicable.

14 Do not include the title page, or the abstract (if your paper has one), in the table of contents.

15 Leaders, sometimes called dot leaders, are those dot lines that connect a title on the left to its page number on the right. They are optional.

……………………………

APA table of contents example

Introduction                                                                                                                        3

Method                                                                                                                                 4

Participants                                                                                                                 4

Measures                                                                                                                      5

Self-esteem                                                                                                          7

Gender-Equality Indicators                                                                             9

Procedure                                                                                                                     10

Results                                                                                                                                  10

Gender and Age Effects Across Cultures                                                          13

Culture-Level Correlates                                                                                         17

Discussion                                                                                                                           17

Limitations and Future Directions                                                                       18

Conclusion                                                                                                                    18

How to create an APA table of contents in Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word can format a table of contents automatically, although you’ll still have to edit it to make sure it complies with APA guidelines.

It’s easiest to create the table of contents last. The most important thing is to consistently use Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3 for all your section titles in the body text .

Word can then detect each of these headings and automatically create your table of contents, placing Heading 2 titles underneath the Heading 1 entries, and Heading 3 titles underneath their Heading 2 section. Once it’s created, you may still need to reformat things like indentation, spacing, font, etc.

When you’ve finished your text and are ready to add the table of contents, simply put the cursor above the main text, go to the References tab, and click Table of Contents. The location of the References tab varies depending on your version of Word, but for many people, it will be in the second horizontal menu along the top of the document window.

APA table of contents FAQs

No, you do not need a table of contents in APA; it is not a requirement. However, longer papers like a dissertation or thesis paper benefit from having a table of contents because they contain so many parts. While tables of contents are not mandatory, long papers in APA should still include them as a courtesy to the reader.

What is the table of contents format for APA?

An APA table of contents follows the same guidelines as the standard APA paper format. Specifically, use double-spacing and one-inch margins on all sides of the page. Subsections use an extra indent and are placed under the section that includes them.

How do you create an APA table of contents in Microsoft Word?

It’s easiest to create the table of contents in Microsoft Word as the final step after you’ve written the body text. Be sure to consistently use Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3 when writing the body text. Then go to References > Table of Contents and Word will automatically generate your table of contents, based on section titles using Headings 1, 2, and 3.

How do I format a table of contents in MLA style?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Tables of contents may be formatted in a number of ways. In our publications, we sometimes list chapter numbers before chapter titles and sometimes list the chapter titles alone. We also sometimes list section heads beneath the chapter titles. After each chapter or heading title, the page number on which the chapter or section begins is provided. The following show examples from three of the MLA’s books.

From Elizabeth Brookbank and H. Faye Christenberry’s  MLA Guide to Undergraduate Research in Literature  (Modern Language Association of America, 2019):

From  Approaches to Teaching Bechdel’s  Fun Home, edited by Judith Kegan Gardiner (Modern Language Association of America, 2018):

From the  MLA Handbook , 8th ed. (Modern Language Association of America, 2016):

Need more information? Read about where to place a table of contents in your paper .

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Table of contents

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Today we are going to learn how to make a proper APA table of contents. However, let’s start with some backstory to understand the formatting standards according to the latest  APA 7th edition .

In an  APA style paper , a table of contents is commonly used in longer research papers or dissertations to provide an organized outline of the document's structure. It helps to increase readability and navigation greatly. Even though a table of contents is not officially required by the APA guide, you may be asked by the instructor to include one. That’s why we compiled this guide on how to format a table of contents in APA style. Read our detailed instructions to arrange a contents page. Or you can always ask StudyCrumb to " write my paper for me " and get comprehensive help with your work, including assistance with formatting.

Table of Contents APA: Basics

In the present APA table of contents guide, we will show the most convenient and recommendable format for an APA paper. The first thing that you need to remember — it can not exceed two pages in size. So if the table is a must according to the instructor, you may have to exclude some section headings to fit in. It is good to optimize your paper with subheadings, but don’t get obsessed with it. Here are some of the major formatting rules according to APA Style:  

• Include at least 2 levels of headings — level 1 and level 2.
• Use up to 5 levels of headings if it fits the structure.
• Apply indents to highlight different levels of headings.
• Locate it right after the abstract, before the intro part. (Read more information if you still wonder on how to write an abstract APA .)
• Use a 12 pt Times New Roman font.
• Keep the headings in the table left-aligned.
• Capitalize all the headlines.
• Make sure that margins from all sides are 1 inch long.

In all other regards, your formatting sticks to the plain text format. Don’t include any unnecessary formatting or highlighting. And don't be afraid to ask your instructor about it if you have any doubts or questions. At any time, you can  buy essay  quickly, remember about it.

APA Table of Contents Example

Nevertheless, there is nothing more representative than a proper APA table of contents sample. Pay attention to the length of indents for different heading levels. Check out our sample right below.

Note, there is no fixed standard for the length of indents that you make to highlight every level of headlines. Make sure that your headlines look readable and easy to distinguish.

Looking for annotated bibliography example APA ? We have got you covered! Open one more of our blogs.

How to Make APA Table of Contents in Word

Microsoft Word is the most likely software for formatting APA style tables of content. That’s why right now, we will learn how to generate automated ones. It is a very simple operation, and you only have to remember easy 3 steps:

• Format the headings first
• Apply an APA style format
• Keep your table updated.

And now, look closer at each individual step, so it will be much easier to remember. So, let’s go! Buy APA format paper entirely from scratch if you have troubles at this point.

Format Your Headings

Before starting working with headings, make sure that all of them are in line with the general formatting style. Normally, the table of contents is generated after the text is finished and proofread. So don’t be in a hurry, even though the contents are located in the very beginning of the text. Make sure that your piece is flawless and doesn’t contain misspellings. Try an  online typing test  to hone your typing skills quickly. Formatting headings is easy — just highlight the heading first. Then, find a top panel featuring heading styles and make a right click on the one you want to choose. After it, select Please update Heading X to match selection. Do it with every heading that you have. Assign each one with Heading 1 — Heading 5 roles.  

Create Table of Contents in APA Formats

One more step and our APA paper with table of contents is as good as ready. From the very beginning, type the page name, keep it centered and aligned to the top. Remember about 1-inch long indents. Make the heading bold to increase readability and navigation. Then choose the “ Table of Contents ” option from the “References” menu that is located on the top panel. In the new window, choose the number of heading levels that will be displayed. As you remember, you need at least 2 and not more than 5 levels of headings.  

Keep Table of Contents Consistent

From this point, all the highlighted headings will be automatically synchronized with your table of contents. In case if you make changes to the actual heading, you may also change it in your list in one click. Just make a right click on it and choose the “Update Field” option. In Microsoft Word, you can choose to update either one element or all elements at a time. We recommend updating all the elements to keep your paper consistent and good-looking. Hiring a bibliography writer to work on your table of contents might be helpful as well.

We hope our blog explained all those formatting tricks in a most understandable way. Check out other articles if you have any other questions about academic writing. Good luck with your writing!

Whether it is an APA-style paper or an opinion essay, be sure it will be delivered timely and composed with skill and diligence. Check out the writing service and give yourself a little break from writing! Contact us when you are ready. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. is there a size limit for a table of contents in apa style.

Yes, your table of contents should not be bigger than two pages long. If it is larger, consider deleting it entirely or some of the headlines to fit in.

2. Where in the text is the table of contents located in APA style paper?

The table of contents is located after the Acknowledgment but before the Introduction paragraph.

3. How many heading levels is it required to have in a table of contents?

You need to include at least 2 levels and not more than 5 levels of headings. Just analyze the text and come up with the right format for your paper.

Emma Flores knows all about formatting standards. She shares with StudyCrumb readers tips on creating academic papers that will meet high-quality standards.

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• Writing Tips

How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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A Table of Contents in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Adah Chung is a fact checker, writer, researcher, and occupational therapist. 

General Guidelines

• Table of Contents

APA style does not require a table of contents, but there are cases where you may need to include one. For example, your instructor may specify that your paper must be submitted with a table of contents. A table of contents can be particularly helpful in cases where your paper is lengthy or covers a lot of material, such as a thesis paper or dissertation. Research papers, in particular, may benefit from the addition of a table of contents.

APA style is the official publication style of the American Psychological Association. APA style is used in psychology courses as well as other social science classes including those in social science, behavioral sciences, and education.

The table of contents serves as a basic roadmap of your paper. It should list all of the major headings and subheadings within the body of your paper. For a standard psychology paper, it might include listings for the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of your paper.

While the APA may not specify guidelines for a table of contents, you should use the basic APA format for formatting your table of contents:

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• Use 12-point Times New Roman font
• Double-space

Since APA does not require a table of contents, you should always refer to your instructor’s guidelines when deciding whether or not to include one.

It is also important to note that the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in 2020, and included updated guidelines on many topics.

For example, while the previous edition of the style manual required a running head on each page of a paper, the 7th edition has eliminated that requirement on student papers unless your instructor specifies to include it. Always ask first.

If you are using a standard APA paper format, your table of contents should include the following sections:

• Introduction

The above format may work well for a standard lab report or research paper. However, your table of contents will look much different if you are writing something such as a critique, essay, or case study.

Notice, that the table of contents does not include the abstract or acknowledgments pages. When applicable, it should list the appendices and the lists of tables and figures.

The exact order of your paper depends largely on the type of paper you are writing. In general, your paper should be presented in the following order:

• Main Body of Paper

Table of Contents Format

Because there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to the provided guidelines for your assignment.

If your instructor does not have a preferred format, consider using the following:

• Title the page “Table of Contents” and center the title at the top of the page.
• Most papers should include at least two levels of headings, up to five levels.
• Level one headings will be for main topics, such as chapter titles like "Chapter One; Name of Chapter," or research sections like "Method," "Results," and "Discussion."
• All level-one headings should be flush-left and sub-headings should be indented five spaces deeper than the last. 
• All heading levels should be in title case, capitalizing the first letter of each word. The font type, style, and size stay the same for each level.
• The page number for each heading is formatted flush-right. Include dot leaders between the headings and the page number to improve readability.

While you might not think that following APA format is important, it is one of those areas where students can lose points for making small errors. It pays to spend a little extra time and attention making sure that your paper is formatted in proper APA style.

• If you need help, you can get assistance from your school's writing lab.
• Getting your own copy of the latest edition of the APA publication manual can be very helpful.
• Always refer to any instructions or guidelines that were provided by your course instructor.
• There is a helpful feature in most word processors that you can use to pre-format your paper in APA style. It takes a little effort to set it up, but well worth it in the end, especially for longer documents. You can save the style to apply to your future papers saving you the effort next time.

For those writing a paper to submit for publication, check with the publisher for any specific formatting requirements that they may have.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) ; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to Write a Table of Contents: Basic, MLA, and APA Styles

Usually, tables of contents are used in documents that consist of several chapters or sections. Creating a table of contents may seem to be a simple task, however, different formatting styles and rules regarding spacing may cause some problems if students are not familiar with these standards.

College-Writers.com decided to help you prepare a good table of contents by explaining the features of the most common styles: MLA and APA. The MLA style is popular in literature, while APA is used in social sciences. If there’s no particular style specified by your professor, you may need to create a basic table of contents.

Basic Table of Contents

First, let’s see what a basic table of contents looks like. This table should demonstrate how your paper is organized, and what topics are addressed in it. You should include every section of your paper and provide a corresponding page number. If your work has big sections, you can benefit from making descriptive headlines so that your audience could easily find the necessary information on any specific subtopic. For example, if this article was several pages long, its table of contents would look like this:

Introduction……………………………………………………….1

Basic Table of Contents…………………………………………3

APA Style Table of Contents……………………………………5

MLA Style Table of Contents……………………………………6

Entries in your table of content should be written using capital letters, just like headlines in your paper. To make your table easy to read, line up page numbers. You can do it manually or use various programs that can format your text documents automatically. These programs can also help with spacing.

APA Table of Contents

You may or may not use the APA style in your papers, depending on your field of study, the type of your paper, and requirements of your school. Literature reviews traditionally don’t have a table of contents, having only a standard title page. In this case, you should also include an introduction and a reference list. If your paper has several major sections, its table of contents may look like this:

Abstract………………………………………………………….2

Introduction…………………………………………………….5

Method…………………………………………………………..6

Results……………………………………………………………9

Tables……………………………………………………………11

References………………………………………………………14

The title shouldn’t be underlined or written in bold font. An APA table of contents should also include an abstract and a list of references. Obviously, you should also follow the general guidelines of the APA style. When creating a table of contents according to the APA style, you may also benefit from making descriptive headlines.

MLA Table of Contents

Your MLA style paper may have a table of contents if it’s long enough. The MLA format doesn’t have any strict requirements regarding breaking up the text so you can approach this issue as you like, taking into account the type of content. Here’s a list of suggested sections for an MLA paper:

• Acknowledgments;
• Introduction;
• Body (three parts);
• Conclusion (Summary);
• Explanatory Notes;
• Appendices;
• Contact Organizations;
• Endnotes (if you don’t use citations in parentheses or footnotes);
• Bibliography;

You should also include a title page, however, there’s no need to number it, unless your title is on the main page of your paper. Don’t forget that the MLA style also requires you to provide a list of tables and illustrations. Here’s an example of a table of contents written according to the MLA format:

Introduction……………………………………………………..2

Arts………………………………………………………………..5

Government……………………………………………………..8

Works Cited……………………………………………………..10

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on May 15, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction . The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis , paper, or dissertation topic , there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes “level 1” headings , or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as “level 2” headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into “level 3” headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper .

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review , Methodology , and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3)!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says “Heading 1.”
• Select “Update Heading 1 to Match Selection.”
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the “References” section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click “OK” and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select “Update Field.” You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations, and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

George, T. (2023, July 18). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/table-of-contents/

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How to Write a Table of Contents

Last Updated: February 16, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Stephanie Wong Ken, MFA . Stephanie Wong Ken is a writer based in Canada. Stephanie's writing has appeared in Joyland, Catapult, Pithead Chapel, Cosmonaut's Avenue, and other publications. She holds an MFA in Fiction and Creative Writing from Portland State University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,043,988 times.

The Table of Contents in a document acts as a map for the reader, making it easier for them to find information in the document based on title and page number. A good Table of Contents should be organized, easy to read and simple to use. You can write a Table of Contents manually on your computer or have a word processing tool create it for you. Make sure the Table of Contents is formatted properly in your final document so it is as accurate and accessible as possible.

Sample Tables of Contents

Creating the Table of Contents on a Word Processor

• The Table of Contents should be on its own page. Do not include the introduction or a dedication on the same page as the Table of Contents.

• For example, you may write down main headings like, “Introduction,” “Case Study 1,” or “Conclusion.”

• For example, under the main heading “Introduction” you may write the subheading, “Themes and Concepts.” Or under the main heading “Conclusion” you may write, “Final Analysis.”
• You can also include sub-subheadings underneath the subheadings, if applicable. For example, under the subheading “Themes and Concepts” you may have the sub-subheading, “Identity.”
• Some papers do not have subheadings at all, only main headings. If this is the case, skip this step.

• For example, if the “Introduction” section begins on page 1, you will attach “page 1” to the Introduction heading. If the “Conclusion” section begins on page 45, attach “page 45” to the Conclusion heading.

• Check that the subheadings are located underneath the correct headings, indented to the right.
• Make sure there are page numbers for the subheadings listed as well.
• You can center the content in the table using the table options if you want the content to appear a few spaces away from the lines of the table. You can also leave the content indented to the left if you'd prefer.

• You can put the title above the table or in a separate row on the top of the rest of the content.

Using a Word Processing Tool

• You should also confirm the page numbers are correct in the document. Each page should be numbered in order. Having the correct page numbers will ensure the Table of Contents is created correctly when you use the word processing tool.

• If there are subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 2.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 2” in the Styles tab.
• If there are sub-subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 3.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 3” in the Styles tab.
• The text and font for each main heading may change based on the settings for “Heading 1,” “Heading 2,” and “Heading 3.” You can choose your preferred text and font for each main heading so they appear as you like in the Table of Contents.

• You can choose the built-in Table of Content options, where the tool will automatically choose a font size and style for you.
• You can also go for from a list of custom Table of Contents, where you choose the font color and size based on your preferences.

Polishing the Table of Contents

• You should also check the subheadings or sub-subheadings in the Table of Contents, if applicable, to ensure they match those in the document.

• If you created the Table of Contents manually, do this by going in and adjusting the headings and/or the page numbers when they change.
• If you created the Table of Contents with a word processing tool, update it by clicking the Update option by the Table of Contents option on the Reference tab. You can side clicking on the Table of Contents and choosing “update” that way.

Community Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/how-to-create-a-table-of-contents-in-word/1/#
• ↑ https://examples.yourdictionary.com/reference/examples/table-of-content-examples.html
• ↑ http://bitesizebio.com/21549/using-word-to-write-your-thesis-making-a-table-of-contents-inserting-captions-and-cross-referencing/
• ↑ https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283073&p=1886010
• ↑ https://nsufl.libguides.com/c.php?g=413851&p=2820026

About This Article

To write a table of contents, open a new document and list the major headings, titles, or chapters of the project in chronological order. Next, insert subheadings or subtopics if your project has those. Fill in the page number where each heading starts, then format the content in a table with 2 columns. Place the headings and subheadings in order in the first column, then put the page numbers in the second column. Don't forget to add a "Table of Contents" title at the top of the document! To learn more about polishing your Table of Contents, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to create a table of contents in Word (step-by-step)

• Post last modified: November 10, 2023

In this article, you’ll learn how to make a Table of Contents in Word, as well as how to update and manage it inside your document.

There are 3 types of Table of Contents you can create in Microsoft Word (all with a number of different options and features):

• Automatic Table  (based on your saved formatting)
• Custom Table of Contents  that is 100% customizable
• Manual Table  that requires you to do all of the heavy lifting

Below are examples of 3 of the many styles of Table of Contents you can quickly create in Word.

The most important thing to know about creating an automatic Table of Contents in Word is that you first need to format your document using the  Heading Styles .

That’s because it’s the  Heading  Styles   formatting (as you can see pictured below) that feeds your Table of Contents. This step is explained in detail below.

If you don’t want to use the Heading Styles, you can use a  Manual Table to create your Table of Contents, as discussed below.

Note:  Throughout this article, the words  Table of Contents  and  TOC  are used interchangeably. On the top, of all examples below were created using the Microsoft Office 365 subscription, which you can learn about on Microsoft’s website here .

How to create a table of contents in Word

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The first critical step to creating an automatic updating TOC in Word is properly formatting the sections of your document using the :

• Heading 1 style
• Heading 2 style
• Heading 3  s tyle

If you have already formatted your document this way, you can skip to the next section.

Note:  You are not limited to the default  Heading  Styles   formatting. Below I’ll show you how you can not only change your  Styles  formatting, but also how you can create your own.

1. Applying Heading Style Formatting

To properly format your Word document using the  Heading  Styles , simply:

• Select  the section Headings of your document
• Navigate to the  Home  tab
• Select the  Heading 1 ,  Heading 2  or  Heading 3  style, as appropriate

By default, only the Heading 1 through Heading 3 Styles will automatically populate into your Table of Contents.

You can still use the Heading 4 through Heading 9 styles in a Table of Contents, but you’ll have to do so with a Custom Table of Contents, as discussed below.

• Select  your section heading text
• Navigate to the  References  tab
• Open the  Add Text  dropdown menu
• Select your  Heading  style

2. Heading Style Shortcuts

If you have a large Word document, you can speed up the formatting process by using Heading Style shortcuts.

Shortcuts like these are the fastest way to double your productivity.

To set up a basic Table of Contents in Word, the 3 Heading Styles shortcuts you’ll need to remember are:

• Heading Style 1 shortcut:  Alt + Shift + 1
• Heading Style 2 shortcut:  Alt + Shift + 2
• Heading Style 3 shortcut:  Alt + Shift + 3

You can apply the  Normal  style to any text in your document that you don’t want to show in your TOC.

Normal Style Shortcut:  Ctrl + Shift + N

When making an automatic Table of Contents in Word, only content that is properly formatted using these Heading Styles will appear in your TOC.

Furthermore, this formatting is critical if you later want to convert Word to PowerPoint .

3. Changing Your Heading Style Formatting

If you don’t like the way the default Heading Styles look, you can change them. To do that, simply:

• Navigate to the  Design  tab
• Choose a different  Document Formatting

If you click the downward facing arrow, you will see more options, as pictured above.

Note:  The  Document Formatting  styles change all of the formatting styles within your Word document. Therefore, you’ll want to review your entire Word document to make sure you are okay with whatever new Document Formatting you select.

4. Creating Your Own Heading Style Formatting

If you don’t like the  Document Formatting  options for your Heading Styles, you can create your own. To do that, simply:

• Format  your Heading Style however you want it to look
• Right-Click  the Heading Style you want to change
• Select  Update Heading to Match Selection

Doing so will change the Heading Style to match the formatting you’d applied to that text. In addition, it will automatically update all the existing Headings of that level in your Word document.

How to Insert a Table of Contents

Once you’ve properly formatted your document using the different  Heading  Styles , creating your Table of Contents is pretty straightforward.

1. Insert a Table of Contents

Once your Word document is properly formatted with the Heading Styles, to make your Table of Contents, simply:

• Click  into your document where you want your TOC
• Navigate to the  References  tab
• Open the  Table of Contents  dropdown menu
• Choose  Automatic Table 1  or  Automatic Table 2

Choosing either option inserts a TOC based on your Heading 1, Heading 2 and Heading 3 Styles.

Your TOC might look different than the one pictured above depending on whether you previously inserted and saved your TOC style.

• Insert at Current Document position
• Insert at Beginning of Document
• Insert at End of Document
• Insert at Beginning of Section
• Insert at End of Section

That’s the difference between the Automatic Table 1 and Automatic Table 2 styles?

Not much. The main difference is the title – table of contents vs. contents – which you can just click into and change. If you need more formatting options beyond the Automatic Table styles, you can create your own Custom Table of Contents.

If you want more than just 3 levels in your Table of Contents, you’ll need to insert a Custom Table.

2. Format Your Table of Contents

To format your Table of Contents in Word, simply:

• Hover  your mouse to the left of your TOC (your arrow will look like a diagonal arrow)
• Select  the Heading Style you want to change
• Format  it however you wish

Sometimes this takes a few attempts to select your Heading Styles so they all properly update. If it doesn’t work the first time, just try it again.

Note:  Formatting the Heading Styles of your TOC only affects the formatting styles inside your TOC. None of your document level formatting is affected.

3. How to Save Your Table of Contents formatting

After formatting the different levels of your TOC, you are given the option to save that formatting when you exit out of Microsoft Word.

If you select  Save , your manual formatting adjustments are saved to Word. That means that the next time you make a Table of Contents, all of your manual adjustments will show up by default.

Once you reformat the different elements of your new Table of Contents, you will be given the option to save them again when you exit Word.

4. Updating a Table of Contents

Table of Contents in Microsoft Word DO NOT automatically update themselves.

As you add and remove content to your document, you need to manually click the  Update  button to have your TOC update itself.

Your TOC is just a snapshot in time of when you either inserted it or last updated it. So, don’t forget to update it when you are done making changes to your document.

To update a Table of Contents in Word, simply:

• Click  Update Table
• Choose  Update p age numbers o nly  or  Update e ntire table

If you are using one of the  Automatic Table  layouts, can also select the  Update Table  button at the top of your table, as pictured below.

The two update options are:

• Page numbers only  updates the page numbers of your TOC. It does not update the structure of your TOC based on any sections you’ve added or removed. It also does not update any of the text in your Headings, or the Heading Styles.
• Entire table  updates everything in your TOC including page numbers, sections added and sections removed.

If you have made many changes to your Word document, or are unsure of what you’ve changed, I recommend updating the entire table. That ensures that everything within your document is accurately reflected in your TOC.

5. Table of Contents Navigational Shortcuts

The cool thing about making an automatic Table of Contents in Word, is that you can use it to quickly jump around your document.

That’s because each of the lines of your TOC is a hyperlink to that section within your document. All you need to do is hold down the Ctrl key and click the section of your TOC

An alternative way you can quickly navigate the sections of your Table of Contents is with the Navigation Pane . In it, you can see all the different sections of your document.

To open the  Navigation Pane  to see your Headings in Word, simply:

• Navigate to the  View  tab
• Click ​on  Navigation Pane

Within the  Navigation Pane , you can see, expand, collapse and navigate all the sections within your document.

This is another benefit of using the  Heading Styles  to properly format your Word document.

Removing a Table of Contents

To remove a Table of Contents from a Word document, simply:

• Open the  Table of Contents  dropown menu
• Select  Remove Table of Contents

If you are using one of the Automatic Table styles, you can also use the dropdown menu at the top of your table, as pictured below.

Creating a Custom Table of Contents

If you need more formatting options than the automatic table styles provide, you can create your own Custom Table of Contents.

To create a Custom Table of Contents in Word, simply:

• Open the  Table of Content s  dropdown menu
• Choose  Custom Table of Contents
• Customize the elements of your TOC (see details below)

Don’t worry about getting your custom TOC right the first time through. There are a lot of options to choose from and you can always go back and make different selections

Note:  A Custom Table of Contents is still based on the  Heading Styles  you use to format your Word document. That means that if you do not properly format your document, your TOC will be blank.

On top of that, as you add and remove content to your document, you will need to use the  Update Table  command to update your custom TOC.

If you do not want an automatic updating TOC, insert a  Manual Table .

1. Show Page Numbers Options

Selecting or de-selecting the  Show page numbers  box adds or removes the page numbers from your TOC, as you can see in the picture above.

My recommendation is to always select  Show page numbers , as that makes it easier to understand and navigate your document. That’s usually the point of creating a TOC in the first place

2. Right Align Page Numbers Options

Right align page numbers  determines whether your page numbers are aligned on the right side of your document, or if they are just stacked up after your section Headings.

My recommendation is to always use the  Right align  option. This not only makes your TOC easier to read, it also also opens up all of the  Tab leader  options (discussed next).

3. Tab Leader Options

There are four different  Tab leader  options you can use to format your TOC, as pictured above.

The  Tab leader  dropdown menu is only available when you are using the  Right align page numbers option. If you don’t like these styles of Tab leaders, you can use a Manual Table and create your own.

My recommendation is to always use a Tab leader as it makes it easier to find the section page numbers within your Word document.

4. Format Template Options

There are a variety of different  Format  templates  you can use to change the look and feel of your TOC. For each one, you can make a number of adjustments and customizations. Here are the default formatting options for each one, as pictured above:

• Distinctive

You also have the  From Template  option which opens up the more manual formatting options for you if you know what you are doing (see the  Options  and  Modify  commands below).

All of these formats can be tweaked using the other formatting options in the Custom TOC dialog box. So feel free to try different combinations to find the custom TOC formatting that works best for you.

5. Show Levels Options

The  Show levels  setting determines how many of the Heading Style levels are included in your Table of Contents.

Just remember that to feed more content into your TOC, you first need to use the Heading Styles formatting throughout your document.

This is another example of when properly formatting your Word document can be a real lifesaver.

6. Options & Modify

If you use the  From Template  option to format your TOC, you can apply advanced formatting using the  Options  and  Modify  commands.

These are for advanced users and go above and beyond the scope of this tutorial (and what you’ll probably need to do). So, I’m not going into detail about these options here. But feel free to explore them if you need additional formatting options for your Table of Contents.

Creating a Manual Table of Contents

If you don’t want to use the Automatic TOC styles, you can instead use the Manual Table  option.

Warning:  Just so we are crystal clear before you go this route. Inserting a  Manual Table  means that you will be responsible for manually updating anything and everything within the table.

A Manual Table will not track or update itself based on any content you add or remove to your Word document. Therefore, if you make a lot of changes in your document, updating your TOC could take you a long time.

If you ever get tired of updating a table like this, you can insert an Automatic Updating TOC.

To insert a  Manual Table  for your TOC in Word, simply:

• Click  into your document where you want your TOC
• Select  Manual Table

Selecting  Manual Table , you get a default Table of Contents that in no way reflects the content of your document.

Whether you have 1 page or 100 pages in your document, the Manual Table will come pre-loaded with two level 1, level 2 and level 3 placeholders

That means that anything you want done to your TOC, you’ll need to do yourself. There is no way to automatically update a Manual Table.

Below you’ll find some formatting tips for how to best update and edit your  Manual Table .

• Navigate to the  Insert  tab
• Open the  Table  dropdown menu
• Select how many  Rows  and  Columns  you want in your table

1. Add a New Section Row

To add a new section to a  Manual table , first add a new blank row. The fastest way to do that is to put your cursor at the end of your page number and hit Enter.

To add a new row of formatting to your  Manual Table , simply:

• Select  a section row that you want to copy
• Hit  Ctrl + C  to copy the row
• Click into your blank row
• Hit  Ctrl + V  to paste your row

Once you’ve pasted in your new row, you can then type in whatever text you want for it.

Thankfully, the  Tab leader  dots automatically adjust as you type in your section Headings. You don’t have to add them in yourself.

2. Edit Your Page Numbers

To edit the page numbers of your  Manual Table , you’ll need to:

• Click and drag  to select the page number
• Type  and/or  format  your page number

Remember:  When you use a  Manual Table , you are responsible for manually adding and formatting everything within it (which can be really annoying).

So that’s how to make a Table of Contents in Word, along with all the formatting, navigation and updating options.

The most important thing to remember about your TOC is to use the Heading Styles when formatting your Word document. Doing so will make inserting and editing a TOC super easy and stress-free.

If you enjoyed this tutorial and want to learn more about our training courses and other resources,  visit us here .

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Basic essay structure

Improve your writing

Organise your essays to demonstrate your knowledge, show your research and support your arguments

Essays are usually written in continuous, flowing, paragraphed text and don’t use section headings. This may seem unstructured at first, but good essays are carefully structured.

How your assignment content is structured is your choice. Use the basic pattern below to get started.

Essay structure

An essay consists of three basic parts:, introduction.

The essay itself usually has no section headings. Only the title page, author declaration and reference list are written as headings, along with, for example, appendices. Check any task instructions, and your course or unit handbook, for further details.

Content in assignment introductions can vary widely. In some disciplines you may need to provide a full background and context, whereas other essays may need only a little context, and others may need none.

An introduction to an essay usually has three primary purposes:

• To set the scene
• To tell readers what is important, and why
• To tell the reader what the essay is going to do (signposting)

A standard introduction includes the following five elements:

• A statement that sets out the topic and engages the reader.
• The background and context of the topic.
• Any important definitions, integrated into your text as appropriate.
• An outline of the key points, topic, issues, evidence, ideas, arguments, models, theories, or other information, as appropriate. This may include distinctions or contrasts between different ideas or evidence.
• A final sentence or two which tells the reader your focal points and aims.

You should aim to restrict your introduction to information needed for the topic and only include background and contextual information which helps the reader understand it, or sets the scene for your chosen focal points.

In most essays you will have a considerable range of options for your focus. You will be expected to demonstrate your ability to select the most relevant content to address your focal points.

There are some exceptions. For example, if an assignment brief specifically directs the essay focus or requires you to write broadly about a topic. These are relatively rare or are discipline-specific so you should check your task instructions and discipline and subject area conventions.

Below are examples of an opening statement, a summary of the selected content, and a statement at the end of the introduction which tells the reader what the essay will focus on and how it will be addressed. We've use a fictional essay.

The title of our essay is: 'Cats are better than dogs. Discuss.'

To submit this essay you also would need to add citations as appropriate.

Example of opening statements:

People have shared their lives with cats and dogs for millenia. Which is better depends partly on each animal’s characteristics and partly on the owner’s preferences.

Here is a summary of five specific topics selected for the essay, which would be covered in a little more detail in the introduction:

• In ancient Egypt, cats were treated as sacred and were pampered companions.
• Dogs have for centuries been used for hunting and to guard property. There are many types of working dog, and both dogs and cats are now kept purely as pets.
• They are very different animals, with different care needs, traits and abilities.
• It is a common perception that people are either “cat-lovers” or “dog-lovers”.
• It is a common perception that people tend to have preferences for one, and negative beliefs about and attitudes towards, the other.

Example of closing statements at the end of the introduction:

This essay will examine both cats’ and dogs’ behaviour and abilities, the benefits of keeping them as pets, and whether people’s perceptions of their nature matches current knowledge and understanding.

Main body: paragraphs

The body of the essay should be organised into paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a different aspect of the issue, but they should also link in some way to those that precede and follow it. This is not an easy thing to get right, even for experienced writers, partly because there are many ways to successfully structure and use paragraphs. There is no perfect paragraph template.

The theme or topic statement

The first sentence, or sometimes two, tells the reader what the paragraph is going to cover. It may either:

• Begin a new point or topic, or
• Follow on from the previous paragraph, but with a different focus or go into more-specific detail. If this is the case, it should clearly link to the previous paragraph.

The last sentence

It should be clear if the point has come to an end, or if it continues in the next paragraph.

Here is a brief example of flow between two summarised paragraphs which cover the historical perspective:

It is known from hieroglyphs that the Ancient Egyptians believed that cats were sacred. They were also held in high regard, as suggested by their being found mummified and entombed with their owners (Smith, 1969). In addition, cats are portrayed aiding hunters. Therefore, they were both treated as sacred, and were used as intelligent working companions. However, today they are almost entirely owned as pets.

In contrast, dogs have not been regarded as sacred, but they have for centuries been widely used for hunting in Europe. This developed over time and eventually they became domesticated and accepted as pets. Today, they are seen as loyal, loving and protective members of the family, and are widely used as working dogs.

There is never any new information in a conclusion.

The conclusion usually does three things:

• Reminds your readers of what the essay was meant to do.
• Provides an answer, where possible, to the title.
• Reminds your reader how you reached that answer.

The conclusion should usually occupy just one paragraph. It draws together all the key elements of your essay, so you do not need to repeat the fine detail unless you are highlighting something.

A conclusion to our essay about cats and dogs is given below:

Both cats and dogs have been highly-valued for millenia, are affectionate and beneficial to their owners’ wellbeing. However, they are very different animals and each is 'better' than the other regarding care needs and natural traits. Dogs need regular training and exercise but many owners do not train or exercise them enough, resulting in bad behaviour. They also need to be 'boarded' if the owner is away and to have frequent baths to prevent bad odours. In contrast, cats do not need this level of effort and care. Dogs are seen as more intelligent, loyal and attuned to human beings, whereas cats are perceived as aloof and solitary, and as only seeking affection when they want to be fed. However, recent studies have shown that cats are affectionate and loyal and more intelligent than dogs, but it is less obvious and useful. There are, for example, no 'police' or 'assistance' cats, in part because they do not have the kinds of natural instincts which make dogs easy to train. Therefore, which animal is better depends upon personal preference and whether they are required to work. Therefore, although dogs are better as working animals, cats are easier, better pets.

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Extended Essay - Criteria: Table of Contents

• Criterion A: Focus and Method
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking
• Table of Contents
• Citations and Referencing
• Appendices (Optional)
• Initial reflection
• Interim reflection

Table of Contents Formatting

Extended essays MUST contain a Table of Contents, which is placed after the cover page and before the introduction.

The page numbers of the sections in the body of the paper much match those in the Table of Contents.

Sample Table of Contents

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How to Write a Table of Contents for Different Formats With Examples

11 December 2023

last updated

Rules that guide academic writing are specific to each paper format. However, some rules apply to all styles – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Basically, one of these rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in an academic text, particularly long ones, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When writing a TOC, students or researchers should observe some practices regardless of paper formats. Also, it includes writing the TOC on a new page after the title page, numbering the first-level and corresponding second-level headings, and indicating the page number of each entry. Hence, scholars need to learn how to write a table of contents in APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard styles.

General Guidelines

When writing academic texts, such as theses, dissertations, and other research papers, students observe academic writing rules as applicable. Generally, the different paper formats – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard – have specific standards that students must follow in their writing. In this case, one of the rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in the document. By definition, a TOC is a roadmap that scholars provide in their writing, outlining each portion of a paper. In other words, a TOC enables readers to locate specific information in documents or revisit favorite parts within written texts. Moreover, this part of academic papers provides readers with a preview of the paper’s contents.

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Difference Between a Table of Contents and an Outline

In essence, a TOC is a description of first-level headings (topics) and second-level headings (subtopics) within the paper’s body. For a longer document, writers may also include third-level titles to make the text palatable to read. Ideally, the length of papers determines the depth that authors go into detailing their writing in TOCs. Basically, this feature means that shorter texts may not require third-level headings. In contrast, an essay outline is a summary of the paper’s main ideas with a hierarchical or logical structuring of the content. Unlike a TOC that only lists headings and subheadings, outlines capture these headings and then describe the content briefly under each one. As such, an outline provides a more in-depth summary of essay papers compared to a TOC.

How to Write a Table of Contents in APA

When writing a TOC in the APA format , writers should capture all the headings in the paper – first-level, second-level, and even third-level. Besides this information, they should also include an abstract, references, and appendices. Notably, while a TOC in the APA style has an abstract, this section is not necessary for the other formats, like MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Hence, an example of a Table of Contents written in the APA format is indicated below:

How to Write a Table of Contents in MLA

Unlike papers written in the APA style, MLA papers do not require a Table of Contents unless they are long enough. In this case, documents, like theses, dissertations, and books written in the MLA format should have a TOC. Even where a TOC is necessary, there is no specific method that a writer should use when writing it. In turn, the structure of the TOC is left to the writer’s discretion. However, when students have to include a TOC in their papers, the information they capture should be much more than what would appear in the APA paper . Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in MLA format is:

In the case of writing a research paper, an example of a Table of Contents should be:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Chicago/Turabian

Like the MLA style, a Chicago/Turabian paper does not require writing a Table of Contents unless it is long enough. When a TOC is necessary, writers should capitalize on major headings. Additionally, authors do not need to add a row of periods (. . . . . . . .) between the heading entry and the page number. Moreover, the arrangement of the content should start with the first-level heading, then the second-level heading, and, finally, the third-level title, just like in the APA paper. In turn, all the information that precedes the introduction part should have lowercase Roman numerals. Also, the row of periods is only used for major headings. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Chicago/Turabian paper is:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Harvard

Like in the other formats, writing a Table of Contents in the Harvard style is captured by having the title “Table of Contents” at the center of the page, in the first line. Basically, it comes after the title page and captures all the sections and subsections of Harvard papers. In other words, writers must indicate first-level headings in a numbered list. Also, scholars should align titles to the left side and capitalize them. In turn, if there is a need to show second-level headings, authors should list them under corresponding first-level headings by using bullet points. However, it is essential for students not to disrupt the numbering of first-level headings. Moreover, writers should align second-level headings to the left side and indent them by half an inch and capitalize on this content. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Harvard paper should appear as below:

A Table of Content (TOC) is an essential component of an academic paper , particularly for long documents, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When students are writing a TOC, they should be careful to follow the applicable format’s rules and standards. Regardless of the format, writers should master the following tips when writing a TOC:

• Write the TOC on a new page after the title page.
• Indicate first-level headings of the document in a numbered list.
• Indicate second-level headings under the corresponding first-level heading.
• If applicable, indicate third-level headings under the corresponding second-level heading.
• Write the page number for each heading.
• Put the content in a two-column table.
• Title the page with “Table of Contents.”

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

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Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

George, T. (2022, May 15). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/contents-page/

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Table of Contents

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A guide to the table of contents page

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Table of Contents
• 3 Everything for Your Thesis
• 5 Create in Microsoft Word
• 6 In a Nutshell

Definition: Table of Contents

The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters, sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section. The table of contents should list all front matter, main content and back matter, including the headings and page numbers of all chapters and the bibliography . A good table of contents should be easy to read, accurately formatted and completed last so that it is 100% accurate. Although you can complete a table of contents manually, many word processing tools like Microsoft Word enable you to format your table of contents automatically.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and it can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

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What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a list, usually on a page at the beginning of a piece of academic writing , which outlines the chapters or sections names with their corresponding page numbers. In addition to chapter names, it includes bullet points of the sub-chapter headings or subsection headings. It usually comes right after the title page of a research paper.

How do you write a table of contents

To write a table of contents, you first write the title or chapter names of your research paper in chronological order. Secondly, you write the subheadings or subtitles, if you have them in your paper. After that, you write the page numbers for the corresponding headings and subheadings. You can also very easily set up a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Where do you put a table of contents?

The table of contents is found on a page right at the beginning of an academic writing project. It comes specifically after the title page and acknowledgements, but before the introductory page of a writing project. This position at the beginning of an academic piece of writing is universal for all academic projects.

What to include in a table of contents?

A sample table of contents includes the title of the paper at the very top, followed by the chapter names and subtitles in chronological order. At the end of each line, is the page number of the corresponding headings. Examples of chapter names can be: executive summary,  introduction, project description, marketing plan, summary and conclusion. The abstract and acknowledgments are usually not included in the table of contents, however this could depend on the formatting that is required by your institution. Scroll down to see some examples.

How important is a table of contents?

A table of contents is very important at the beginning of a writing project for two important reasons. Firstly, it helps the reader easily locate contents of particular topics itemized as chapters or subtitles. Secondly, it helps the writer arrange their work and organize their thoughts so that important sections of an academic project are not left out. This has the extra effect of helping to manage the reader’s expectation of any academic essay or thesis right from the beginning.

Everything for Your Thesis

A table of contents is a crucial component of an academic thesis. Whether you’re completing a Bachelor’s or a postgraduate degree, the table of contents is a requirement for dissertation submissions. As a rule of thumb, your table of contents will usually come after your title page , abstract, acknowledgement or preface. Although it’s not necessary to include a reference to this front matter in your table of contents, different universities have different policies and guidelines.

Although the table of contents is best completed after you have finished your thesis, it’s a good idea to draw up a mock table of contents in the early stages of writing. This allows you to formulate a structure and think through your topic and how you are going to research, answer and make your argument. Think of this as a form of “reverse engineering”. Knowing how your chapters are going to be ordered and what topics or research questions are included in each will help immensely when it comes to your writing.

The table of contents is not just an academic formality, it allows your examiner to quickly get a feel for your topic and understand how your dissertation will be presented. An unclear or sloppy table of contents may even have an adverse effect on your grade because the dissertation is difficult to follow.

Examiners are readers, after all, and a dissertation is an exercise in producing an argument. A clear table of contents will give both a good impression and provide an accurate roadmap to make the examiner’s job easier and your argument more persuasive.

Your table of contents section will come after your acknowledgements and before your introduction. It includes a list of all your headers and their respective pages and will also contain a sub-section listing your tables, figures or illustrations (if you are using them). In general, your thesis can be ordered like this:

1. Title Page 2. Copyright / Statement of Originality 3. Abstract 4. Acknowledgement, Dedication and Preface (optional) 5. Table of Contents 6. List of Figures/Tables/Illustrations 7. Chapters 8. Appendices 9. Endnotes (depending on your formatting) 10. Bibliography / References

The formatting of your table of contents will depend on your academic field and thesis length. Some disciplines, like the sciences, have a methodical structure which includes recommended subheadings on methodology, data results, discussion and conclusion. Humanities subjects, on the other hand, are far more varied. Whichever discipline you are working in, you need to create an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings clearly labelled.

Sample table of contents for a short dissertation:

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

When producing a more significant and longer dissertation, say for a Master’s degree or even a PhD, your chapter descriptions should contain all subheadings. These are listed with the chapter number, followed by a decimal point and the subheading number.

Sample table of contents for a PhD dissertation:

Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Data 1.4 Findings 1.5 Conclusion

Chapter 2, and so on.

The key to writing a good table of contents is consistency and accuracy. You cannot list subheadings for one chapter and forget them for another. Subheadings are not always required but they can be very helpful if you are dealing with a detailed topic. The page numbers in the table of contents must match with the respective pages in your thesis or manuscript.

What’s more, chapter titles and subheading titles must match their corresponding pages. If your first chapter is called “Chapter 1: The Beginning”, it must be written as such on both the table of contents and first chapter page. So long as you remain both accurate and consistent, your table of contents will be perfect.

Create in Microsoft Word

Fortunately, the days of manually writing a contents page are over. You can still produce a contents page manually with Microsoft Word, but consider using their automatic feature to guarantee accuracy and save time.

To produce an automatically-generated table of contents, you must first work with heading styles. These can be found in the home tab under “Styles”. Select top-level headings (your chapter titles) and apply the Heading 1 style. This ensures that they will be formatted as main headings. Second-level headings (subheadings) can be applied with the Heading 2 style. This will place them underneath and within each main heading.

Once you have worked with heading styles, simply click on the “References” tab and select “Table of Contents”. This option will allow you to automatically produce a page with accurate page links to your document. To customize the format and style applied to your table of contents, select “Custom Table of Contents” at the bottom of the tab. Remember to update your table of contents by selecting the table and choosing “Update” from the drop-down menu. This will ensure that your headings, sub-headings and page numbers all add up.

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In a Nutshell

• The table of contents is a vital part of any academic thesis or extensive paper.
• It is an accurate map of your manuscript’s content – its headings, sub-headings and page numbers.
• It shows how you have divided your thesis into more manageable chunks through the use of chapters.
• By breaking apart your thesis into discrete sections, you make your argument both more persuasive and easier to follow.
• What’s more, your contents page should produce an accurate map of your thesis’ references, bibliography, illustrations and figures.
• It is an accurate map of the chapters, references, bibliography, illustrations and figures in your thesis.

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Should your novel have a table of contents.

Beginning authors have lots of questions. And why wouldn’t they, when so much about book publishing involves unspoken rules? Maybe you’re wondering about some of those rules, like, should fiction books have a table of contents? And if so, what should it look like?

Agents and editors have somewhat different expectations for submissions of various types. If you’re submitting a nonfiction book proposal, for example, you better have included a Table of Contents (better yet, an annotated TOC or a set of chapter summaries). But should fiction books have a Table of Contents? They can, but it isn’t necessary.

Note that I said it isn’t necessary—not that it’s wrong, or breaking the rules, to include a Table of Contents if you wish.

How do you decide? Well, for one thing, I recommend including a Table of Contents in your novel (or memoir, for that matter) if you’re using anything more creative than “Chapter 12” type headings. If your chapters have descriptive names, including the TOC in your manuscript can help agents and editors get a sense of what’s in your novel at a glance. It’s important that your chapter titles match the tone of the book, however. Don’t make the mistake of using gimmicky or cute chapter titles in a serious literary work or a dark and stormy thriller. It’s just confusing and weird. In most cases, it’ll hurt your first impression.

Also, if you’re going to use unique chapter titles and then include them in a Table of Contents, be sure you only send that TOC page to agents when they ask for your complete manuscript. If you’re asked to send in the first 50 pages and a synopsis, the TOC won’t add anything particularly important, and you’re just wasting a page slot that could be taken up by another page of your story. They’ll still see the fun chapter titles you used for those included in your sample excerpt; that’s enough to give a taste, which is exactly what they’re looking for in a sample chapters or a partial manuscript.

All of that said, most published novels and memoirs don’t have a Table of Contents. Most just number their chapters and leave it at that. It’s a time-tested approach you can feel comfortable using, so don’t feel you need to work extra hard to come up with anything fancier.

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January 18, 2022 at 1:57 pm

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Here are the highest-paid WNBA players for 2024

A las vegas aces star leads the way at the top., by sanjesh singh • published april 16, 2024 • updated on april 16, 2024 at 7:34 pm.

The WNBA may be a league on the rise, but its players’ pay is still low. 

Caitlin Clark's official entry into the league as the No. 1 overall pick bolstered the league's popularity, but it also highlighted a significant gap in pay compared to other major leagues.

Clark, for example, is expected to make $338,056 over four seasons , per Spotrac, which is an average of $84,514 per year. It's the same figure as fellow top-four picks Cameron Brink (Los Angeles Sparks), Kamilla Cardoso ( Chicago Sky ) and Rickea Jackson (Sparks).

For comparison's sake, San Antonio Spurs 2023 No. 1 overall pick Victor Wembanyama is on a four-year contract worth north of $55 million, via Spotrac . And the player with the highest average NBA salary is Denver Nuggets' Nikola Jokic at $55.2 million.

Get DFW local news, weather forecasts and entertainment stories to your inbox. Sign up for NBC DFW newsletters .

So, who are the WNBA's highest-paid players for the 2024 season? Here's everything to know with all figures via Spotrac :

5 winners, losers from the 2024 WNBA Draft

Caitlin Clark and Indiana Fever to have most national appearances on WNBA broadcast schedule

Who is the highest-paid player in the wnba.

In terms of average salary ranking, Las Vegas Aces star Jackie Young is alone at the top, making $252,420 a year going into 2024.

Who are the highest-paid players in the WNBA?

After Young, 20 other players make at least $200,000. In 2020, the league’s  latest collective bargaining agreement  bumped the possible maximum salary for the highest-paid players from $117,500 to $215,000. That CBA is slated to expire in 2027, though the WNBA Players' Association has the option to abandon that agreement after the 2024 season.

Here's the full list of the 20 players:

• Jackie Young, Las Vegas Aces: $252,420
• Jewell Loyd, Seattle Storm: $245,508
• Kahleah Copper, Phoenix Mercury: $245,059
• Arika Ogunwobale, Dallas Wings : $241,984
• Diana Taurasi, Phoenix Mercury: $234,936
• Natasha Howard, Dallas Wings: $224,675
• Erica Wheeler, Indiana Fever: $222,154
• Brionna Jones, Connecticut Sun : $212,000
• Skylar Diggins-Smith, Seattle Storm: $211,343
• Alyssa Thomas, Connecticut Sun: $209,000
• Marina Mabrey, Chicago Sky: $206,667
• Kayla McBride, Minnesota Lynx: $206,500
• Kelsey Mitchell, Indiana Fever: $206,000
• Sabrina Ionescu, New York Liberty: $205,030
• Breanna Stewart, New York Liberty: $205,000
• Nneka Ogwumike, Seattle Storm: $204,500
• A'ja Wilson, Las Vegas Aces: $200,000
• DeWanna Bonner, Connecticut Sun: $200,000
• Kelsey Plum, Las Vegas Aces: $200,000
• Ariel Atkins, Washington Mystics: $200,000
• Natasha Cloud, Phoenix Mercury: $200,000

Other notable players like Mercury's Brittney Griner ($150,000) and Aces' Candace Parker ($100,000) are outside of the top 20.

Who is the highest-paid WNBA rookie in 2024?

Four rookies are tied for the highest WNBA salary entering the 2024 season. They are the draft's top-four picks: Caitlin Clark (Indiana Fever), Cameron Brink (Los Angeles Sparks), Kamilla Cardoso (Chicago Sky) and Rickea Jackson (Sparks).

Why are WNBA salaries so low?

There are multiple reasons as to why WNBA salaries lag behind other major leagues in the U.S., primarily league revenue generated, revenue sharing between league and player contracts and season length.

The NBA, for example, recently generated an estimated $10 billion for one season. The WNBA reportedly came in around $200 million for 2023, but it's a figure that has been gradually growing.

WNBA Commissioner Cathy Engelbert said ahead of the 2024 draft that the league is planning to expand to 16 teams by 2028 , which would be one possible way to increase player salaries. Re-negotiating the CBA after the 2024 campaign could be another medium-term solution as well.

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Liquidity risks at Canadian life insurance companies

Introduction.

Life insurers, like many asset managers, use fixed-income markets to implement their investment strategies. A key quality of fixed-income markets is liquidity. In a liquid market, participants can trade quickly at prevailing prices. This allows asset managers to use securities as collateral or sell them to manage their risk of not meeting short-term cash or collateral obligations, known as liquidity risk. 1

However, during periods when many market participants seek liquidity at the same time, the demand for liquidity may overwhelm the capacity or willingness of intermediaries, like bank-owned dealers, to provide it. This risk has come into focus for practitioners and policy-makers since the COVID-19 crisis, the episode of extreme market stress at the onset of the COVID‑19 pandemic in March 2020. 2 At that time, central banks around the world intervened to restore market liquidity, including by opening new emergency lending facilities for a wide range of market participants. 3

Understanding the potential behaviour of market participants during such episodes can help central bankers develop policy. The Bank of Canada has therefore been deepening its understanding of how various types of market participants manage their liquidity risks and the potential impact of their actions on fixed-income markets. This work has included analyzing mutual funds, hedge funds and pension funds. 4

We conducted two rounds of interviews with representatives from four of the largest Canadian life insurers and analyzed several data sources to investigate how life insurers’ business model results in liquidity risks and how they manage this risk. 5 Specifically, we use three data sources:

• the National Balance Sheet Accounts (NBSA) from Statistics Canada, which include aggregated balance sheet information for all Canadian life insurers
• life insurers’ investment returns from the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (OSFI), which include granular information on assets and derivative positions for the three largest OSFI-regulated insurance companies—Manulife, Sun Life and Canada Life
• the Market Trade Reporting System from the Canadian Investment Regulatory Organization, which contains detailed, dealer-reported information about Canadian bond trades, including those involving life insurers

For clarity, we indicate on each chart that the samples of life insurance companies differ across these data sources.

In brief, we find that the two most important liquidity risks that Canadian life insurers must manage are unexpected payouts resulting from policyholder behaviour and margin calls from derivatives. We examine the effects on insurers from the COVID‑19 crisis and the period of rising interest rates in 2022, which serve as case studies in liquidity risk management. We find that the two liquidity risks did not materialize significantly in either period, which allowed life insurers to continue their typical investment pattern of purchasing long-dated corporate and provincial bonds. These purchases provide an important source of funding for Canadian bond issuers, which supports market liquidity and the real economy.

Life insurers are among the largest institutional investors in Canada

Life insurers are companies that, as the name implies, specialize in providing life insurance and related products. The sector has a small number of large companies that individually manage assets of comparable value to those of some of Canada's big pension funds. This makes life insurers among the largest institutional investors in Canada, managing around $1 trillion of financial assets associated with their Canadian business lines as of the first quarter of 2023 ( Chart 1 ). A large proportion of these assets are fixed-income securities, mainly bonds ( Chart 2 ). 6 Therefore, life insurers can alleviate or exacerbate strains on liquidity in fixed-income markets through their transactions.

Chart 1: Life insurance companies are among the largest institutional investors in Canada

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Alternatively, the data is available for download in:

Life insurers sell financial products that are typically of two types:

• life insurance
• investments such as annuities and mutual funds

These products offer future payoffs to holders, which creates liabilities for life insurers. To meet these future obligations, insurers invest the cash they receive from their clients.

Overall, Canadian life insurers manage roughly equal proportions of assets associated with each type of product. Investment products are often managed in distinct funds, and their liquidity risks come primarily from investor redemptions. Mutual funds manage this risk in a similar way, a topic that the Bank has analyzed in the past. 7 We therefore focus our analysis on life insurance products because they present liquidity risks that are unique to life insurers.

Canadian life insurers use bonds and derivatives to match assets and liabilities

Understanding the risks inherent in life insurers’ business models is helpful for understanding their liquidity risks and how they manage them. 8 A key risk from the business model comes from the long time horizons over which life insurance contracts pay out. Insurers estimate these horizons, which can be several decades, by using actuarial modelling of policyholders’ longevity and morbidity. This means life insurance products have relatively high duration, meaning they are sensitive to changes in interest rates. This can create a significant risk for life insurers if assets and liabilities respond differently to interest rates. For example, a drop in interest rates could increase the present value of an insurer’s liabilities by more than the increase in the value of an insurer’s assets, making it more difficult for the insurer to meet its obligations to policyholders.

Life insurers choose assets with similar durations and liquidity to hedge the risks from their liabilities. This practice, known as asset-liability management (ALM), aims to immunize insurers against interest rate risk. In Canada, it also helps to satisfy regulatory capital requirements, which are established by OSFI or Autorité des marchés financiers (AMF) for insurers headquartered in Quebec. 9 ALM typically matches an insurer’s assets and liabilities to the average duration and a range of specific durations to protect against relative changes in long- and short-term interest rates. The latter practice is called key rate duration management.

Fixed-income securities are natural investments for life insurers’ ALM since these securities can have a high duration like life insurance products ( Chart 2 , panel a). Among these securities, Canadian life insurers hold primarily long-term corporate or provincial bonds ( Chart 2 , panel b). Regular cash premiums from policyholders are typically invested into these instruments as quickly as possible, making life insurers a stable source of funding for bond issuers. Provincial bonds and, to a greater degree, corporate bonds are less liquid than Government of Canada (GoC) bonds but have the benefit of higher yields. Despite the relative illiquidity of such bonds, these holdings do not expose insurers to large liquidity risks because their liabilities are also relatively illiquid, as will be explained in the section on liquidity risks .

Life insurers also invest in foreign fixed-income assets and alternative assets with high duration, such as infrastructure, real estate, private debt and private equity. These assets help insurers diversify their portfolios and can, to some extent, substitute for high-duration domestic corporate and provincial bonds, which can be in limited supply ( Chart 2 , panel a). These alternative assets also tend to offer insurers higher yields than bonds.

Chart 2: Life insurers’ assets are concentrated in fixed-income securities, most of which are corporate bonds

Composition of total assets and fixed-income assets as at the end of the first quarter of 2023

Note: Figures include the market value of life insurers’ Canadian-domiciled branches but not life insurers’ mutual funds. Sources: Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions and Bank of Canada calculations Last observation: 2023Q1

Life insurers also use derivatives to hedge exposures to risks. These exposures are from two main sources:

• residual interest rate risk
• investment assets risk

Securities and alternative assets with durations similar to those of insurance products are often in limited supply. One reason is that bond issuers rarely raise public debt with terms greater than 30 years while some insurance liabilities have longer terms. Life insurers therefore use derivatives such as interest rate swaps and bond forwards to extend the duration of their portfolios ( Chart 3 ). We find that the average term to maturity of these derivatives is typically long, ranging from 5 to just under 15 years. This means that interest rate derivatives typically carry risks comparable with those of bonds of similar terms to maturity, particularly for interest rate derivatives.

In addition to extending duration, derivatives are well suited to quickly adjust mismatches in duration between assets and liabilities because they are relatively liquid and do not require significant initial cash outlays. These quick adjustments can be needed when the values of assets and liabilities respond differently to a large change in interest rates or other economic conditions, causing their durations to become misaligned. This is called convexity risk, which investors can hedge by using certain derivatives like swaptions.

Derivatives also serve to hedge risks not related to interest rates. For example, investing in foreign assets to match domestic liabilities produces currency risk. Life insurers typically hedge this risk by using cross-currency swaps or currency forwards, which are the second-largest class of derivatives for life insurers ( Chart 3 ). Large investments in corporate bonds expose life insurers to default risk. However, credit derivatives, which provide protection against default, make up less than 1% of the notional value of derivatives held by insurers.

Chart 3: Life insurers use derivatives to hedge against interest rate and foreign exchange risks

Note: Figures include the derivative securities of life insurers’ Canadian-domiciled branches but not life insurers’ mutual funds. Sources: Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions and Bank of Canada calculations Last observation: 2023Q1

Life insurers face two main liquidity risks

The business model and investment strategy of Canadian life insurers give rise to two main liquidity risks:

• lower-than-expected cash inflows if a policyholder temporarily or permanently stops paying their premiums—known as a lapse
• higher-than-expected cash outflows if contracts are redeemed before maturity—known as a surrender
• margin requirements on derivatives that can increase the need to deposit cash or securities to protect a derivatives counterparty against potential losses in the event of default

Policyholders’ behaviour may trigger a need for liquidity when economic conditions stress household finances. Policyholders typically cannot lapse or surrender a policy without facing a penalty. Life insurance liabilities can therefore be considered to be relatively illiquid. However, if economic conditions cause widespread unemployment or income loss, the resulting lapses or surrenders could impose large, immediate and unexpected cash outflows on an insurer.

Margin calls on derivatives may become unexpectedly large when the underlying risk factors, such as interest rates or exchange rates, change sharply or become volatile compared with their historical levels. Life insurers are typically positioned in interest rate and foreign exchange derivatives such that a simultaneous rise in interest rates and a weakening of the Canadian dollar would increase margin requirements.

Life insurers use liquidity coverage ratios to manage risks

We heard in our interviews that Canadian life insurers manage liquidity risks by holding a buffer so that they can meet unexpected liquidity draws. Insurers often use a liquidity coverage ratio (LCR) to estimate how large the buffer should be, similar to the framework used by banks, pension funds and other asset managers. An LCR compares the value of the buffer to the total value of possible and expected liquidity draws in a stressed scenario over a given time period. While a standardized LCR is a regulatory requirement for banks, it is not for insurance companies. This means that its specifications may vary across companies. For example, some companies may use an LCR that is based on past stressed periods to prepare for unexpected liquidity needs. Others may take a broader approach that incorporates expected liquidity needs such as operational cash flows. Companies may also have different definitions of a high-quality liquid asset. A typical LCR can be represented as:

\(\displaystyle LCR\) \(\displaystyle=\, \frac{cash + high\ quality\ liquid\ assets + other\ liquidity\ sources}{surrenders + margin\ calls+other\ potential\ outflows}\) \(\displaystyle,\)

where, other liquidity sources in the numerator can include relatively illiquid or volatile assets that are discounted appropriately, committed credit lines with banks and expected cash contributions from policyholders within the LCR time horizon. Therefore, policyholder lapses affect the numerator by reducing expected cash contributions. In the denominator, other potential outflows may include life insurance claims, payments needed for maturing debt and capital needed for private assets. As with other liquidity sources, these inflows or outflows can vary across insurance companies.

Life insurers seek to always keep their LCRs substantially above one so that they can meet significant draws on their liquidity. The assets in buffers may differ across insurers but are typically composed of cash and relatively liquid securities like GoC or provincial bonds and bills, which represent about 20% of insurers’ financial assets ( Chart 4 ).

Chart 4: Liquid assets of the largest life insurers have been relatively stable over time

Responses from interviewees indicate that insurers typically use conservative assumptions to calibrate LCRs. Potential cash outflows are often projected using:

• multiple horizons, such as 10 days, 30 days or longer
• observations from past episodes of stress
• large hypothetical shocks to interest rates, credit spreads and policyholders’ mortality

Correlations between pricing factors, such as interest rates and exchange rates, are usually assumed to produce worst-case outcomes despite any historical tendencies to mitigate liquidity draws. In addition, life insurers make assumptions about the appropriate discount to apply to an asset’s value to capture the fact that prices may be worse in stressed situations. For example, they will assume that the value of provincial bonds will decline by more than the value of GoC bonds during periods of stress.

Life insurers continued purchasing bonds during recent periods of stress

The COVID‑19 crisis in 2020 and the period of rising interest rates in 2022 serve as case studies to better understand how life insurers managed their two main liquidity risks. The number of lapses and surrenders could have been unusually high during the COVID‑19 crisis because of widespread lockdowns that caused employment and income losses for millions of Canadians. Margin requirements on insurers’ derivative positions could have also been higher due to the volatility in financial markets during the COVID‑19 crisis and then again as interest rates rose in 2022.

The life insurers we spoke to indicated that they did not experience large lapses or surrenders from policyholders during the COVID‑19 crisis. Even so, they increased monitoring of their liquidity positions and tested their ability to withstand a potentially higher number of lapses, surrenders and payouts. They also extensively modelled changes in mortality rates from the COVID‑19 pandemic to prepare for a potential increase in payouts, although these did not become a significant draw on liquidity.

During the COVID‑19 crisis, total margin requirements for the three largest Canadian life insurers were not unusually large because the margins for interest rate and foreign exchange derivatives were offsetting ( Chart 5 ).

Chart 5: Market values of interest rate and foreign exchange derivatives offset during the COVID-19 crisis

Market value reflects profits and losses on derivatives contracts due to movements in their underlying price factors and is a proxy for the magnitude and direction of margin requirements. The offsetting market values observed in the first quarter of 2020—the peak of the COVID‑19 crisis—were driven by a decline in interest rates and a strengthening of the US dollar, which are typical movements in these markets during turmoil. In the first quarter of 2020, the three largest Canadian life insurers received margin on interest rate derivatives as the market value of these derivatives increased by $1.5 billion. This mitigated the effect of needing to post margin on foreign exchange derivatives, whose market value decreased by $3 billion.

Given that liquidity risks did not materialize at the peak of the crisis, life insurers continued purchasing long-term corporate and provincial bonds. They did this by rebalancing their portfolios out of short- and medium-term GoC bonds and using regular cash inflows from life insurance premiums.

We find that life insurers sold close to $2 billion worth of GoC bonds and purchased around $5 billion worth of corporate and provincial bonds ( Chart 6 , panel a). They sold bonds in the 2- and 5-year sectors and purchased bonds in the 10- and 30-year sectors ( Chart 6 , panel b).

This activity provided cash to bond sellers and issuers at a time when the demand for cash was high. 10 It also added to overall GoC bond selling during the COVID‑19 crisis when markets were stressed. However, any effect on market liquidity was likely small since around 80% of insurers’ sales of GoC bond took place between February 18 and March 6, the three weeks before the period of peak market illiquidity. 11

Chart 6: Life insurers continued purchasing bonds during peak of COVID-19 crisis

Cumulative net purchases, daily

Note: 30-year refers to any bond with a term greater than 10 years. Data presented include all Canadian life insurance companies and Canadian securities only. Sources: Market Trade Reporting System and Bank of Canada calculations Last observation: April 30, 2020

Similarly, the three largest Canadian life insurers made net purchases of $3.3 billion worth of bonds in secondary markets during the first half of 2022 as interest rates increased. This happened even though the margin requirements for interest rate and foreign exchange derivatives did not offset. During this period, the market value of these life insurers’ derivatives declined by $4.5 billion ( Chart 7 ). Even so, the larger margin requirements did not undermine the ability of the three largest Canadian life insurers to purchase bonds in secondary markets. This may be because the increase in interest rates was gradual and somewhat anticipated, allowing insurers to prepare for liquidity needs without disrupting their regular patterns of investing contributions from policyholders.

Chart 7: Life insurers’ bond purchases remained stable during the period of rising interest rates

Unlike other asset managers who broadly sold bonds during the COVID‑19 crisis, life insurers bought bonds. In addition, the period of rising interest rates in 2022 did not greatly affect life insurers’ usual investment pattern of stable bond purchases. While this behaviour could change under different market conditions, the findings nonetheless provide insights into the nature and severity of past periods of market turmoil that life insurers were able to withstand. This work deepens the Bank’s understanding of market stress and how various participants react during these periods. These insights combined with those the Bank has collected about other asset managers inform the design of the Bank’s policies and facilities.

• 1. For a discussion of pension fund liquidity management see G. Bédard-Pagé, D. Bolduc-Zuluaga, A. Demers, J.-P. Dion, M. Pandey, L. Berger-Soucy and A. Walton , “ COVID‑19 crisis: Liquidity management at Canada’s largest public pension funds ,” Bank of Canada Staff Analytical Note No. 2021-11 (May 2021).[ ← ]
• 2. For an in-depth description of the COVID‑19 crisis in Canada, see J.-S. Fontaine, C. Garriott, J. Johal, J. Lee and A. Uthemann, “ COVID‑19 Crisis: Lessons Learned for Future Policy Research ,” Bank of Canada Staff Discussion Paper No. 2021-2 (February 2021).[ ← ]
• 3. For a summary of the Bank of Canada’s liquidity facilities during the COVID crisis, see G. Johnson, “ A Review of the Bank of Canada’s Market Operations related to COVID‑19 ,” Bank of Canada Staff Discussion Paper No. 2023-6 (March 2023).[ ← ]
• 4. Recent work by the Bank of Canada on asset managers includes J. Sandhu and R. Vala, “ Do hedge funds support liquidity in the Government of Canada bond market? ” Bank of Canada Staff Analytical Note No. 2023-11 (August 2023), and G. Ouellet Leblanc and R. Shotlander, “ What COVID‑19 revealed about the resilience of bond funds ,” Bank of Canada Staff Analytical Note No. 2020-18 (August 2020).[ ← ]
• 5. We are grateful for the generous cooperation of Manulife, Sun Life, Canada Life and Industrial Alliance in this work.[ ← ]
• 6. This excludes assets managed on behalf of their clients, such as mutual funds.[ ← ]
• 7. To learn more about how mutual funds manage liquidity, see G. Ouellet Leblanc and R. Arora, “ How do Canadian Corporate Bond Mutual Funds Meet Investor Redemptions? ” Bank of Canada Staff Analytical Note No. 2018-14 (May 2018).[ ← ]
• 8. While we focus on economic considerations in this description, accounting and regulation can also influence life insurers’ investment strategies.[ ← ]
• 9. OSFI and the AMF impose harmonized capital requirements to ensure solvency for life insurance companies. Insurers regulated by OSFI must satisfy the Life Insurance Capital Adequacy Test. Insurers regulated by AMF must satisfy capital adequacy requirements for life and health insurance.[ ← ]
• 10. For more details, see Bank of Canada, " Fixed-income market liquidity ," Financial System Review—2022 (June 9, 2022).[ ← ]
• 11. For more on market illiquidity, see J.-S. Fontaine, H. Ford and A. Walton, " COVID‑19 and bond market liquidity: alert, isolation and recovery ," Staff Analytical Note No. 2020-14 (July 2020).[ ← ]

Bank of Canada staff analytical notes are short articles that focus on topical issues relevant to the current economic and financial context, produced independently from the Bank’s Governing Council. This work may support or challenge prevailing policy orthodoxy. Therefore, the views expressed in this note are solely those of the authors and may differ from official Bank of Canada views. No responsibility for them should be attributed to the Bank.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.34989/san-2024-7

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