interview advantages and disadvantages research method

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interview in Research

Approaching the Respondent- according to the Interviewer’s Manual, the introductory tasks of the interviewer are: tell the interviewer is and whom he or she represents; telling him about what the study is, in a way to stimulate his interest. The interviewer has also ensured at this stage that his answers are confidential; tell the respondent how he was chosen; use letters and clippings of surveys in order to show the importance of the study to the respondent. The interviewer must be adaptable, friendly, responsive, and should make the interviewer feel at ease to say anything, even if it is irrelevant.

Dealing with Refusal- there can be plenty of reasons for refusing for an interview, for example, a respondent may feel that surveys are a waste of time, or may express anti-government feeling. It is the interviewer’s job to determine the reason for the refusal of the interview and attempt to overcome it.

Conducting the Interview- the questions should be asked as worded for all respondents in order to avoid misinterpretation of the question. Clarification of the question should also be avoided for the same reason. However, the questions can be repeated in case of misunderstanding. The questions should be asked in the same order as mentioned in the questionnaire, as a particular question might not make sense if the questions before they are skipped. The interviewers must be very careful to be neutral before starting the interview so as not to lead the respondent, hence minimizing bias.

listing out the advantages of interview studies, which are noted below:

• It provides flexibility to the interviewers
• The interview has a better response rate than mailed questions, and the people who cannot read and write can also answer the questions.
• The interviewer can judge the non-verbal behavior of the respondent.
• The interviewer can decide the place for an interview in a private and silent place, unlike the ones conducted through emails which can have a completely different environment.
• The interviewer can control over the order of the question, as in the questionnaire, and can judge the spontaneity of the respondent as well.

There are certain disadvantages of interview studies as well which are:

• Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming.
• An interview can cause biases. For example, the respondent’s answers can be affected by his reaction to the interviewer’s race, class, age or physical appearance.
• Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big concern for many respondents.
• There is a lack of accessibility to respondents (unlike conducting mailed questionnaire study) since the respondents can be in around any corner of the world or country.

INTERVIEW AS SOCIAL INTERACTION

The interview subjects to the same rules and regulations of other instances of social interaction. It is believed that conducting interview studies has possibilities for all sorts of bias, inconsistency, and inaccuracies and hence many researchers are critical of the surveys and interviews. T.R. William says that in certain societies there may be patterns of people saying one thing, but doing another. He also believes that the responses should be interpreted in context and two social contexts should not be compared to each other. Derek L. Phillips says that the survey method itself can manipulate the data, and show the results that actually does not exist in the population in real. Social research becomes very difficult due to the variability in human behavior and attitude. Other errors that can be caused in social research include-

• deliberate lying, because the respondent does not want to give a socially undesirable answer;
• unconscious mistakes, which mostly occurs when the respondent has socially undesirable traits that he does not want to accept;
• when the respondent accidentally misunderstands the question and responds incorrectly;
• when the respondent is unable to remember certain details.

Apart from the errors caused by the responder, there are also certain errors made by the interviewers that may include-

• errors made by altering the questionnaire, through changing some words or omitting certain questions;
• biased, irrelevant, inadequate or unnecessary probing;
• recording errors, or consciously making errors in recording.

Bailey, K. (1994). Interview Studies in Methods of social research. Simonand Schuster, 4th ed. The Free Press, New York NY 10020.Ch8. Pp.173-213.

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After reading this article you will learn about the advantages and disadvantages of the interview method of conducting social research.

Advantages of the Interview Method :

(1) The personal interviews, compared especially to questionnaires usually yield a high percentage of returns.

(2) The interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population because practically everyone can be reached by and can respond to this approach. It will be remembered that the questionnaire approach is severely limited by the fact that only the literate persons can be covered by it.

Again, the observational approach is also subject to limitations because many things or facts cannot be observed on the spot.

(3) The information secured through interviews is likely to be more correct compared to that secured through other techniques. The interviewer who is present on the spot can clear up the seemingly inaccurate or irrelevant answers by explaining the questions to the informant. If the informant deliberately falsifies replies, the interviewer is able to effectively check them and use special devices to verify the replies.

(4) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the informant’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results. Interview is a much more flexible approach, allowing for posing of new questions or check-questions if such a need arises.

Its flexibility makes the interview a superior technique for the exploration of areas where there is little basis for knowing what questions to ask and how to formulate them.

(5) In as much as the interviewer is present on the spot, he can observe the facial expressions and gestures etc., of the informants as also the existing pressures obtaining in the interview-situation. The facility of such observations helps the interviewer to evaluate the meaning of the verbal replies given by informants.

For example, hesitation, particular inhibitive reactions etc., may give rise to certain doubts about the reliability of the responses and the interviewer may then ask indirect questions to verify his doubts.

(6) Scoring and test-devices can be used, the interviewer acting as experimenter. At the same time, visual stimuli to which the informant may react can be presented.

(7) The use of interview method ensures greater number of usable returns compared to other methods. Returned visits to complete items on the schedule or to correct mistakes can usually be made without annoying the informant.

(8) The interviewer can usually control which person or persons will answer the questions. This is not possible in the mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired and warranted group discussions may also be held.

(9) A personal interview may take long enough to allow the informant to become oriented to the topic under investigation. Thus, recall of relevant information is facilitated. The informant can be made to devote more time if, as is the case, the interviewer is present on the spot to elicit and record the information.

The interviewer’s presence is a double headed weapon, the advantageous aspect of it being that face-to-face contact provides enough stimulation to the respondent to probe deeper within himself. As we have suggested, interviewer acts as a catalyst.

(10) The interviewer may catch the informant off his guard and thus secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire were used.

(11) The interview method allows for many facilities which aid on the spot adjustments and thus ensure rich response material. For example, the interviewer can carefully sandwich the questions about which the informant is likely to be sensitive.

The interviewer can also change the subject by observing informant’s reactions or give explanations if the interviewee needs them. In other words, a delicate situation can usually be handled more effectively by personal interview method.

(12) The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the person interviewed. Therefore, it is comparatively easy to avoid misinterpretations or misleading questions.

(13) The interview is a more appropriate technique for revealing information about complex, emotionally-laden subjects or for probing the sentiments underlying an expressed opinion.

Major Limitations of the Interview Method :

(1) In terms of cost, energy and time, the interview approach poses a heavy demand. The transportation cost and the time required to cover addresses in a large area as also possibility of non-availability or ‘not at home’, may make the interview method uneconomical and often inoperable.

(2) The efficacy of interviews depends on a thorough training and skill of interviewers as also on a rigorous supervision over them. Failing this, data recorded may be inaccurate and incomplete.

(3) The human equation may distort the returns. If an interviewer has a certain bias, he may unconsciously devise questions so as to secure confirmation of his views.

(4) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make it interesting. He may tell things about which he may not himself be very sure.

He may also get emotionally involved with the interviewer and give answers that he anticipates would please the interviewer. It is also possible that the interviewer’s presence may inhibit free responses because there is no anonymity. The respondent may hesitate to give correct answers for the fear that it would adversely affect his image. Some fear of this information being used against him may grip him.

(5) In the interview method, the organization required for selecting, training and supervising a field staff is more complex.

(6) It is the usual experience that costs per interview are higher when field investigators are employed. This is especially so when the area to be covered is widely spread out.

(7) The personal interview usually takes more time. Sometimes, the interview lasts for hours on end and the interviewer cannot check the free flow of the respondent’s replies for fear that it may disrupt the ‘rapport.’ Added to this is the time spent for journeys to and fro to the addresses and the possibility of not always being able to meet them.

(8) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with the respondent and controlling of interview atmosphere in a manner that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement, it needs time, skills and often resources.

Secondly, it is not always possible for the interviewer to judge whether the interview atmosphere is how it should ideally be and whether or not ‘rapport’ has been established.

(9) Interviewing may also introduce systematic errors. For example, if the interviews are conducted at their homes during the day, a majority of informants will be housewives. Now if the information is to be obtained from the male members, most of the field-work will have to be done in the evening or on holidays. If this be the case, only a few hours can be used per week for interviewing.

(10) Many actions human beings carry out are not easily verbalized, but easily observed. Through observation a social process may be followed as it develops. Verbal techniques such as interview may give valuable reports, but post hoc, unless one is dealing with rather unusual respondents capable of acting and being interviewed at the same time.

Some of the prerequisites that ensure successful interviewing. The quality of interviewing depends, firstly on a proper study-design. It should be noted that even the most skilled interviewer will not be able to collect valid and useful data, if the schedule of questions is inadequate or unrelated to the objectives of research.

If a well-designed, standardized schedule can elicit the required information, a staff of ordinary men and women, properly selected, and trained, can serve well enough.

Within the limits of a study-design, there is some room for the art of interviewing to come into play. Interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. The interviewer’s art consists in creating a situation wherein the respondents’ answers will be reliable and valid.

This ideal requires a permissive situation in which the respondent is encouraged to voice his frank opinion without the fear of his attitudes being revealed to others.

The basic requirement of successful interviewing, understandably, is to create a friendly atmosphere; on of trust and confidence that will put the respondent at ease. Through subsequent stages, the interviewer’s art consists in asking questions properly and intelligently, in obtaining a valid and meaningful response and in recording the responses accurately and completely.

Let us consider how the interviewer can create a friendly interview atmosphere. It is the interviewer’s approach that really does the trick. The interviewer should introduce himself briefly and explain clearly the purpose of his study.

Interviewer’s approach should be positive. His aim should be to interview everyone included in the sample. It is possible that a small proportion of respondents will be suspicious or hostile and the large number may require a little encouragement and persuasion.

Many people ar6 flattered to be selected for an interview. The interviewer should answer any legitimate questions and clear any doubt the respondent has. He should also if need be, explain that the respondent should not be afraid of being identified and that interview is not a test and that the interviewer just wants to know how people feel about certain issues and the only way to find out, is to ask them.

The interviewer’s manners should be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased. He should represent the golden mean — neither too grim, nor too effusive, neither too talkative nor too timid. The main idea should be to put the respondent at ease so that he will talk freely and fully.

It helps if the interview starts with the casual conversation about weather, pets or children. An informal conversational interview, above all, is dependent upon a thorough mastery by the interviewer over the actual questions in the schedule.

He should be able to ask them conversationally rather than real them stiffly. He should know what questions are coming next so that there will be no awkward disruption of smooth interaction. Fundamentally, the interviewer’s job is that of a reporter.

He should not act as an adviser, custodian of morality, curio-seeker or debator. He should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer. He should show an interested disposition toward his respondent’s opinion. On his own, he should never divulge his own. The interviewer must keep the direction of interview in his Own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and trying to keep the respondent on the track.

Next, we turn to consider how the interviewer should ask his questions. The interviewer must be alert to the importance of asking each question exactly as it is worded unless the interview is unstructured. Interviewers should remember that even a slight rewording of a question can so change the stimulus as to elicit answers in a different frame of reference.

The interviewer should refrain from giving unwarranted explanation of questions because this also may change the frame of reference, or inject bias into the response. If each interviewer were permitted to vary the questions according to his sweet will, the resulting responses recorded by different interviewers may not be comparable.

If at all the interviewer has to offer any explanation to the respondents, he should offer only those that he has specifically been authorized to do. Should the respondent fail to understand the question, the interviewer may advisedly repeat it slowly and with proper emphasis.

Questions must be asked in the sequence they appear on the schedule. Varying this order will change the respondent’s frame of reference since each question sets up a frame of reference for the following questions. Thus, if the sequences vary from interviewer to interviewer, the responses will not be comparable. The interviewer must make it a point to ask every question, unless directions permit skipping a few.

It may seem that the respondent has given his opinion on a subsequent question in answering an earlier question, but he must nevertheless ask the question in order to be sure.

A question may appear to be naive or inapplicable but the interviewer should never omit asking it. Wherever necessary and appropriate, the interviewer should preface the question with certain conversational phrases to maintain continuity and tempo.

We shall now consider another important requirement of successful interviewing. It is often difficult as interviewers have often experienced, to obtain a specific complete response. This is perhaps the most difficult part of his job. Respondents often qualify or hedge their opinions.

They often answer, ‘do not know’ just to avoid thinking about the question, they misinterpret the question, divert the process of interview by launching off an irrelevant discussion or they give self-contradictory answers. In all these cases the interviewer has to probe deeper.

The test of a good interviewer is that he is alert to incomplete or nonspecific answers. Each interviewer must understand fully the overall objective of each question and what it is precisely trying to measure. A pre-test on the interviewers helps to equip them with such understanding.

The interviewer should be able to ask himself after every reply the respondent gives whether the question is completely answered. If the respondent’s answer is vague or diffuse or incomplete, effective probe questions should be asked.

The interviewer must be careful at every stage, not to suggest a possible reply, that is, the interviewer should riot ask leading questions (i.e., put words into the subject’s mouth). The “don’t know” reply is another problem of the interviewer.

Sometimes, this response may be due to a genuine lack of opinion or knowledge, but at other times it may be a cloak wittingly or unwittingly used by the interviewee to hide many attitudes, fear, reluctance, vague opinions, lack of understanding, etc. The interviewer should distinguish between the different types of’ don’t-know response’ and repeat the questions with suitable assurances.

An important consideration in successful interviewing relates to recording the responses of interviewees. There are two chief means of recording responses during the interview. If the question is a fixed alternative one, the interviewer need only mark or check an appropriate category. But if the question is open-ended, the interviewer is expected to record the response, verbatim.

On pre-coded schedules, errors and omissions in recording the replies are a frequent source of interview-error. In the midst of various tasks that the interviewer is supposed to perform in the course of interviews, viz., trying to pin the respondent down to a specific answer, remembering the sequence of questions, observing facial expressions etc., the interviewer may sometimes neglect to indicate the respondent’s reply to some item, overlook a particular question or check the wrong category, etc.

Even the best interviewer should, therefore, make it a habit to inspect each interview to make sure that it is filled in accurately and completely.

If any information is lacking he should go back and ask the respondent for it. He should correct the errors and omissions in the schedules on the spot. If he has recorded verbatim replies only sketchily, he should correct the weakness right there. It is not at all proper to wait until later in the day or until he returns home at night, since by then he may have forgotten quite a few crucial circumstances of the interview.

The interviewer should understand that the omission or inaccurate reporting of a single answer can make the entire interview worthless since the schedule is designed as an integral whole.

In reporting responses to open-ended or free answer questions, the interviewer should give complete, verbatim reporting. It may often be difficult to fulfill this requirement, but apart from obvious irrelevancies and repetitions, this should be the goal.

It is necessary that the interviewers have some idea of the coding process. This will ensure that they are able to record responses in such a manner that the coders will be able to reconstruct the whole set of responses correctly in a codified form.

The interviewer should ideally quote the respondents exactly. Paraphrasing the replies, summarizing them in one’s own words or “polishing up” any slang or cursing etc., not only might distort the respondent’s meanings and emphases but also miss the tenor of his replies.

Although it is frequently difficult to record responses verbatim without using short­hand, a few simple techniques can greatly increase the interviewer’s speed and honest reproduction.

The interviewer can ask the subject to wait until the interviewer has written the last thought but this may slow down the interview and may have certain adverse effects. In order not to slow up the interview, the interviewer should be prepared to write at the same time as the respondent talks.

This may prevent him from watching the expressions of the respondent but some adjustments have got to be made. The interviewer may also use common abbreviations. He may also use a telegraphic style of recording. In doing so, the interviewer must not make the recording incomprehensible to the coders.

One final point related to successful interviewing is, how to minimize bias introduced by the interviewer. Known as the interviewer-“bias”, it refers to systematic differences from interviewer to interviewer or occasionally systematic errors on the part of the interviewers in the selection of the samples (e.g., in quota sampling where the selection of interviewees is left to the interviewers), in asking questions, eliciting and recording responses.

Much of what we call interviewer-bias, can be more correctly described as interviewer- differences which are inherent in the fact that interviewers are human beings and not machines and thus they do not work identically or infallibly.

The fact that respondents too are human beings with differing perceptions, judgements, etc., simply enhances the differences that would occur if different interviewers were dealing with physical rather than human materials. It is too much to expect, therefore, that the interviewers will return complete, comparable and valid reports.

Even assuming an unbiased selection of respondents, bias in the interview-situation may stem from two sources:

(a) Respondent’s perception of the interviewer.

(b) Interviewer’s perception of the respondent.

‘Perception’ here points to the manner in which the relation between the interviewer and respondent is influenced and modified by their wishes, expectations and personality structure.

There is a sizable experimental evidence to prove that bias may result under certain conditions in spite of anything the interviewer may do to eliminate it. Respondents have been shown to frequently answer differently when interviewed by people from different social strata or ethnic group or nationality group. For example, the working-class respondents are less likely to talk freely to middle-class interviewers.

The magnitude of these effects naturally varies with the way in which the respondents perceive the situation. The biasing effects can often be reduced by altering the respondent’s perception of the situation, e.g., by assuring him that his identity will not be revealed but these effects can seldom be completely eliminated.

The interviewers should dress inconspicuously so that their appearance will not adversely sensitize certain categories of respondents.

The staff in a large-scale research project should be instructed to interview the respondent privately (unless the whole group is to be interviewed) so that his opinions will not be affected by the presence of some third person and to adopt an informal and conversational attitude in an effort to achieve the best possible ‘report.’

It should be noted that not all interview-biasing effects operate through the respondent’s perception by an interviewer. Some respondents may be totally immune to the most crucial biasing’s characteristics of the interviewer. The other dimension, we must consider in this context, is the interviewer’s perception of the respondent.

This is as important a source of bias as the respondent’s perception of the interviewer. No matter how standardized the schedule and how rigidly the interviewer is instructed, he still has much opportunity to exercise freedom of choice during the actual interview.

Thus, it is often his perception of the respondent that determines the manner in which he asks questions, the way in which he probes, his classification of responses to pre-coded questions and his recording of verbatim answers.

The interviewers often have strong expectations from respondents and as such, stereotypes are likely to come into play during the interview. On the basis of their past experience, judgements or prior answers received from other respondents, the interviewers may often quite unconsciously assume that they are inferior to him or that they are hostile, deceptive or ignorant, etc.

Such expectations will affect their performance. For example, a ‘No response’ from an educated well-to-do respondent may be probed into on the assumption that an opinion may be lurking somewhere or the interviewer may think that the respondents do not mean what they say.

Experiments have shown that the interviewers tend to select from long verbatim answers those parts that most closely conform to their expectations, beliefs or opinions and discard the rest.

An important source of bias arises from the interviewer’s perception of the situation. If he sees the results of the study as a possible threat to his interests, he is likely to introduce bias. Such difficulties can be overcome by proper motivation and supervision.

The interviewers being human, such biasing’s factors can never be overcome completely. Of Course, their effects can be reduced by standardizing the interview so that the interviewer has as little free choice as possible. If interviewers are given clear and standard instructions on questioning procedures, on the classification of responses etc., their biases will have lesser chances of operation.

It should not be overlooked, however, that if the interviewer’s freedom is restricted, correspondingly, the opportunities for effective use of his insight are restricted too. The more responsibilities the interviewer is given for questioning and evaluating the respondent’s opinions, the more likely it is that bias will result. This calls for a very careful selection of some middle course.

In so far as bias, in the sense of different interviewers not returning exactly the same responses from equivalent respondents, can never be totally eliminated, the main responsibility of the director of the research project is to select, train and supervise his staff in such a way that any net result of bias will be at a minimum.

He must be aware of the possibilities of bias at various points so that he is in a position to discount their effects in his analysis.

Related Articles:

• Interview Schedule : Meaning, Uses and Limitations
• Interview Techniques for Doing a Research

Techniques , Research , Social Research , The Interview Method

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interviews in research advantages and disadvantages

Interviews are a widely used research method that allows researchers to gather valuable information directly from participants. This article explores the advantages and disadvantages of conducting interviews in research, providing insights into the strengths and weaknesses of this approach.

Advantages of Interviews in Research

1. rich and in-depth data:.

Interviews provide researchers with the opportunity to delve deep into a topic and obtain detailed information from participants. Through open-ended questions, researchers can explore various aspects and gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

2. Flexibility:

Interviews offer flexibility in terms of location, timing, and format. Researchers can choose to conduct interviews face-to-face, over the phone, or even through video conferencing. This flexibility allows for convenience and increases the likelihood of participation.

3. Probing and Clarification:

Unlike other research methods, interviews allow for immediate clarification and probing. Researchers can ask follow-up questions, seek elaboration, or request examples during the interview, ensuring a clearer understanding of the participant’s responses.

4. Personal Connection:

Interviews foster a personal connection between the researcher and the participant. This connection often leads to a greater level of trust, resulting in participants sharing more detailed and honest responses. It also provides an opportunity to observe non-verbal cues, gestures, and emotions that may contribute to the research findings.

5. Adaptability:

Researchers can adapt their interviews based on the participant’s background, knowledge, or cultural context. This adaptability allows for a tailored approach that enhances the quality and relevance of the data obtained.

Disadvantages of Interviews in Research

1. potential for bias:.

Interviews may introduce bias as the researcher’s personal presence and interaction can influence the participant’s responses. Researchers must remain impartial and minimize any potential bias or leading questions.

2. Time-consuming:

Conducting interviews can be time-consuming as it requires scheduling, preparation, execution, and transcription of the recorded data. Researchers must allocate ample time and resources to ensure thorough data collection and analysis.

3. Difficulty in Generalizing Findings:

While interviews provide rich and detailed data, it can be challenging to generalize the findings to a larger population. The sample size is often limited, making it difficult to draw broad conclusions from interview-based research.

4. Interviewer Influence:

The presence and behavior of the interviewer may impact the participant’s responses. Participants might alter their answers based on their perception of the researcher’s expectations, potentially leading to skewed or inaccurate data.

5. Resource-Intensive:

Conducting interviews requires significant resources, including time, manpower, and financial investment. Expenses may include travel costs, transcription services, and compensation for participants, making interviews a more resource-intensive research method.

Benefits of Knowing the Interviews in Research Advantages and Disadvantages

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of interviews in research can significantly benefit researchers in several ways:

• Improved Research Design: Knowledge of the strengths and limitations of interviews helps researchers design studies that leverage the advantages while mitigating potential drawbacks.
• Informed Decision-Making: Researchers can make informed choices about when to use interviews as a research method and when to employ other techniques better suited to their objectives.
• Data Quality Enhancement: Awareness of the disadvantages allows researchers to implement strategies to minimize bias and increase the reliability and validity of the data collected through interviews.
• Ethical Considerations: Understanding the advantages and disadvantages helps researchers navigate potential ethical dilemmas during the interview process and ensures the protection of participants’ rights and well-being.

In conclusion, interviews offer valuable advantages in research, including rich and in-depth data, flexibility, probing capabilities, personal connection, and adaptability. However, there are also disadvantages to consider, such as the potential for bias, time consumption, difficulty in generalizing findings, interviewer influence, and resource intensiveness. By understanding these advantages and disadvantages, researchers can make more informed decisions, enhance their research methodologies, and ensure the validity and integrity of their findings.

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The Interview Method In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Interviews involve a conversation with a purpose, but have some distinct features compared to ordinary conversation, such as being scheduled in advance, having an asymmetry in outcome goals between interviewer and interviewee, and often following a question-answer format.

Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaire methods, researchers need training in interviewing (which costs money).

How Do Interviews Work?

Researchers can ask different types of questions, generating different types of data . For example, closed questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words.

The researcher will often record interviews, and the data will be written up as a transcript (a written account of interview questions and answers) which can be analyzed later.

It should be noted that interviews may not be the best method for researching sensitive topics (e.g., truancy in schools, discrimination, etc.) as people may feel more comfortable completing a questionnaire in private.

There are different types of interviews, with a key distinction being the extent of structure. Semi-structured is most common in psychology research. Unstructured interviews have a free-flowing style, while structured interviews involve preset questions asked in a particular order.

Structured Interview

A structured interview is a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she reads out exactly as worded.

Interviews schedules have a standardized format, meaning the same questions are asked to each interviewee in the same order (see Fig. 1).

   Figure 1. An example of an interview schedule

The interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule (except to clarify the meaning of the question) or probe beyond the answers received.  Replies are recorded on a questionnaire, and the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers, is preset by the researcher.

A structured interview is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

• Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for reliability .
• Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

• Structured interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e., during the interview), as an interview schedule must be followed.
• The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked, which generates quantitative data . This means a researcher won’t know why a person behaves a certain way.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the interview flow like a natural conversation. The interviewer modifies his or her questions to suit the candidate’s specific experiences.

Unstructured interviews are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ and are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strictly structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values. Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective points of view.

Interviewer Self-Disclosure

Interviewer self-disclosure involves the interviewer revealing personal information or opinions during the research interview. This may increase rapport but risks changing dynamics away from a focus on facilitating the interviewee’s account.

In unstructured interviews, the informal conversational style may deliberately include elements of interviewer self-disclosure, mirroring ordinary conversation dynamics.

Interviewer self-disclosure risks changing the dynamics away from facilitation of interviewee accounts. It should not be ruled out entirely but requires skillful handling informed by reflection.

• An informal interviewing style with some interviewer self-disclosure may increase rapport and participant openness. However, it also increases the chance of the participant converging opinions with the interviewer.
• Complete interviewer neutrality is unlikely. However, excessive informality and self-disclosure risk the interview becoming more of an ordinary conversation and producing consensus accounts.
• Overly personal disclosures could also be seen as irrelevant and intrusive by participants. They may invite increased intimacy on uncomfortable topics.
• The safest approach seems to be to avoid interviewer self-disclosures in most cases. Where an informal style is used, disclosures require careful judgment and substantial interviewing experience.
• If asked for personal opinions during an interview, the interviewer could highlight the defined roles and defer that discussion until after the interview.
• Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule.
• Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
• They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview, etc. Interviewers have the chance to clarify any questions of participants during the interview.
• It can be time-consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis).
• Employing and training interviewers is expensive and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires . For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport and knowing when to probe.
• Interviews inevitably co-construct data through researchers’ agenda-setting and question-framing. Techniques like open questions provide only limited remedies.

Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview is a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues.

This type of interview is often referred to as a focus group because the job of the interviewer ( or moderator ) is to bring the group to focus on the issue at hand. Initially, the goal was to reach a consensus among the group, but with the development of techniques for analyzing group qualitative data, there is less emphasis on consensus building.

The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population.

The role of the interview moderator is to make sure the group interacts with each other and do not drift off-topic. Ideally, the moderator will be similar to the participants in terms of appearance, have adequate knowledge of the topic being discussed, and exercise mild unobtrusive control over dominant talkers and shy participants.

A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a focus group interview. For example, the moderator may need certain skills, including the ability to establish rapport and know when to probe.

• Group interviews generate qualitative narrative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondents to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation. Qualitative data also includes observational data, such as body language and facial expressions.
• Group responses are helpful when you want to elicit perspectives on a collective experience, encourage diversity of thought, reduce researcher bias, and gather a wider range of contextualized views.
• They also have increased validity because some participants may feel more comfortable being with others as they are used to talking in groups in real life (i.e., it’s more natural).
• When participants have common experiences, focus groups allow them to build on each other’s comments to provide richer contextual data representing a wider range of views than individual interviews.
• Focus groups are a type of group interview method used in market research and consumer psychology that are cost – effective for gathering the views of consumers .
• The researcher must ensure that they keep all the interviewees” details confidential and respect their privacy. This is difficult when using a group interview. For example, the researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in the group will keep information private.
• Group interviews are less reliable as they use open questions and may deviate from the interview schedule, making them difficult to repeat.
• It is important to note that there are some potential pitfalls of focus groups, such as conformity, social desirability, and oppositional behavior, that can reduce the usefulness of the data collected.

For example, group interviews may sometimes lack validity as participants may lie to impress the other group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.

To avoid these pitfalls, the interviewer needs to have a good understanding of how people function in groups as well as how to lead the group in a productive discussion.

Semi-Structured Interview

Semi-structured interviews lie between structured and unstructured interviews. The interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. Additional questions might be asked during the interview to clarify or expand certain issues.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer has more freedom to digress and probe beyond the answers. The interview guide contains a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.

Semi-structured interviews are most useful to address the ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ research questions. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses can be performed on data collected during semi-structured interviews.

• Semi-structured interviews allow respondents to answer more on their terms in an informal setting yet provide uniform information making them ideal for qualitative analysis.
• The flexible nature of semi-structured interviews allows ideas to be introduced and explored during the interview based on the respondents’ answers.
• Semi-structured interviews can provide reliable and comparable qualitative data. Allows the interviewer to probe answers, where the interviewee is asked to clarify or expand on the answers provided.
• The data generated remain fundamentally shaped by the interview context itself. Analysis rarely acknowledges this endemic co-construction.
• They are more time-consuming (to conduct, transcribe, and analyze) than structured interviews.
• The quality of findings is more dependent on the individual skills of the interviewer than in structured interviews. Skill is required to probe effectively while avoiding biasing responses.

The Interviewer Effect

Face-to-face interviews raise methodological problems. These stem from the fact that interviewers are themselves role players, and their perceived status may influence the replies of the respondents.

Because an interview is a social interaction, the interviewer’s appearance or behavior may influence the respondent’s answers. This is a problem as it can bias the results of the study and make them invalid.

For example, the gender, ethnicity, body language, age, and social status of the interview can all create an interviewer effect. If there is a perceived status disparity between the interviewer and the interviewee, the results of interviews have to be interpreted with care. This is pertinent for sensitive topics such as health.

For example, if a researcher was investigating sexism amongst males, would a female interview be preferable to a male? It is possible that if a female interviewer was used, male participants might lie (i.e., pretend they are not sexist) to impress the interviewer, thus creating an interviewer effect.

Flooding interviews with researcher’s agenda

The interactional nature of interviews means the researcher fundamentally shapes the discourse, rather than just neutrally collecting it. This shapes what is talked about and how participants can respond.

• The interviewer’s assumptions, interests, and categories don’t just shape the specific interview questions asked. They also shape the framing, task instructions, recruitment, and ongoing responses/prompts.
• This flooding of the interview interaction with the researcher’s agenda makes it very difficult to separate out what comes from the participant vs. what is aligned with the interviewer’s concerns.
• So the participant’s talk ends up being fundamentally shaped by the interviewer rather than being a more natural reflection of the participant’s own orientations or practices.
• This effect is hard to avoid because interviews inherently involve the researcher setting an agenda. But it does mean the talk extracted may say more about the interview process than the reality it is supposed to reflect.

Interview Design

First, you must choose whether to use a structured or non-structured interview.

Characteristics of Interviewers

Next, you must consider who will be the interviewer, and this will depend on what type of person is being interviewed. There are several variables to consider:

• Gender and age : This can greatly affect respondents’ answers, particularly on personal issues.
• Personal characteristics : Some people are easier to get on with than others. Also, the interviewer’s accent and appearance (e.g., clothing) can affect the rapport between the interviewer and interviewee.
• Language : The interviewer’s language should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. For example, the researcher must change the questions’ language to match the respondents’ social background” age / educational level / social class/ethnicity, etc.
• Ethnicity : People may have difficulty interviewing people from different ethnic groups.
• Interviewer expertise should match research sensitivity – inexperienced students should avoid interviewing highly vulnerable groups.

Interview Location

The location of a research interview can influence the way in which the interviewer and interviewee relate and may exaggerate a power dynamic in one direction or another. It is usual to offer interviewees a choice of location as part of facilitating their comfort and encouraging participation.

However, the safety of the interviewer is an overriding consideration and, as mentioned, a minimal requirement should be that a responsible person knows where the interviewer has gone and when they are due back.

Remote Interviews

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated remote interviewing for research continuity. However online interview platforms provide increased flexibility even under normal conditions.

They enable access to participant groups across geographical distances without travel costs or arrangements. Online interviews can be efficiently scheduled to align with researcher and interviewee availability.

There are practical considerations in setting up remote interviews. Interviewees require access to internet and an online platform such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams or Skype through which to connect.

Certain modifications help build initial rapport in the remote format. Allowing time at the start of the interview for casual conversation while testing audio/video quality helps participants settle in. Minor delays can disrupt turn-taking flow, so alerting participants to speak slightly slower than usual minimizes accidental interruptions.

Keeping remote interviews under an hour avoids fatigue for stare at a screen. Seeking advanced ethical clearance for verbal consent at the interview start saves participant time. Adapting to the remote context shows care for interviewees and aids rich discussion.

However, it remains important to critically reflect on how removing in-person dynamics may shape the co-created data. Perhaps some nuances of trust and disclosure differ over video.

Vulnerable Groups

The interviewer must ensure that they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as children. For example, children have a limited attention span, so lengthy interviews should be avoided.

Developing an Interview Schedule

An interview schedule is a list of pre-planned, structured questions that have been prepared, to serve as a guide for interviewers, researchers and investigators in collecting information or data about a specific topic or issue.

• List the key themes or topics that must be covered to address your research questions. This will form the basic content.
• Organize the content logically, such as chronologically following the interviewee’s experiences. Place more sensitive topics later in the interview.
• Develop the list of content into actual questions and prompts. Carefully word each question – keep them open-ended, non-leading, and focused on examples.
• Add prompts to remind you to cover areas of interest.
• Pilot test the interview schedule to check it generates useful data and revise as needed.
• Be prepared to refine the schedule throughout data collection as you learn which questions work better.
• Practice skills like asking follow-up questions to get depth and detail. Stay flexible to depart from the schedule when needed.
• Keep questions brief and clear. Avoid multi-part questions that risk confusing interviewees.
• Listen actively during interviews to determine which pre-planned questions can be skipped based on information the participant has already provided.

The key is balancing preparation with the flexibility to adapt questions based on each interview interaction. With practice, you’ll gain skills to conduct productive interviews that obtain rich qualitative data.

The Power of Silence

Strategic use of silence is a key technique to generate interviewee-led data, but it requires judgment about appropriate timing and duration to maintain mutual understanding.

• Unlike ordinary conversation, the interviewer aims to facilitate the interviewee’s contribution without interrupting. This often means resisting the urge to speak at the end of the interviewee’s turn construction units (TCUs).
• Leaving a silence after a TCU encourages the interviewee to provide more material without being led by the interviewer. However, this simple technique requires confidence, as silence can feel socially awkward.
• Allowing longer silences (e.g. 24 seconds) later in interviews can work well, but early on even short silences may disrupt rapport if they cause misalignment between speakers.
• Silence also allows interviewees time to think before answering. Rushing to re-ask or amend questions can limit responses.
• Blunt backchannels like “mm hm” also avoid interrupting flow. Interruptions, especially to finish an interviewee’s turn, are problematic as they make the ownership of perspectives unclear.
• If interviewers incorrectly complete turns, an upside is it can produce extended interviewee narratives correcting the record. However, silence would have been better to let interviewees shape their own accounts.

Recording & Transcription

Design choices.

Design choices around recording and engaging closely with transcripts influence analytic insights, as well as practical feasibility. Weighing up relevant tradeoffs is key.

• Audio recording is standard, but video better captures contextual details, which is useful for some topics/analysis approaches. Participants may find video invasive for sensitive research.
• Digital formats enable the sharing of anonymized clips. Additional microphones reduce audio issues.
• Doing all transcription is time-consuming. Outsourcing can save researcher effort but needs confidentiality assurances. Always carefully check outsourced transcripts.
• Online platform auto-captioning can facilitate rapid analysis, but accuracy limitations mean full transcripts remain ideal. Software cleans up caption file formatting.
• Verbatim transcripts best capture nuanced meaning, but the level of detail needed depends on the analysis approach. Referring back to recordings is still advisable during analysis.
• Transcripts versus recordings highlight different interaction elements. Transcripts make overt disagreements clearer through the wording itself. Recordings better convey tone affiliativeness.

Transcribing Interviews & Focus Groups

Here are the steps for transcribing interviews:

• Play back audio/video files to develop an overall understanding of the interview
• Format the transcription document:
• Add line numbers
• Separate interviewer questions and interviewee responses
• Use formatting like bold, italics, etc. to highlight key passages
• Provide sentence-level clarity in the interviewee’s responses while preserving their authentic voice and word choices
• Break longer passages into smaller paragraphs to help with coding
• If translating the interview to another language, use qualified translators and back-translate where possible
• Select a notation system to indicate pauses, emphasis, laughter, interruptions, etc., and adapt it as needed for your data
• Insert screenshots, photos, or documents discussed in the interview at the relevant point in the transcript
• Read through multiple times, revising formatting and notations
• Double-check the accuracy of transcription against audio/videos
• De-identify transcript by removing identifying participant details

The goal is to produce a formatted written record of the verbal interview exchange that captures the meaning and highlights important passages ready for the coding process. Careful transcription is the vital first step in analysis.

Coding Transcripts

The goal of transcription and coding is to systematically transform interview responses into a set of codes and themes that capture key concepts, experiences and beliefs expressed by participants. Taking care with transcription and coding procedures enhances the validity of qualitative analysis .

• Read through the transcript multiple times to become immersed in the details
• Identify manifest/obvious codes and latent/underlying meaning codes
• Highlight insightful participant quotes that capture key concepts (in vivo codes)
• Create a codebook to organize and define codes with examples
• Use an iterative cycle of inductive (data-driven) coding and deductive (theory-driven) coding
• Refine codebook with clear definitions and examples as you code more transcripts
• Collaborate with other coders to establish the reliability of codes

Ethical Issues

Informed consent.

The participant information sheet must give potential interviewees a good idea of what is involved if taking part in the research.

This will include the general topics covered in the interview, where the interview might take place, how long it is expected to last, how it will be recorded, the ways in which participants’ anonymity will be managed, and incentives offered.

It might be considered good practice to consider true informed consent in interview research to require two distinguishable stages:

• Consent to undertake and record the interview and
• Consent to use the material in research after the interview has been conducted and the content known, or even after the interviewee has seen a copy of the transcript and has had a chance to remove sections, if desired.

Power and Vulnerability

• Early feminist views that sensitivity could equalize power differences are likely naive. The interviewer and interviewee inhabit different knowledge spheres and social categories, indicating structural disparities.
• Power fluctuates within interviews. Researchers rely on participation, yet interviewees control openness and can undermine data collection. Assumptions should be avoided.
• Interviews on sensitive topics may feel like quasi-counseling. Interviewers must refrain from dual roles, instead supplying support service details to all participants.
• Interviewees recruited for trauma experiences may reveal more than anticipated. While generating analytic insights, this risks leaving them feeling exposed.
• Ultimately, power balances resist reconciliation. But reflexively analyzing operations of power serves to qualify rather than nullify situtated qualitative accounts.

Some groups, like those with mental health issues, extreme views, or criminal backgrounds, risk being discredited – treated skeptically by researchers.

This creates tensions with qualitative approaches, often having an empathetic ethos seeking to center subjective perspectives. Analysis should balance openness to offered accounts with critically examining stakes and motivations behind them.

Potter, J., & Hepburn, A. (2005). Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities.  Qualitative research in Psychology ,  2 (4), 281-307.

Houtkoop-Steenstra, H. (2000). Interaction and the standardized survey interview: The living questionnaire . Cambridge University Press

Madill, A. (2011). Interaction in the semi-structured interview: A comparative analysis of the use of and response to indirect complaints. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 8 (4), 333–353.

Maryudi, A., & Fisher, M. (2020). The power in the interview: A practical guide for identifying the critical role of actor interests in environment research. Forest and Society, 4 (1), 142–150

O’Key, V., Hugh-Jones, S., & Madill, A. (2009). Recruiting and engaging with people in deprived locales: Interviewing families about their eating patterns. Social Psychological Review, 11 (20), 30–35.

Puchta, C., & Potter, J. (2004). Focus group practice . Sage.

Schaeffer, N. C. (1991). Conversation with a purpose— Or conversation? Interaction in the standardized interview. In P. P. Biemer, R. M. Groves, L. E. Lyberg, & N. A. Mathiowetz (Eds.), Measurement errors in surveys (pp. 367–391). Wiley.

Silverman, D. (1973). Interview talk: Bringing off a research instrument. Sociology, 7 (1), 31–48.

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Chapter 10: Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis Methods

10.7 Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Interviews

As the preceding sections have suggested, qualitative interviews are an excellent way to gather detailed information. Whatever topic is of interest to the researcher can be explored in much more depth by employing this method than with almost any other method. Not only are participants given the opportunity to elaborate in a way that is not possible with other methods, such as survey research, but, in addition, they are able share information with researchers in their own words and from their own perspectives, rather than attempting to fit those perspectives into the perhaps limited response options provided by the researcher. Because qualitative interviews are designed to elicit detailed information, they are especially useful when a researcher’s aim is to study social processes, or the “how” of various phenomena. Yet another, and sometimes overlooked, benefit of qualitative interviews that occurs in person is that researchers can make observations beyond those that a respondent is orally reporting. A respondent’s body language, and even her or his choice of time and location for the interview, might provide a researcher with useful data.

As with quantitative survey research, qualitative interviews rely on respondents’ ability to accurately and honestly recall whatever details about their lives, circumstances, thoughts, opinions, or behaviors are being examined. Qualitative interviewing is also time-intensive and can be quite expensive. Creating an interview guide, identifying a sample, and conducting interviews are just the beginning of the process. Transcribing interviews is labor-intensive, even before coding begins. It is also not uncommon to offer respondents some monetary incentive or thank-you for participating, because you are asking for more of the participants’ time than if you had mailed them a questionnaire containing closed-ended questions. Conducting qualitative interviews is not only labor intensive but also emotionally taxing. Researchers embarking on a qualitative interview project with a subject that is sensitive in nature should keep in mind their own abilities to listen to stories that may be difficult to hear.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Interview Research

Research Methods Guide: Interview Research

• Introduction
• Research Design & Method
• Survey Research
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Tutorial Videos: Interview Method

Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research

Goals of Interview Research

• Preferences
• They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc.
• Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected.

Mode of Data Collection

There are several types of interviews, including:

• Face-to-Face
• Online (e.g. Skype, Googlehangout, etc)

FAQ: Conducting Interview Research

What are the important steps involved in interviews?

• Think about who you will interview
• Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
• Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
• Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
• Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
• Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
• Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
• Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
• Do not ask leading questions
• Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
• Do you want to bring a notetaker?
• Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
• Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
• How long will each interview take?
• Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?

Do I have to choose either a survey or interviewing method?

No.  In fact, many researchers use a mixed method - interviews can be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to surveys, e.g., to further investigate their responses.

Is training an interviewer important?

Yes, since the interviewer can control the quality of the result, training the interviewer becomes crucial.  If more than one interviewers are involved in your study, it is important to have every interviewer understand the interviewing procedure and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.

• << Previous: Survey Research
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• Last Updated: Aug 21, 2023 10:42 AM

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• Published: 05 October 2018

Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age

• P. Gill 1 &
• J. Baillie 2  

British Dental Journal volume  225 ,  pages 668–672 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Highlights that qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry. Interviews and focus groups remain the most common qualitative methods of data collection.

Suggests the advent of digital technologies has transformed how qualitative research can now be undertaken.

Suggests interviews and focus groups can offer significant, meaningful insight into participants' experiences, beliefs and perspectives, which can help to inform developments in dental practice.

Qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry, due to its potential to provide meaningful, in-depth insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, beliefs and behaviours. These insights can subsequently help to inform developments in dental practice and further related research. The most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research are interviews and focus groups. While these are primarily conducted face-to-face, the ongoing evolution of digital technologies, such as video chat and online forums, has further transformed these methods of data collection. This paper therefore discusses interviews and focus groups in detail, outlines how they can be used in practice, how digital technologies can further inform the data collection process, and what these methods can offer dentistry.

You have full access to this article via your institution.

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Introduction.

Traditionally, research in dentistry has primarily been quantitative in nature. 1 However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in qualitative research within the profession, due to its potential to further inform developments in practice, policy, education and training. Consequently, in 2008, the British Dental Journal (BDJ) published a four paper qualitative research series, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 to help increase awareness and understanding of this particular methodological approach.

Since the papers were originally published, two scoping reviews have demonstrated the ongoing proliferation in the use of qualitative research within the field of oral healthcare. 1 , 6 To date, the original four paper series continue to be well cited and two of the main papers remain widely accessed among the BDJ readership. 2 , 3 The potential value of well-conducted qualitative research to evidence-based practice is now also widely recognised by service providers, policy makers, funding bodies and those who commission, support and use healthcare research.

Besides increasing standalone use, qualitative methods are now also routinely incorporated into larger mixed method study designs, such as clinical trials, as they can offer additional, meaningful insights into complex problems that simply could not be provided by quantitative methods alone. Qualitative methods can also be used to further facilitate in-depth understanding of important aspects of clinical trial processes, such as recruitment. For example, Ellis et al . investigated why edentulous older patients, dissatisfied with conventional dentures, decline implant treatment, despite its established efficacy, and frequently refuse to participate in related randomised clinical trials, even when financial constraints are removed. 7 Through the use of focus groups in Canada and the UK, the authors found that fears of pain and potential complications, along with perceived embarrassment, exacerbated by age, are common reasons why older patients typically refuse dental implants. 7

The last decade has also seen further developments in qualitative research, due to the ongoing evolution of digital technologies. These developments have transformed how researchers can access and share information, communicate and collaborate, recruit and engage participants, collect and analyse data and disseminate and translate research findings. 8 Where appropriate, such technologies are therefore capable of extending and enhancing how qualitative research is undertaken. 9 For example, it is now possible to collect qualitative data via instant messaging, email or online/video chat, using appropriate online platforms.

These innovative approaches to research are therefore cost-effective, convenient, reduce geographical constraints and are often useful for accessing 'hard to reach' participants (for example, those who are immobile or socially isolated). 8 , 9 However, digital technologies are still relatively new and constantly evolving and therefore present a variety of pragmatic and methodological challenges. Furthermore, given their very nature, their use in many qualitative studies and/or with certain participant groups may be inappropriate and should therefore always be carefully considered. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a detailed explication regarding the use of digital technologies in qualitative research, insight is provided into how such technologies can be used to facilitate the data collection process in interviews and focus groups.

In light of such developments, it is perhaps therefore timely to update the main paper 3 of the original BDJ series. As with the previous publications, this paper has been purposely written in an accessible style, to enhance readability, particularly for those who are new to qualitative research. While the focus remains on the most common qualitative methods of data collection – interviews and focus groups – appropriate revisions have been made to provide a novel perspective, and should therefore be helpful to those who would like to know more about qualitative research. This paper specifically focuses on undertaking qualitative research with adult participants only.

Overview of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on people and their experiences, behaviours and opinions. 10 , 11 The qualitative researcher seeks to answer questions of 'how' and 'why', providing detailed insight and understanding, 11 which quantitative methods cannot reach. 12 Within qualitative research, there are distinct methodologies influencing how the researcher approaches the research question, data collection and data analysis. 13 For example, phenomenological studies focus on the lived experience of individuals, explored through their description of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies explore the culture of a group and typically involve the use of multiple methods to uncover the issues. 14

While methodology is the 'thinking tool', the methods are the 'doing tools'; 13 the ways in which data are collected and analysed. There are multiple qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, focus groups, observations, documentary analysis, participant diaries, photography and videography. Two of the most commonly used qualitative methods are interviews and focus groups, which are explored in this article. The data generated through these methods can be analysed in one of many ways, according to the methodological approach chosen. A common approach is thematic data analysis, involving the identification of themes and subthemes across the data set. Further information on approaches to qualitative data analysis has been discussed elsewhere. 1

Qualitative research is an evolving and adaptable approach, used by different disciplines for different purposes. Traditionally, qualitative data, specifically interviews, focus groups and observations, have been collected face-to-face with participants. In more recent years, digital technologies have contributed to the ongoing evolution of qualitative research. Digital technologies offer researchers different ways of recruiting participants and collecting data, and offer participants opportunities to be involved in research that is not necessarily face-to-face.

Research interviews are a fundamental qualitative research method 15 and are utilised across methodological approaches. Interviews enable the researcher to learn in depth about the perspectives, experiences, beliefs and motivations of the participant. 3 , 16 Examples include, exploring patients' perspectives of fear/anxiety triggers in dental treatment, 17 patients' experiences of oral health and diabetes, 18 and dental students' motivations for their choice of career. 19

Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, 3 according to the purpose of the study, with less structured interviews facilitating a more in depth and flexible interviewing approach. 20 Structured interviews are similar to verbal questionnaires and are used if the researcher requires clarification on a topic; however they produce less in-depth data about a participant's experience. 3 Unstructured interviews may be used when little is known about a topic and involves the researcher asking an opening question; 3 the participant then leads the discussion. 20 Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in healthcare research, enabling the researcher to ask predetermined questions, 20 while ensuring the participant discusses issues they feel are important.

Interviews can be undertaken face-to-face or using digital methods when the researcher and participant are in different locations. Audio-recording the interview, with the consent of the participant, is essential for all interviews regardless of the medium as it enables accurate transcription; the process of turning the audio file into a word-for-word transcript. This transcript is the data, which the researcher then analyses according to the chosen approach.

Types of interview

Qualitative studies often utilise one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with research participants. This involves arranging a mutually convenient time and place to meet the participant, signing a consent form and audio-recording the interview. However, digital technologies have expanded the potential for interviews in research, enabling individuals to participate in qualitative research regardless of location.

Telephone interviews can be a useful alternative to face-to-face interviews and are commonly used in qualitative research. They enable participants from different geographical areas to participate and may be less onerous for participants than meeting a researcher in person. 15 A qualitative study explored patients' perspectives of dental implants and utilised telephone interviews due to the quality of the data that could be yielded. 21 The researcher needs to consider how they will audio record the interview, which can be facilitated by purchasing a recorder that connects directly to the telephone. One potential disadvantage of telephone interviews is the inability of the interviewer and researcher to see each other. This is resolved using software for audio and video calls online – such as Skype – to conduct interviews with participants in qualitative studies. Advantages of this approach include being able to see the participant if video calls are used, enabling observation of non-verbal communication, and the software can be free to use. However, participants are required to have a device and internet connection, as well as being computer literate, potentially limiting who can participate in the study. One qualitative study explored the role of dental hygienists in reducing oral health disparities in Canada. 22 The researcher conducted interviews using Skype, which enabled dental hygienists from across Canada to be interviewed within the research budget, accommodating the participants' schedules. 22

A less commonly used approach to qualitative interviews is the use of social virtual worlds. A qualitative study accessed a social virtual world – Second Life – to explore the health literacy skills of individuals who use social virtual worlds to access health information. 23 The researcher created an avatar and interview room, and undertook interviews with participants using voice and text methods. 23 This approach to recruitment and data collection enables individuals from diverse geographical locations to participate, while remaining anonymous if they wish. Furthermore, for interviews conducted using text methods, transcription of the interview is not required as the researcher can save the written conversation with the participant, with the participant's consent. However, the researcher and participant need to be familiar with how the social virtual world works to engage in an interview this way.

Conducting an interview

Ensuring informed consent before any interview is a fundamental aspect of the research process. Participants in research must be afforded autonomy and respect; consent should be informed and voluntary. 24 Individuals should have the opportunity to read an information sheet about the study, ask questions, understand how their data will be stored and used, and know that they are free to withdraw at any point without reprisal. The qualitative researcher should take written consent before undertaking the interview. In a face-to-face interview, this is straightforward: the researcher and participant both sign copies of the consent form, keeping one each. However, this approach is less straightforward when the researcher and participant do not meet in person. A recent protocol paper outlined an approach for taking consent for telephone interviews, which involved: audio recording the participant agreeing to each point on the consent form; the researcher signing the consent form and keeping a copy; and posting a copy to the participant. 25 This process could be replicated in other interview studies using digital methods.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using face-to-face and digital methods for research interviews. Ultimately, for both approaches, the quality of the interview is determined by the researcher. 16 Appropriate training and preparation are thus required. Healthcare professionals can use their interpersonal communication skills when undertaking a research interview, particularly questioning, listening and conversing. 3 However, the purpose of an interview is to gain information about the study topic, 26 rather than offering help and advice. 3 The researcher therefore needs to listen attentively to participants, enabling them to describe their experience without interruption. 3 The use of active listening skills also help to facilitate the interview. 14 Spradley outlined elements and strategies for research interviews, 27 which are a useful guide for qualitative researchers:

Greeting and explaining the project/interview

Asking descriptive (broad), structural (explore response to descriptive) and contrast (difference between) questions

Asymmetry between the researcher and participant talking

Expressing interest and cultural ignorance

Repeating, restating and incorporating the participant's words when asking questions

Creating hypothetical situations

Asking friendly questions

Knowing when to leave.

For semi-structured interviews, a topic guide (also called an interview schedule) is used to guide the content of the interview – an example of a topic guide is outlined in Box 1 . The topic guide, usually based on the research questions, existing literature and, for healthcare professionals, their clinical experience, is developed by the research team. The topic guide should include open ended questions that elicit in-depth information, and offer participants the opportunity to talk about issues important to them. This is vital in qualitative research where the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences and perspectives of participants. It can be useful for qualitative researchers to pilot the topic guide with the first participants, 10 to ensure the questions are relevant and understandable, and amending the questions if required.

Regardless of the medium of interview, the researcher must consider the setting of the interview. For face-to-face interviews, this could be in the participant's home, in an office or another mutually convenient location. A quiet location is preferable to promote confidentiality, enable the researcher and participant to concentrate on the conversation, and to facilitate accurate audio-recording of the interview. For interviews using digital methods the same principles apply: a quiet, private space where the researcher and participant feel comfortable and confident to participate in an interview.

Box 1: Example of a topic guide

Study focus: Parents' experiences of brushing their child's (aged 0–5) teeth

1. Can you tell me about your experience of cleaning your child's teeth?

How old was your child when you started cleaning their teeth?

Why did you start cleaning their teeth at that point?

How often do you brush their teeth?

What do you use to brush their teeth and why?

2. Could you explain how you find cleaning your child's teeth?

Do you find anything difficult?

What makes cleaning their teeth easier for you?

3. How has your experience of cleaning your child's teeth changed over time?

Has it become easier or harder?

Have you changed how often and how you clean their teeth? If so, why?

4. Could you describe how your child finds having their teeth cleaned?

What do they enjoy about having their teeth cleaned?

Is there anything they find upsetting about having their teeth cleaned?

5. Where do you look for information/advice about cleaning your child's teeth?

What did your health visitor tell you about cleaning your child's teeth? (If anything)

What has the dentist told you about caring for your child's teeth? (If visited)

Have any family members given you advice about how to clean your child's teeth? If so, what did they tell you? Did you follow their advice?

6. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about this?

Focus groups

A focus group is a moderated group discussion on a pre-defined topic, for research purposes. 28 , 29 While not aligned to a particular qualitative methodology (for example, grounded theory or phenomenology) as such, focus groups are used increasingly in healthcare research, as they are useful for exploring collective perspectives, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. Consequently, they can yield rich, in-depth data and illuminate agreement and inconsistencies 28 within and, where appropriate, between groups. Examples include public perceptions of dental implants and subsequent impact on help-seeking and decision making, 30 and general dental practitioners' views on patient safety in dentistry. 31

Focus groups can be used alone or in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews or observations, and can therefore help to confirm, extend or enrich understanding and provide alternative insights. 28 The social interaction between participants often results in lively discussion and can therefore facilitate the collection of rich, meaningful data. However, they are complex to organise and manage, due to the number of participants, and may also be inappropriate for exploring particularly sensitive issues that many participants may feel uncomfortable about discussing in a group environment.

Focus groups are primarily undertaken face-to-face but can now also be undertaken online, using appropriate technologies such as email, bulletin boards, online research communities, chat rooms, discussion forums, social media and video conferencing. 32 Using such technologies, data collection can also be synchronous (for example, online discussions in 'real time') or, unlike traditional face-to-face focus groups, asynchronous (for example, online/email discussions in 'non-real time'). While many of the fundamental principles of focus group research are the same, regardless of how they are conducted, a number of subtle nuances are associated with the online medium. 32 Some of which are discussed further in the following sections.

Focus group considerations

Some key considerations associated with face-to-face focus groups are: how many participants are required; should participants within each group know each other (or not) and how many focus groups are needed within a single study? These issues are much debated and there is no definitive answer. However, the number of focus groups required will largely depend on the topic area, the depth and breadth of data needed, the desired level of participation required 29 and the necessity (or not) for data saturation.

The optimum group size is around six to eight participants (excluding researchers) but can work effectively with between three and 14 participants. 3 If the group is too small, it may limit discussion, but if it is too large, it may become disorganised and difficult to manage. It is, however, prudent to over-recruit for a focus group by approximately two to three participants, to allow for potential non-attenders. For many researchers, particularly novice researchers, group size may also be informed by pragmatic considerations, such as the type of study, resources available and moderator experience. 28 Similar size and mix considerations exist for online focus groups. Typically, synchronous online focus groups will have around three to eight participants but, as the discussion does not happen simultaneously, asynchronous groups may have as many as 10–30 participants. 33

The topic area and potential group interaction should guide group composition considerations. Pre-existing groups, where participants know each other (for example, work colleagues) may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and may enjoy a familiarity, which facilitates discussion and/or the ability to challenge each other courteously. 3 However, if there is a potential power imbalance within the group or if existing group norms and hierarchies may adversely affect the ability of participants to speak freely, then 'stranger groups' (that is, where participants do not already know each other) may be more appropriate. 34 , 35

Focus group management

Face-to-face focus groups should normally be conducted by two researchers; a moderator and an observer. 28 The moderator facilitates group discussion, while the observer typically monitors group dynamics, behaviours, non-verbal cues, seating arrangements and speaking order, which is essential for transcription and analysis. The same principles of informed consent, as discussed in the interview section, also apply to focus groups, regardless of medium. However, the consent process for online discussions will probably be managed somewhat differently. For example, while an appropriate participant information leaflet (and consent form) would still be required, the process is likely to be managed electronically (for example, via email) and would need to specifically address issues relating to technology (for example, anonymity and use, storage and access to online data). 32

The venue in which a face to face focus group is conducted should be of a suitable size, private, quiet, free from distractions and in a collectively convenient location. It should also be conducted at a time appropriate for participants, 28 as this is likely to promote attendance. As with interviews, the same ethical considerations apply (as discussed earlier). However, online focus groups may present additional ethical challenges associated with issues such as informed consent, appropriate access and secure data storage. Further guidance can be found elsewhere. 8 , 32

Before the focus group commences, the researchers should establish rapport with participants, as this will help to put them at ease and result in a more meaningful discussion. Consequently, researchers should introduce themselves, provide further clarity about the study and how the process will work in practice and outline the 'ground rules'. Ground rules are designed to assist, not hinder, group discussion and typically include: 3 , 28 , 29

Discussions within the group are confidential to the group

Only one person can speak at a time

All participants should have sufficient opportunity to contribute

There should be no unnecessary interruptions while someone is speaking

Everyone can be expected to be listened to and their views respected

Challenging contrary opinions is appropriate, but ridiculing is not.

Moderating a focus group requires considered management and good interpersonal skills to help guide the discussion and, where appropriate, keep it sufficiently focused. Avoid, therefore, participating, leading, expressing personal opinions or correcting participants' knowledge 3 , 28 as this may bias the process. A relaxed, interested demeanour will also help participants to feel comfortable and promote candid discourse. Moderators should also prevent the discussion being dominated by any one person, ensure differences of opinions are discussed fairly and, if required, encourage reticent participants to contribute. 3 Asking open questions, reflecting on significant issues, inviting further debate, probing responses accordingly, and seeking further clarification, as and where appropriate, will help to obtain sufficient depth and insight into the topic area.

Moderating online focus groups requires comparable skills, particularly if the discussion is synchronous, as the discussion may be dominated by those who can type proficiently. 36 It is therefore important that sufficient time and respect is accorded to those who may not be able to type as quickly. Asynchronous discussions are usually less problematic in this respect, as interactions are less instant. However, moderating an asynchronous discussion presents additional challenges, particularly if participants are geographically dispersed, as they may be online at different times. Consequently, the moderator will not always be present and the discussion may therefore need to occur over several days, which can be difficult to manage and facilitate and invariably requires considerable flexibility. 32 It is also worth recognising that establishing rapport with participants via online medium is often more challenging than via face-to-face and may therefore require additional time, skills, effort and consideration.

As with research interviews, focus groups should be guided by an appropriate interview schedule, as discussed earlier in the paper. For example, the schedule will usually be informed by the review of the literature and study aims, and will merely provide a topic guide to help inform subsequent discussions. To provide a verbatim account of the discussion, focus groups must be recorded, using an audio-recorder with a good quality multi-directional microphone. While videotaping is possible, some participants may find it obtrusive, 3 which may adversely affect group dynamics. The use (or not) of a video recorder, should therefore be carefully considered.

At the end of the focus group, a few minutes should be spent rounding up and reflecting on the discussion. 28 Depending on the topic area, it is possible that some participants may have revealed deeply personal issues and may therefore require further help and support, such as a constructive debrief or possibly even referral on to a relevant third party. It is also possible that some participants may feel that the discussion did not adequately reflect their views and, consequently, may no longer wish to be associated with the study. 28 Such occurrences are likely to be uncommon, but should they arise, it is important to further discuss any concerns and, if appropriate, offer them the opportunity to withdraw (including any data relating to them) from the study. Immediately after the discussion, researchers should compile notes regarding thoughts and ideas about the focus group, which can assist with data analysis and, if appropriate, any further data collection.

Qualitative research is increasingly being utilised within dental research to explore the experiences, perspectives, motivations and beliefs of participants. The contributions of qualitative research to evidence-based practice are increasingly being recognised, both as standalone research and as part of larger mixed-method studies, including clinical trials. Interviews and focus groups remain commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research, and with the advent of digital technologies, their utilisation continues to evolve. However, digital methods of qualitative data collection present additional methodological, ethical and practical considerations, but also potentially offer considerable flexibility to participants and researchers. Consequently, regardless of format, qualitative methods have significant potential to inform important areas of dental practice, policy and further related research.

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Gill, P., Baillie, J. Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age. Br Dent J 225 , 668–672 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Issue Date : 12 October 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Interviews

As the preceding sections have suggested, qualitative interviews are an excellent way to gather detailed information. Whatever topic is of interest to the researcher employing this method can be explored in much more depth than with almost any other method. Not only are participants given the opportunity to elaborate in a way that is not possible with other methods such as survey research, but they also are able share information with researchers in their own words and from their own perspectives rather than being asked to fit those perspectives into the perhaps limited response options provided by the researcher. And because qualitative interviews are designed to elicit detailed information, they are especially useful when a researcher’s aim is to study social processes, or the “how” of various phenomena. Yet another, and sometimes overlooked, benefit of qualitative interviews that occurs in person is that researchers can make observations beyond those that a respondent is orally reporting. A respondent’s body language, and even her or his choice of time and location for the interview, might provide a researcher with useful data.

Of course, all these benefits do not come without some drawbacks. As with quantitative survey research, qualitative interviews rely on respondents’ ability to accurately and honestly recall whatever details about their lives, circumstances, thoughts, opinions, or behaviors that are being asked about. As Esterberg (2002) puts it, “If you want to know about what people actually do, rather than what they say they do, you should probably use observation [instead of interviews].” 1 Further, as you may have already guessed, qualitative interviewing is time intensive and can be quite expensive. Creating an interview guide, identifying a sample, and conducting interviews are just the beginning. Transcribing interviews is labor intensive—and that’s before coding even begins. It is also not uncommon to offer respondents some monetary incentive or thank-you for participating. Keep in mind that you are asking for more of participants’ time than if you’d simply mailed them a questionnaire containing closed-ended questions. Conducting qualitative interviews is not only labor intensive but also emotionally taxing. When I interviewed young workers about their sexual harassment experiences, I heard stories that were shocking, infuriating, and sad. Seeing and hearing the impact that harassment had had on respondents was difficult. Researchers embarking on a qualitative interview project should keep in mind their own abilities to hear stories that may be difficult to hear.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• In-depth interviews are semi-structured interviews where the researcher has topics and questions in mind to ask, but questions are open ended and flow according to how the participant responds to each.
• Interview guides can vary in format but should contain some outline of the topics you hope to cover during the course of an interview.
• NVivo and Atlasti are computer programs that qualitative researchers use to help them with organizing, sorting, and analyzing their data.
• Qualitative interviews allow respondents to share information in their own words and are useful for gathering detailed information and understanding social processes.
• Drawbacks of qualitative interviews include reliance on respondents’ accuracy and their intensity in terms of time, expense, and possible emotional strain.
• Based on a research question you have identified through earlier exercises in this text, write a few open-ended questions you could ask were you to conduct in-depth interviews on the topic. Now critique your questions. Are any of them yes/no questions? Are any of them leading?
• Read the open-ended questions you just created, and answer them as though you were an interview participant. Were your questions easy to answer or fairly difficult? How did you feel talking about the topics you asked yourself to discuss? How might respondents feel talking about them?
• 90957 reads
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• Different Sources of Knowledge
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• Research as Employment Opportunity KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
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• Paradigms in Social Science
• Sociological Theories KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Inductive Approaches and Some Examples
• Deductive Approaches and Some Examples
• Complementary Approaches? KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Revisiting an Earlier Question LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
• Human Research Versus Nonhuman Research
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• How Do Social Scientists Measure? KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
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• Response Options
• Designing Questionnaires KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
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• Interview Research: What Is It and When Should It Be Used? LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
• Conducting Qualitative Interviews
• Analysis of Qualitative Interview Data
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Interviews KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Conducting Quantitative Interviews
• Analysis of Quantitative Interview Data
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Interviews KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Location, Location, Location
• Researcher-Respondent Relationship KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Field Research: What Is It and When to Use It? LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Strengths of Field Research
• Weaknesses of Field Research KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Choosing a Site
• Choosing a Role KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Writing in the Field
• Writing out of the Field KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
• From Description to Analysis KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
• Unobtrusive Research: What Is It and When to Use It? LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Strengths of Unobtrusive Research
• Weaknesses of Unobtrusive Research KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Content Analysis
• Indirect Measures
• Analysis of Unobtrusive Data Collected by You KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Analyzing Others’ Data LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISES
• Reliability in Unobtrusive Research LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
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• Sociological Research: It’s Everywhere LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAYS EXERCISE
• Evaluation Research
• Market Research
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Conducting a Research Interview

Affiliation.

• 1 British Columbia Cancer Agency, Surrey, British Columbia.
• PMID: 31052024
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jmir.2011.12.002

Interviews are a cornerstone of modern health care research and can be used by both experienced and novice researchers to gather data for projects. For qualitative research, the semistructured or unstructured interview is often used and this can be carried out in various ways. Methods discussed in this directed reading include the face-to-face interview, group interviews such as focus groups, and remote interview conducted by telephone or using the computer. These methods are discussed in detail including advantages and disadvantages of each as well as accompanying practical considerations. Regardless of the method used, there are several matters to be considered in the process of planning, conducting, and analyzing interviews. These consist of initially selecting appropriate participants for the study, preparing a research protocol, and writing useful interview questions designed to capture the information required. It is also important for the researcher to be able to develop and demonstrate rapport with the participant and use attentive listening. Ethical issues relating to the conduct of interviews are also considered, including consent, privacy, and confidentiality. Finally, there is a discussion on the method of analyzing qualitative interview data to prepare for its dissemination in the form of an article or presentation.

Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Research Design Review

A discussion of qualitative & quantitative research design, strengths & limitations of the in-depth interview method: an overview.

The following is a modified excerpt from Applied Qualitative Research Design: A Total Quality Framework Approach (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015, pp. 56-57).

An additional strength of the IDI method is the flexibility of the interview format, which allows the interviewer to tailor the order in which questions are asked, modify the question wording as appropriate, ask follow-up questions to clarify interviewees’ responses, and use indirect questions (e.g., the use of projective techniques ) to stimulate subconscious opinions or recall. It should be noted, however, that “flexibility” does not mean a willy-nilly approach to interviewing, and, indeed, the interviewer should employ quality measures such as those outlined in “Applying a Quality Framework to the In-depth Interview Method.”

A third key strength of the IDI method—analyzability of the data—is a byproduct of the interviewer–interviewee relationship and the depth of interviewing techniques, which produce a granularity in the IDI data that is rich in fine details and serves as the basis for deciphering the narrative within each interview. These details also enable researchers to readily identify where they agree or disagree with the meanings of codes and themes associated with specific responses, which ultimately leads to the identification of themes and connections across interview participants.

Limitations

The IDI method also presents challenges and limitations that deserve the researcher’s attention. The most important, from a Total Quality Framework standpoint, has to do with what is also considered a key strength of the IDI method: the interviewer–interviewee relationship. There are two key aspects of the relationship that can potentially limit (or even undermine) the effectiveness of the IDI method: the interviewer and the social context. The main issue with respect to the interviewer is his/her potential for biasing the information that is gathered. This can happen due to  (a) personal characteristics such as gender, age, race, ethnicity, and education (e.g., a 60-year-old Caucasian male interviewer may stifle or skew responses from young, female, African American participants); (b) personal values or beliefs (e.g., an interviewer with strongly held beliefs about global warming and its damaging impact on the environment may “tune out” or misconstrue the comments from interviewees who believe global warming is a myth); and/or (c) other factors (e.g., an interviewer’s stereotyping, misinterpreting, and/or presumptions about the interviewee based solely on the interviewee’s outward appearance). Any of these characteristics may negatively influence an interviewee’s responses to the researcher’s questions and/or the accuracy of the interviewer’s data gathering. A result of these interviewer effects may be the “difficulty of seeing the people as complex, and . . . a reduction of their humanity to a stereotypical, flat, one-dimensional paradigm” (Krumer-Nevo, 2002, p. 315).

The second key area of concern with the IDI method is related to the broader social context of the relationship, particularly what Kvale (2006) calls the “power dynamics” within the interview environment, characterized by the possibility of “a one-way dialogue” whereby “the interviewer rules the interview” (p. 484). It is important, therefore, for the researcher to carefully consider the social interactions that are integral to the interviewing process and the possible impact these interactions may have on the credibility of an IDI study. For example, the trained interviewer will maximize the social interaction by utilizing positive engagement techniques such as establishing rapport (i.e., being approachable), asking thoughtful questions that indicate the interviewer is listening carefully to the interviewee, and knowing when to stay silent and let the interviewee talk freely.

Krumer-Nevo, M. (2002). The arena of othering: A life-story study with women living in poverty and social marginality. Qualitative Social Work , 1 (3), 303–318.

Kvale, S. (2006). Dominance through interviews and dialogues. Qualitative Inquiry , 12 (3), 480–500.

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ReviseSociology

A level sociology revision – education, families, research methods, crime and deviance and more!

Interviews in Social Research: Advantages and Disadvantages

The strengths of unstructured interviews are that they are respondent led, flexible, allow empathy and can be empowering, the limitations are poor reliability due to interviewer characteristics and bias, time, and low representativeness.

Table of Contents

Last Updated on September 11, 2023 by Karl Thompson

An interview involves an interviewer asking questions verbally to a respondent. Interviews involve a more direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent than questionnaires. Interviews can either be conducted face to face, via phone, video link or social media.

This post has primarily been written for students studying the Research Methods aspect of A-level sociology, but it should also be useful for students studying methods for psychology, business studies and maybe other subjects too!

Types of interview

Structured or formal interviews are those in which the interviewer asks the interviewee the same questions in the same way to different respondents. This will typically involve reading out questions from a pre-written and pre-coded structured questionnaire, which forms the interview schedule. The most familiar form of this is with market research, where you may have been stopped on the street with a researcher ticking boxes based on your responses.

Unstructured or Informal interviews (also called discovery interviews) are more like a guided conversation. Here the interviewer has a list of topics they want the respondent to talk about, but the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the specific questions from respondent to respondent, so they can follow whatever lines of enquiry they think are most appropriated, depending on the responses given by each respondent.

Semi-Structured interviews are those in which respondents have a list of questions, but they are free to ask further, differentiated questions based on the responses given. This allows more flexibility that the structured interview yet more structure than the informal interview.

Group interviews – Interviews can be conducted either one to one (individual interviews) or in a a group, in which the interviewer interviews two or more respondents at a time. Group discussions among respondents may lead to deeper insight than just interviewing people along, as respondents ‘encourage’ each other.

Focus groups are a type of group interview in which respondents are asked to discuss certain topics.

Interviews: key terms

The Interview Schedule – A list of questions or topic areas the interviewer wishes to ask or cover in the course of the interview. The more structured the interview, the more rigid the interiew schedule will be. Before conducting an interview it is usual for the reseracher to know something about the topic area and the respondents themselves, and so they will have at least some idea of the questions they are likely to ask: even if they are doing ‘unstructred interviews’ an interviewer will have some kind of interview schedule, even if it is just a list of broad topic areas to discuss, or an opening question.

Transcription of interviews -Transcription is the process of writing down (or typing up) what respondents say in an interview. In order to be able to transcribe effectively interviews will need to be recorded.

The problem of Leading Questions – In Unstructured Interviews, the interviewer should aim to avoid asking leading questions.

The Strengths and Limitations of Unstructured Interviews 

The strengths of unstructured interviews

The key strength of unstructured interviews is good validity , but for this to happen questioning should be as open ended as possible to gain genuine, spontaneous information rather than ‘rehearsed responses’ and questioning needs to be sufficient enough to elicit in-depth answers rather than glib, easy answers.

Respondent led – unstructured interviews are ‘respondent led’ – this is because the researcher listens to what the respondent says and then asks further questions based on what the respondent says. This should allow respondents to express themselves and explain their views more fully than with structured interviews.

Flexibility – the researcher can change his or her mind about what the most important questions are as the interview develops. Unstructured Interviews thus avoid the imposition problem – respondents are less constrained than with structured interviews or questionnaires in which the questions are written in advance by the researcher. This is especially advantageous in group interviews, where interaction between respondents can spark conversations that the interviewer hadn’t thought would of happened in advance, which could then be probed further with an unstructured methodology.

Rapport and empathy – unstructured interviews encourage a good rapport between interviewee and interviewer. Because of their informal nature, like guided conversations, unstructured interviews are more likely to make respondents feel at ease than with the more formal setting of a structured questionnaire or experiment. This should encourage openness, trust and empathy.

Checking understanding – unstructured interviews also allow the interviewer to check understanding. If an interviewee doesn’t understand a question, the interviewer is free to rephrase it, or to ask follow up questions to clarify aspects of answers that were not clear in the first instance.

Unstructured interviews are good for sensitive topics because they are more likely to make respondents feel at ease with the interviewer. They also allow the interviewer to show more sympathy (if required) than with the colder more mechanical quantitative methods.

They are good for finding out why respondents do not do certain things . For example postal surveys asking why people do not claim benefits have very low response rates, but informal interviews are perfect for researching people who may have low literacy skills.

Empowerment for respondents – the researcher and respondents are on a more equal footing than with more quantitative methods. The researcher doesn’t assume they know best. This empowers the respondents. Feminists researchers in particular believe that the unstructured interview can neutralise the hierarchical, exploitative power relations that they believe to be inherent in the more traditional interview structure. They see the traditional interview as a site for the exploitation and subordination of women, with the interviewers potentially creating outcomes against their interviewees’ interests. In traditional interview formats the interviewer directs the questioning and takes ownership of the material; in the feminist (unstructured) interview method the woman would recount her experiences in her own words with the interviewer serving only as a guide to the account.

Practical advantages – there are few practical advantages with this method, but compared to full-blown participant observation, they are a relatively quick method for gaining in-depth data. They are also a good method to combine with overt participant observation in order to get respondents to further explain the meanings behind their actions. So in short, they are impractical, unless you’re in the middle of a year long Participant Observation study (it’s all relative!).

The Limitations of unstructured interviews

The main theoretical disadvantage is the lack of reliability – unstructured Interviews lack reliability because each interview is unique – a variety of different questions are asked and phrased in a variety of different ways to different respondents.

They are also difficult to repeat, because the s uccess of the interview depends on the bond of trust between the researcher and the respondent – another researcher who does not relate to the respondent may thus get different answers. Group interviews are especially difficult to repeat, given that the dynamics of the interview are influenced not just by the values of the researcher, but also by group dynamics. One person can change the dynamic of a group of three or four people enormously.

Validity can be undermined in several ways:

• respondents might prefer to give rational responses rather than fuller emotional ones (it’s harder to talk frankly about emotions with strangers)
• respondents may not reveal their true thoughts and feelings because they do not coincide with their own self-image, so they simply withhold information
• respondents may give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear, in attempt to please them!

We also need to keep in mind that interviews can only tap into what people SAY about their values, beliefs and actions, we don’t actually get to see these in action, like we would do with observational studies such as Participant Observation. This has been a particular problem with self-report studies of criminal behaviour. These have been tested using polygraphs, and follow up studies of school and criminal records and responses found to be lacking in validity, so much so that victim-surveys have become the standard method for measuring crime rather than self-report studies.

Interviewer bias might undermine the validity of unstructured interviews – this is where the values of the researcher interfere with the results. The researcher may give away whether they approve or disapprove of certain responses in their body language or tone of voice (or wording of probing questions) and this in turn might encourage or discourage respondents from being honest.

The characteristics of the interviewer might also bias the results and undermine the validity – how honest the respondent is in the course of an hour long interview might depend on the class, gender, or ethnicity of the interviewer.

Sudman and Bradburn (1974) conducted a review of literature and found that responses varied depending on the relative demographics of the interviewer and respondent. For example white interviewers received more socially acceptable responses from black respondents than they did from white respondents. Similar findings have been found with different ethnicities, age, social class and religion.

Unstructured interviews also lack representativeness – because they are time consuming, it is difficult to get a large enough sample to be representative of large populations.

It is difficult to quantify data , compare answers and find stats and trends because the data gained is qualitative.

Practical disadvantages – unstructured Interviews may take a relatively long time to conduct. Some interviews can take hours. They also need to be taped and transcribed, and in the analysis phase there may be a lot of information that is not directly relevant to one’s research topic that needs to be sifted through.

Interpersonal skills and training – A further practical problem is that some researchers may lack the interpersonal skills required to conduct informal unstructured interviews. Training might need to be more thorough for researchers undertaking unstructured interviews – to avoid the problem of interviewer bias.

Shapiro and Eberhart (1947) showed that interviewers who were more prepared to probe received fuller answers, and both response rate and extensiveness of response are greater for more experienced interviewers.

There are few ethical problems , assuming that informed consent is gained and confidentially ensured. Although having said this, the fact that the researcher is getting more in-depth data, more of an insight into who the person really is, does offer the potential for the information to do more harm to the respondent if it got into the wrong hands (but this in turn depends on the topics discussed and the exact content of the interviews.

Sociological perspectives on interviews

Interviews of any kind are not a preferred method for positivists because there is no guarantee that responses aren’t artefacts of the interview situation, rather than a reflection of underlying social reality.

If interviews must be used, Positivists prefer structured interviews that follow a standardised schedule, with each question asked to each respondent in the same way. Interviewers should be neutral, show no emotion, avoid suggesting replies, and not skip questions.

Fo r Interactionists , interviews are based on mutual participant observation. The context of the interview is intrinsic to understanding responses and no distinction between research interviews and other social interaction is recognised. Data are valid when mutual understanding between interviewer and respondent is agreed.

Interactionists prefer non-standardised interviews because they allow respondents to shape the interview according to their own world view.

Denzin (2009) goes as far as to argue that what positivists might perceive as problems with interviews are not problems, just part of the process and thus as valid as the data collected. Thus issues of self-presentation, the power relations between interviewer and respondent and opportunities for fabrication are all part of the context and part of the valid-reality that we are trying to get to.

Related Posts

For more posts on research methods please see my research methods page.

Examples of studies using interviews – Using Interviews to research education .

Participant Observation  –   A related qualitative research method – detailed class notes on overt and covert participant observation. 

Please click here to return to the homepage – ReviseSociology.com

Recommended further reading: Gilbert and Stoneman (2016) Researching Social Life

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Different Types of Data Sampling Methods and Techniques

Data sampling is a statistical method that involves selecting a part of a population of data to create representative samples. The fundamental aim is to draw conclusions about the entire population without having to engage with every individual data point, thus saving time, resources, and effort while still achieving accurate results.

In this guide, we will look into types of data sampling methods

Table of Content

Types of Data Sampling Methods

1. probability sampling techniques, 2. non-probability sampling techniques, advantages and disadvantages of data sampling methods, best practices for choosing data sampling methods.

Sampling techniques are categorized into two main types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Each type is tailored to specific research needs and offers unique advantages and challenges·

• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Quota Sampling

Probability sampling is defined by the principle that every member of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected. This method is critical for producing unbiased, representative samples.

1.a) Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the most straightforward probabilistic sampling technique. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, similar to a lottery. This method requires a complete list of the population, from which members are chosen randomly, either manually or using random number generation tools. Suppose you have a list of 10,000 voters in a town and you want to survey 1,000 of them. Each voter’s name is assigned a number, and a random number generator picks 1,000 unique numbers corresponding to the voters who will be surveyed.

Simple Random Sampling: When to Use It

Simple random sampling is an appropriate choice under certain conditions or circumstances.

• Homogeneous Population: Simple random sampling is most suitable when the population is relatively homogeneous, meaning that all individuals have similar characteristics or attributes. In such cases, each individual has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring a representative sample.
• Small Population Size : When the population size is small and easily accessible, simple random sampling is feasible and efficient. It allows for the selection of a representative sample without the need for complex sampling methods.
• Limited Resources : Simple random sampling is cost-effective and straightforward to implement compared to more complex sampling techniques· It requires minimal resources in terms of time, effort, and budget, making it ideal for studies with limited resources.
• Equal Representation : If there are no specific subgroups or strata within the population that need to be oversampled or under-sampled, simple random sampling ensures that each subgroup is represented proportionally in the sample.
• Population Heterogeneity: When the population exhibits homogeneity or random distribution of characteristics of interest, simple random sampling provides an unbiased representation of the population’s diversity.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

• Ensures a high level of representativeness.
• Minimizes bias, allowing for accurate generalizations from the sample to the population.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

• Not practical for very large populations or when the population list is unavailable.
• Can be costly and time-consuming to administer.

1.b) Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics, such as age, gender, or income level. Samples are then randomly selected from each stratum in proportion to their representation in the population. This method ensures that each subgroup is adequately represented in the sample, making it useful when certain subgroups are of particular interest or importance.

For example, you’re conducting a survey on smartphone usage habits among teenagers in a city. You know that the population of teenagers is diverse in terms of school grades (e·g·, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades). You decide to divide the population into four strata based on school grade and then randomly select 100 teenagers from each grade stratum to ensure proportional representation in your sample.

Stratified Sampling: When to Use It

• Heterogeneous Population: When the population exhibits variability in characteristics of interest.
• Specific Subgroup Analysis : When certain subgroups need to be represented accurately in the sample.
• Increased Precision: When precision is desired for estimates within each subgroup.

Advantages of Stratified Sampling

• Enhanced Precision : Provides more precise estimates within each stratum.
• Representation of Subgroups : Ensures accurate representation of specific subgroups within the population.

Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling

• Requires Knowledge of Population: Requires prior knowledge of the population to define strata.
• Complex Sampling Design : Can be more complex to implement compared to simple random sampling.

1.c) Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters or groups, such as households or schools, and then randomly selecting some clusters to include in the sample. All individuals within the selected clusters are then included in the sample. This method is efficient when it’s difficult or impractical to obtain a complete list of individuals in the population, as clusters can be sampled more easily.

Consider a study aiming to assess the prevalence of obesity in rural communities. Instead of trying to survey every individual in each rural area, which might be impractical, you randomly select several villages or towns (clusters) and survey all individuals within those selected clusters· This method allows you to obtain a representative sample while reducing costs and logistical challenges·

Cluster Sampling: When to Use It

• Large Geographical Area : When the population is spread out over a large geographical area.
• Cost and Time Efficiency : When it’s more cost-effective and time-efficient to sample clusters rather than individuals.
• Infeasibility of Complete Population List : When obtaining a complete list of individuals in the population is impractical.

Advantages of Cluster Sampling

• Cost and Time Efficiency : Can be more efficient in terms of cost and time compared to other sampling methods.
• Feasibility for Large Populations : Suitable for large populations spread out over a wide area.

Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling

• Potential for Increased Variability: Clusters may vary in characteristics, leading to increased variability in the sample.
• Reduced Precision: May result in less precise estimates compared to other sampling methods.

1.d) Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling involves selecting members from a larger population at a regular interval, determined by dividing the population size by the desired sample size. After randomly selecting a starting point within the first interval, the researcher selects every nth individual. For example, In an employee directory of 500 people, to conduct a systematic sample of 50 employees, you would sample every 10th person after selecting a random start between 1 and 10.

Systematic Sampling: When to Use It

Systematic sampling is particularly useful in several scenarios:

• Large Populations : When dealing with large populations, systematic sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling· It allows researchers to cover a sizable portion of the population while still maintaining a degree of randomness in the selection process.
• Ordered Population : Systematic sampling is ideal when the population is ordered in some manner, such as by time, space, or some other characteristic. For instance, if you’re conducting a survey of commuters at a train station, you can systematically select every nth person as they arrive or depart, ensuring a representative sample of commuters throughout the day.
• Resource Constraints: In situations where time and resources are limited, systematic sampling offers a balance between randomness and efficiency. It’s simpler to implement compared to other sampling methods like stratified or cluster sampling, making it a practical choice when conducting field surveys or data collection in real-world settings.
• Accessibility and Convenience : Systematic sampling can be advantageous when the population is easily accessible and can be ordered in a systematic manner. For example, if you’re conducting a survey in a workplace where employees are organized in rows or departments, systematic sampling allows for a straightforward selection process without the need for complex sampling procedures.
• When Randomization is Difficult : In some cases, achieving true randomness may be challenging due to logistical constraints or practical considerations. Systematic sampling provides a structured approach to sampling that is easier to implement and can still yield representative samples, especially when true randomization is impractical.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

• Simple to implement
• Less time-consuming compared to simple random sampling for large populations

Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling

• Susceptible to periodic patterns in the population.
• Potential bias if there’s a systematic pattern in the population.

Non-probability sampling methods do not provide all the members of the population an equal chance of participating in the study. These techniques are used when the availability of a complete list is not possible, or when the research does not require a random sample.

2.a) Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who are readily available or easily accessible to the researcher, rather than randomly selecting from the entire population. It is used when time, cost, or logistical constraints make it impractical to use other sampling methods. Convenience sampling is often employed in exploratory research, pilot studies, or when quick insights are needed, but it may introduce bias and limit the generalizability of findings.

Convenience Sampling: When to use it?

Convenience sampling is typically used in situations where:

• Time Constraints : When there’s limited time available for data collection and researchers need quick insights, convenience sampling can be employed. This method allows researchers to gather data swiftly from individuals who are readily available, such as attendees at a conference or shoppers in a mall.
• Cost Considerations : If budget constraints limit the ability to employ more rigorous sampling techniques, convenience sampling may be chosen. It can be more cost-effective since it doesn’t require extensive planning or resources for participant recruitment.
• Logistical Challenges : In scenarios where accessing the entire population is difficult due to logistical constraints, such as remote locations or restricted access, convenience sampling offers a practical solution. Researchers can collect data from individuals who are conveniently accessible, even if they don’t represent the entire population.

2.b) Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling involves selecting specific individuals or elements from a population based on predetermined criteria relevant to the research objectives. It is used when researchers seek to target particular characteristics or traits within the population, aiming to gain insights into specific subgroups or phenomena of interest. Purposive sampling is employed in situations where the researcher’s expertise or prior knowledge guides the selection process, facilitating in-depth exploration or focused investigation of particular aspects within the population.

Purposive Sampling: When to use it?

Purposive sampling is employed under the following circumstances:

• Specific Research Objectives : When researchers aim to target particular characteristics, traits, or subgroups within the population, purposive sampling is suitable. This method allows researchers to focus on individuals who possess the specific attributes relevant to the research objectives, facilitating a deeper understanding of those characteristics.
• Expertise or Prior Knowledge : Purposive sampling is often utilized when researchers possess expertise or prior knowledge about the population under study. Researchers can intentionally select participants based on their understanding of the research topic, ensuring that the sample reflects the diversity of relevant traits or perspectives.
• In-depth Exploration : If the goal of the study is to explore specific phenomena or behaviors within the population in depth, purposive sampling can be beneficial. By targeting individuals who exhibit particular traits or behaviors of interest, researchers can gather detailed insights and achieve a nuanced understanding of the research phenomenon.

2.c) Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where existing participants recruit additional participants, typically through referrals. It is used when studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations, such as marginalized communities or individuals with rare characteristics. Snowball sampling is advantageous in situations where traditional sampling methods may be impractical due to the lack of a sampling frame or difficulty in accessing the population of interest.

Snowball Sampling: When to use it?

Snowball sampling is appropriate in the following scenarios:

• Hard-to-Reach Populations : When studying populations that are difficult to access or identify through traditional sampling methods, such as marginalized communities, hidden populations, or individuals with rare characteristics, snowball sampling can be valuable. This method leverages existing connections within the target population to recruit additional participants, allowing researchers to reach individuals who may otherwise be inaccessible.
• Lack of Sampling Frame : In situations where a sampling frame is unavailable or incomplete, snowball sampling provides a practical approach to sampling. Rather than relying on a predefined list of population members, this method relies on referrals from existing participants to identify and recruit new participants, making it suitable for populations with no clear boundaries or sampling frame.
• Sensitive Topics : Snowball sampling is well-suited for research on sensitive topics or stigmatized behaviors, where individuals may be hesitant to participate or disclose information openly. Participants recruited through personal networks are more likely to trust the researcher and feel comfortable sharing their experiences, leading to richer qualitative data in studies involving sensitive subjects.

2.d) Quota Sampling

Quota sampling involves selecting a sample based on predetermined quotas to ensure representation of specific characteristics, such as age, gender, or socioeconomic status, in the sample. It is used when researchers need to ensure proportional representation of key population segments, but random sampling is impractical or not feasible. Quota sampling is often employed in market research, opinion polling, and social sciences research to obtain a sample that mirrors the demographic composition of the population being studied.

Quota Sampling: When to use it?

Quota sampling is applicable under the following conditions:

• Representation of Key Characteristics : When researchers need to ensure that specific demographic or other key characteristics are adequately represented in the sample, quota sampling is a useful method. By setting predetermined quotas for various population segments, such as age, gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, researchers can ensure proportional representation of these characteristics in the sample.
• Practical Constraints on Random Sampling : In situations where random sampling is not feasible due to logistical constraints or the unavailability of a sampling frame, quota sampling provides a practical alternative. Researchers can select participants based on predefined quotas from readily available sources, such as survey respondents, interviewees, or participants at specific locations or events.
• Market Research and Opinion Polling : Quota sampling is commonly employed in market research, opinion polling, and social sciences research to obtain samples that mirror the demographic composition of the target population. By stratifying the population based on key demographic variables and setting quotas for each stratum, researchers can ensure that the sample accurately reflects the diversity of the population being studied.

Deciding on the type of sampling to use depends on several factors, including the research objectives, characteristics of the population, available resources, and practical constraints.

• Define Research Objectives : Clarify the specific goals of the research project and the questions you aim to answer.
• Understand Population Characteristics : Gain knowledge about the population being studied, including its size, diversity, distribution, and homogeneity/heterogeneity.
• Assess Sampling Frame Availability : Determine if a comprehensive list or representation of the entire population (sampling frame) is available. If not, consider whether it’s feasible to create one.
• Consider Budget and Time Constraints : Evaluate the financial and time resources available for the sampling process. Certain sampling methods may require more resources or be more time-consuming than others.
• Evaluate Sampling Precision Required: Determine the level of precision needed for the study. Consider factors such as the desired level of confidence, margin of error, and variability within the population.
• Explore Sampling Methods : Familiarize yourself with different sampling methods, including probability sampling (e.g., random, stratified, cluster) and non-probability sampling (e.g., convenience, purposive, quota).
• Match Method to Objectives and Constraints : Select the sampling method that best aligns with the research objectives, population characteristics, available resources, and practical constraints.
• Consider Sampling Bias and Error : Assess potential sources of bias and error associated with the chosen sampling method. Take steps to minimize bias and error through careful design and validation processes.
• Pilot Test if Necessary : If unsure about the suitability of a particular sampling method, consider conducting a pilot test to evaluate its effectiveness and feasibility before implementing it on a larger scale.
• Document Decision-Making Process : Document the rationale behind the selection of the sampling method to ensure transparency and reproducibility of the research process.

Data sampling serves as a vital tool in research and analysis, enabling researchers to draw meaningful insights from large datasets efficiently and accurately. By selecting representative subsets of data from larger populations, sampling methods facilitate the generalization of findings and enable informed decision-making across various domains.

However, the choice of sampling method should be guided by research objectives, population characteristics, available resources, and practical constraints. It’s essential to address potential biases and errors inherent in the sampling process to ensure the validity and reliability of study findings. Overall, data sampling plays a crucial role in uncovering patterns, trends, and relationships within data, driving innovation and progress in the data-driven era.

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