importance of polymers a level biology essay

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Polymers (A-level Biology)

Formation of polymers.

• A condensation reaction involves release of water. A condensation reaction is the process by which monomers join together to produce polymers. In the process, there is removal of water (H2O), which enables formation of a covalent bond to link two monomers together.
• A condensation reaction is a synthesis reaction . Synthesis reactions are specific chemical processes by which organic compounds (including biochemical compounds) are made.

Breakdown of Polymers  

• Polymers put together by a condensation reaction can be broken down by hydrolysis .  
• Hydrolysis involves addition of a water molecule . The addition of a water molecule breaks the covalent bond between two monomers (hydro = water, lysis = break down).  
• Condensation and hydrolysis are opposite reactions.

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AQA 3.1 Biological Molecules

Atp as an energy source (a-level biology), the synthesis and hydrolysis of atp (a-level biology), the structure of atp (a-level biology), understanding surface area to volume ratio (a-level biology), inorganic ions (a-level biology), properties of water (a-level biology), structure of water (a-level biology), synthesising proteins from dna (a-level biology), structure of rna (a-level biology), dna replication (a-level biology), aqa 3.2 cells, microbial techniques (a-level biology), bacteria, antibiotics, and other medicines (a-level biology), types of immunity and vaccinations (a-level biology), structure and function of antibodies (a-level biology), the adaptive immune response (a-level biology), the innate immune response (a-level biology), introduction to the immune system (a-level biology), primary defences against pathogens (a-level biology), pathogens and infectious diseases (a-level biology), transport across membranes: active transport (a-level biology), aqa 3.3 organisms exchange substances with their environment, translocation and evidence of the mass flow hypothesis (a-level biology), the phloem (a-level biology), importance of and evidence for transpiration (a-level biology), introduction to transpiration (a-level biology), the pathway and movement of water into the roots and xylem (a-level biology), the xylem (a-level biology), structure of the heart (a-level biology), transport of carbon dioxide (a-level biology), transport of oxygen (a-level biology), exchange in capillaries (a-level biology), aqa 3.4 genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms, biodiversity and gene technology (a-level biology), calculating genetic diversity (a-level biology), factors affecting biodiversity (a-level biology), biodiversity calculations (a-level biology), introducing biodiversity (a-level biology), the three domain system (a-level biology), phylogeny and classification (a-level biology), classifying organisms (a-level biology), types of selection (a-level biology), mechanism of natural selection (a-level biology), aqa 3.5 energy transfers in and between organisms, nitrogen cycle: nitrification and denitrification (a-level biology), the phosphorus cycle (a-level biology), nitrogen cycle: fixation and ammonification (a-level biology), introduction to nutrient cycles (a-level biology), reducing biomass loss (a-level biology), sources of biomass loss (a-level biology), transfer of biomass (a-level biology), measuring biomass (a-level biology), net primary production (a-level biology), gross primary production (a-level biology), aqa 3.6 organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments, the nervous system (a-level biology), sources of atp during contraction (a-level biology), the ultrastructure of the sarcomere during contraction (a-level biology), the role of troponin and tropomyosin (a-level biology), the structure of myofibrils (a-level biology), slow and fast twitch muscles (a-level biology), the structure of mammalian muscles (a-level biology), how muscles allow movement (a-level biology), the neuromuscular junction (a-level biology), features of synapses (a-level biology), aqa 3.7 genetics, populations, evolution and ecosystems, aqa 3.8 the control of gene expression, cie 1 cell structure, roles of atp (a-level biology), magnification and resolution (a-level biology), calculating cell size (a-level biology), studying cells: confocal microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: electron microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: light microscopes (a-level biology), life cycle and replication of viruses (a-level biology), cie 10 infectious disease, cie 11 immunity, cie 12 energy and respiration, anaerobic respiration in mammals, plants and fungi (a-level biology), anaerobic respiration (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain (a-level biology), the krebs cycle (a-level biology), the link reaction (a-level biology), the stages and products of glycolysis (a-level biology), glycolysis (a-level biology), the structure of mitochondria (a-level biology), the need for cellular respiration (a-level biology), cie 13 photosynthesis, limiting factors of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation (a-level biology), the 2 stages of photosynthesis (a-level biology), photosystems and photosynthetic pigments (a-level biology), site of photosynthesis, overview of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cie 14 homeostasis, ectotherms and endotherms (a-level biology), thermoregulation (a-level biology), plant responses to changes in the environment (a-level biology), cie 15 control and co-ordination, cie 16 inherited change, how meiosis produces variation (a-level biology), cell division by meiosis (a-level biology), importance of meiosis (a-level biology), cie 17 selection and evolution, types of variation (a-level biology), cie 18 biodiversity, classification and conservation, cie 19 genetic technology, cie 2 biological molecules, test for lipids and proteins (a-level biology), tests for carbohydrates (a-level biology), protein structures: globular and fibrous proteins (a-level biology), protein structures: tertiary and quaternary structures (a-level biology), protein structures: primary and secondary structures (a-level biology), protein formation (a-level biology), proteins and amino acids: an introduction (a-level biology), phospholipid bilayer (a-level biology), cie 3 enzymes, enzymes: inhibitors (a-level biology), enzymes: rates of reaction (a-level biology), enzymes: intracellular and extracellular forms (a-level biology), enzymes: mechanism of action (a-level biology), enzymes: key concepts (a-level biology), enzymes: introduction (a-level biology), cie 4 cell membranes and transport, investigating transport across membranes (a-level biology), transport across membranes: osmosis (a-level biology), transport across membranes: diffusion (a-level biology), signalling across cell membranes (a-level biology), function of cell membrane (a-level biology), factors affecting cell membrane structure (a-level biology), structure of cell membranes (a-level biology), cie 5 the mitotic cell cycle, chromosome mutations (a-level biology), cell division: checkpoints and mutations (a-level biology), cell division: phases of mitosis (a-level biology), cell division: the cell cycle (a-level biology), cell division: chromosomes (a-level biology), cie 6 nucleic acids and protein synthesis, transfer rna (a-level biology), transcription (a-level biology), messenger rna (a-level biology), introducing the genetic code (a-level biology), genes and protein synthesis (a-level biology), dna structure and the double helix (a-level biology), polynucleotides (a-level biology), cie 7 transport in plants, cie 8 transport in mammals, controlling heart rate (a-level biology), structure and function of blood vessels (a-level biology), cie 9 gas exchange and smoking, lung disease (a-level biology), pulmonary ventilation rate (a-level biology), ventilation (a-level biology), structure of the lungs (a-level biology), general features of exchange surfaces (a-level biology), the need for exchange surfaces (a-level biology), edexcel b 1: biological molecules, features of the genetic code (a-level biology), edexcel b 10: ecosystems, edexcel b 2: cells, viruses, reproduction, edexcel b 3: classification & biodiversity, edexcel b 4: exchange and transport, edexcel b 5: energy for biological processes, edexcel b 6: microbiology and pathogens, edexcel b 7: modern genetics, edexcel b 8: origins of genetic variation, edexcel b 9: control systems, inhibitory synapses (a-level biology), synaptic transmission (a-level biology), the structure of the synapse (a-level biology), factors affecting the speed of transmission (a-level biology), myelination (a-level biology), the refractory period (a-level biology), all or nothing principle (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.1 cell structure, structure of prokaryotic cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: comparing plant and animal cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: plant cell organelles (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the endoplasmic reticulum (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the golgi apparatus and lysosomes (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.2 biological molecules, introduction to eukaryotic cells and organelles (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.3 nucleotides and nucleic acids, ocr 2.1.4 enzymes, ocr 2.1.5 biological membranes, ocr 2.1.6 cell division, diversity & organisation, ocr 3.1.1 exchange surfaces, gas exchange in plants (a-level biology), gas exchange in insects (a-level biology), ocr 3.1.2 transport in animals, ocr 3.1.3 transport in plants, examples of xerophytes (a-level biology), introduction to xerophytes (a-level biology), ocr 4.1.1 communicable diseases, structure of viruses (a-level biology), ocr 4.2.1 biodiversity, ocr 4.2.2 classification and evolution, ocr 5.1.1 communication and homeostasis, the resting potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.2 excretion, ocr 5.1.3 neuronal communication, hyperpolarisation and transmission of the action potential (a-level biology), depolarisation and repolarisation in the action potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.4 hormonal communication, ocr 5.1.5 plant and animal responses, ocr 5.2.1 photosynthesis, ocr 5.2.2 respiration, ocr 6.1.1 cellular control, ocr 6.1.2 patterns of inheritance, ocr 6.1.3 manipulating genomes, ocr 6.2.1 cloning and biotechnology, ocr 6.3.1 ecosystems, ocr 6.3.2 populations and sustainability, related links.

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2025 Essay Preparation for A Level Biology AQA

Subject: Biology

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

15 August 2024

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This is the latest version, recently updated with the 2024 accessible essays.

CONTEXT: Every year, at least one Biology essay is very accessible, usually both are. This resource is to practise and revise for the accessible essay(s). It makes the preparation SPECIFIC, and EASY.

Included is + key revision of the 14 common topic areas (AO1) to learn. + written importance examples (AO2) to learn, from the 14 common topics. + a figure on how often each topic has appeared on essay mark schemes from 2017-2024. + a list of the accessible titles in the essays (from 2017-2024) + an easy-to-understand essay mark scheme

TEACHERS, use as a lesson resource, throughout upper 6, and as a preparation session before Paper 3. STUDENTS use for focussed revision and to practise writing essay paragraphs. You can even memorise paragraphs to rewrite.

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AS and A-level Biology

• Specification
• Planning resources
• Teaching resources
• Assessment resources
• Introduction
• Specification at a glance
• 3.1 Biological molecules
• 3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment
• 3.4 Genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms
• 3.5 Energy transfers in and between organisms (A-level only)
• 3.6 Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (A-level only)
• 3.7 Genetics, populations, evolution and ecosystems (A-level only)
• 3.8 The control of gene expression (A-level only)
• Scheme of assessment
• General administration
• Mathematical requirements and exemplifications
• AS practical assessment
• A-level practical assessment

3.1.1 Monomers and polymers

Monomers & Polymers ( OCR A Level Biology )

Revision note.

Biology Lead

Monomers & Polymers

• There is a massive variety of life within and between organisms however the biochemical basis of life is similar for all living things

Carbohydrates

Nucleic acids.

• Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
• Polymers are molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together in a chain
• Carbon compounds can form small single subunits (monomers) that bond with many repeating subunits to form large molecules (polymers) by a process called polymerisation
• They contain 1000 or more atoms and so have a high molecular mass
• Polymers can be macromolecules, however, not all macromolecules are polymers as the subunits of polymers have to be the same repeating units

Covalent bonding

• The electrons can be shared equally forming a nonpolar covalent bond or unequally (where an atom can be more electronegative δ - ) to form a polar covalent bond
• Generally, each atom will form a certain number of covalent bonds due to the number of free electrons in the outer orbital e.g. H = 1 bond, C = 4 bonds
• Covalent bonds are very stable as high energies are required to break the bonds
• Multiple pairs of electrons can be shared forming double bonds (e.g. unsaturated fats C=C) or triple bonds

Different types of covalent bonds

• When two monomers are close enough that their outer orbitals overlap this results in their electrons being shared and a covalent bond forming. If more monomers are added then polymerisation occurs (and / or a macromolecule forms)

Condensation

• Also known as dehydration synthesis (‘to put together while losing water’)
• A condensation reaction occurs when monomers combine together by covalent bonds to form polymers (polymerisation) or macromolecules (lipids) and water is removed

Written and symbolic illustrations of the removal of water to form a covalent bond between two or more monomers during a condensation reaction

• Hydrolysis means ‘ lyse ’ (to break) and ‘ hydro ’ (with water)
• In the hydrolysis of polymers, covalent bonds are broken when water is added

Written and symbolic illustrations of the addition of water to break down covalent bond/s during a hydrolysis reaction

Covalent Bonds in Organic Molecules Table

When discussing monomers and polymers, give the definition but also name specific examples eg. a nucleic acid is a polymer, made of nucleotide monomers .Remember, lipid molecules are not made from monomers or polymers as each fatty acid joins to a glycerol molecule, rather than to each other. Separate lipid molecules, such as triglycerides, are not held together by  covalent bonds and therefore lipids cannot be classed as polymers.

Chemical Elements in Biological Molecules

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids contain the chemical elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) making them organic compounds
• Each carbon atom can form four covalent bonds – this makes the compounds very stable (as covalent bonds are so strong they require a large input of energy to break them)
• Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur
• Carbon atoms can form straight chains , branched chains or rings
• All carbohydrates contain the chemical elements C , H and O
• As H and O atoms are always present in the ratio of 2:1 (eg. water H 2 O, which is where ‘hydrate’ comes from in 'carbohydrate') they can be represented by the formula C x (H 2 O) y
• The three types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides , disaccharides and polysaccharides
• Source of energy e.g. glucose is used for energy-release during cellular respiration
• Store of energy e.g. glycogen is stored in the muscles and liver of animals
• Structurally important e.g. cellulose in the cell walls of plants

Types of Carbohydrates Table

• However, the proportion of  O in lipids is low compared to carbohydrates
• There are many types of lipids, including triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids, waxes, and steroids (such as cholesterol)
• Source of energy that can be respired (lipids have a high energy yield)
• Store of energy e.g. lipids are stored in animals as fats in adipose tissue and in plants as lipid droplets
• Insulating layer e.g. thermal insulation under the skin of mammals and electrical insulation around nerve cells
• An essential component of biological membranes
• However, all proteins also contain N  (nitrogen) and some proteins contain  S  (sulphur)
• Required for cell growth , cell repair and the replacement of biological materials
• Structurally important e.g. in muscles, collagen and elastin in the skin, collagen in bone and keratin in hair
• Proteins can also act as carrier molecules in cell membranes, antibodies , enzymes or hormones
• However, all nucleic acids also contain N  (nitrogen) in their bases and P  (phosphorous) in the form of phosphate groups
• Carrying the genetic code in all living organisms
• Nucleic acids are essential in the control of all cellular processes including protein synthesis

The key biological molecules for living organisms

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Mark Scheme

Polymers are large molecules found in every biological system. Each polymer has a structure that is related to its function. Write a description (i.e., describe) of how the structure of biological polymers is related to their function. [25 marks]

This is the list of the MAIN POINTS that would be looked for in the essay:

Polymers as:

• molecules associated with storage : Biological molecules, carbohydrates and proteins, The release of energy from carbohydrate, The control of blood glucose
• informational molecules : enzymes, DNA as genetic material, structure of nucleic acids, immunology, transport of respiratory gases
• structural molecules : cell ultrastructure, cell walls, biological molecules, carbohydrates and proteins

Examiners are also given instructions as follows: If the essay contains information from more than one area e.g. polymers associated with storage & structural molecules, 2 marks can be given; information from one area is awarded 1 mark generally. However, examiners are allowed some discretion in where information is drawn and this means that other study areas can be incorporated into the essay. For example, an examiner would be able to consider awarding marks for incorporating plant & microbial biology too as this is just as relevant to polymers as vital biological molecules.

How marks are awarded:

Each awarding body has slightly different values to how marks are awarded and / or where certain criteria fall.

This is a general idea of where marks for Essay 3 would be awarded.

• Scientific Content: maximum of 16 marks depending upon coverage of topic areas (in depth, superficial), occurrence of biological / scientific errors
• Breadth of Knowledge: maximum of 3 marks depending upon how many areas of the title have been covered (see Main Points above), if any topic areas essential to basic biological understanding have been omitted, if you have covered more than one area in the main points (little credit is given to writing about just one of the main areas e.g.. storage)
• Relevance: maximum of 3 marks & this speaks for itself. If you start writing or drawing about something other than surface area & its linked topics, marks will be lost. The only occasion where you can put in something less relevant is the introduction but, better to keep to the topic rigidly.
• Quality of language: maximum of 3 marks and this also speaks for itself. This is all about good English, good scientific language (no terms like “great big thing” “huge” “amount” or other weak, vague language)

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Properties of Polymers

Classification of polymers, polymerization.

• Natural Polymers

Starch 

What are examples of polymers, which are some types of polymers, is water a polymer, is plastic a polymer.

Polymers are the giant molecules formed by joining together of hundreds or thousands of smaller molecules. They belong to the category of macromolecules. The word polymer is derived from two Greek words; ‘poly’ meaning ‘many’, and ‘mer’ meaning ‘part’. Thus, a polymer is a large molecule made up of several identical repeating units called monomer.

A polymer needs to be made up of identical repeating units. If different types of molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule, it is simply called a giant molecule, not a polymer. 

In this section, we will have a detailed discussion on polymers, their characteristics and properties, their classification, examples and much more. 

Polymers are identified based on their properties. The common properties that are found in all types of polymers are as follows; 

1. They are made up of repeating units

As mentioned in the introduction, the most important property of a polymer is that it is made up of identical repeating units known as monomers. The name of a polymer is also based on these monomers. Take the following examples;

• A polysaccharide is a polymer made up of several repeating monosaccharide.
• Polypeptide is made up of thousands of peptides (or amino acids) repeating in a particular fashion.
• A polynucleotide is a polymer of nucleotides. 

2. Configuration of monomers

The configuration of monomers is the second property of polymers. Monomers in each polymer have a particular configuration or arrangement that is a specific characteristic of that polymer. This can be understood from the following examples;

• In a linear polymer, all the monomers are attached in a long single chain. 
• In a branched polymer, some monomers form short chains that are attached as a branch to the main linear chain of monomers. In this case, monomers have two configurations. 

3. Chain Length

The size of the polymer and the degree of polymerization can be identified from the chain length of the polymer. Chain length also indicates the quantity or number of monomers present in the polymer. In the case of synthetic polymers, it is easier to find the chain length as the statistical data is being reported during the process of polymerization. 

4. Morphology

Morphology indicates the final shape of the polymer it assumes after the process of polymerization. The physical properties of a polymer are highly dependent on its morphology which in turn is dependent on the interaction between the chains of monomers present in it. Following morphologies of polymer are usually seen;

• Disordered, in which the polymer has a somewhat amorphous or glassy structure. It is formed due to a high degree of random branching chains.  
• Linear, in which all the monomers are arranged in a single chain. The polymer behaves as a semi-crystalline solid.
• Cross-linked, in which the chains of monomers show extensive cross-linking. These cross-links undergo decomposition when exposed to high temperatures. 

They are classified into two broad categories.

• Natural polymers: They are naturally present within the bodies of the living organisms. 
• Artificial polymers: They are artificially made in industries for various commercial uses.

Polymers can also be classified based on the type of monomers present in them. This classification includes the following categories;

• Homopolymer: A homopolymer is made up of only one type of monomer.
• Copolymer: On the other hand, a copolymer is made up of two or more types of repeating units.

Artificial Polymers

These are made by man to fulfill several commercial and industrial needs. These are also known as synthetic polymers. We all use different synthetic polymers in our daily lives. Few examples of artificial or synthetic polymers include:

• Nylon, used in the fabric industry. 
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), used in plastic and pipe industry.
• Synthetic rubber, used for various purposes. 
• Polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, polyethylene, and many more. 

These polymers are made in industry by the process of polymerization. 

The method by which polymers are made artificially in the industry is known as polymerization. In this process, monomers are combined forming covalent bonds or linkages. The functional groups of monomers react with one another to form a specific covalent bond. 

There are two polymerization techniques currently used in the industry;

• Chain-Growth: In this technique, one monomer molecule is added to the growing chain at one time. 
• Step-Growth: In this technique, chains of monomers can combine i.e. multiple chains of monomers can be combined at one time to form a polymer.

Newer methods are also being used in polymerization industries. However, those methods are beyond the scope of our subject. 

They are present within the bodies of living organisms and carry out essential life processes. Therefore, they are also called bio-polymers. 

They are divided into three main classes

• Polysaccharide
• Polypeptides
• Polynucleotides

Rest of our discussion will be based on these bio-polymers. 

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides belong to the category of carbohydrates. These are the polymers made by repeating units of monosaccharides. Several thousands of monosaccharide subunits combine via glycosidic bonds to form polysaccharides. 

Following properties are common in all polysaccharides:

• They are amorphous solids.
• They are tasteless and colorless.
• Upon hydrolysis, they yield monosaccharides.
• They are non-reducing sugars. 
• They are insoluble in water.  

Some biologically important polysaccharides include Starch, Glycogen, and Cellulose.

It is a polymer made up of repeating glucose subunits. Upon complete hydrolysis, starch yields glucose molecules. It may consist of branched chains of glucose as in amylopectin starch, or unbranched chains of glucose as in amylose starch. 

It can be identified by iodine test. Starch always yields blue color in the iodine test.

Starch is the main form in which the glucose is stored in plants. Humans and animals consume carbohydrates mainly in the form of starch. It is present in fruits, grains, seeds, and tubers, etc. 

Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose molecules and yield glucose on complete hydrolysis. It is made up of branched chains of glucose that are arranged in the form of a helix. 

It can also be identified by using the iodine test. Glycogen gives red color with Iodine. 

Animals store glucose in their bodies in the form of glycogen. It is present in every animal cell. However, large stores of glycogen are found in liver and muscle cells. It is also sometimes called animal starch.

Both glycogen and starch are digestible in the human intestinal tract.

Cellulose is a branched polymer of glucose subunits that are linked via glycosidic bonds. These glycosidic bonds are different from those in starch and glycogen in a way that they cannot be broken in the human body. That is why cellulose is not digestible by the human digestive system. 

Another factor that differentiates cellulose from other polysaccharides is its reaction with the iodine solution. The iodine test of cellulose is negative as it does not give any color with the iodine solution. 

It is the most abundant carbohydrate present in nature. Cellulose is the essential component of plant cell walls and is thus present in every plant cell. However, it is not present in animal cells. 

Polypeptides are the polymers of amino acids. Several amino acids are linked together via peptide bonds to form long chains called polypeptides. These chains then undergo different structural arrangements resulting in the formation of functional proteins.

Following properties are shared by all polypeptides;

• They are unbranched chains of amino acids. 
• Each polypeptide has an amino acid with a free amino group at N-terminal and an amino acid with a free carboxylic group at C-terminal. 
• Upon proteolysis, they yield different amino acids. 
• Depending on the nature of amino acids, they may or may not be soluble in water. 
• They are synthesized by ribosomes within the cells. 

Polypeptides undergo different structural arrangements to form proteins. Thus, the functions performed by polypeptides in the human body are the same as performed by proteins. These include the following;

• They form proteins that are an essential component of all types of membranes. 
• Polypeptides from proteins that function as enzymes.
• They form transport proteins such as hemoglobin.
• They are present in hair, nails, bones, and cartilage, etc. 
• They are essential for muscle contraction. 
• Some polypeptides function as hormones in the human body such as insulin made up of two polypeptides. 
• Neuropeptides in the human body act as neurotransmitters. 
• They can also be attached to a lipid molecule to form a lipopeptides. These lipopeptides are the components of cell membranes and perform several functions essential for the growth and survival of the cell. 
•  They have a role in cell signaling.

These polymers of amino acids have several other functions that will be discussed somewhere else in detail.

These are the polymers of nucleotides that are joined together via phosphodiester bond. A polynucleotide is a single chain containing 13 or more nucleotides attached via phosphodiester bonds. They yield individual nucleotides when exposed to the nuclease enzymes that break the phosphodiester bonds. 

DNA and RNA are biologically most important polynucleotides.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. It is a double polymer i.e. it consists of two polymeric chains of nucleotides. The two chains of nucleotides are attached together via hydrogen bonds to form a DNA double helix. 

DNA is present in the nucleus and nucleolus of all living cells. It is also present in chloroplast of animal cells as well as mitochondria of both animal and plant cells. All the structural and functional information of a cell is stored in the form of DNA.  This information is also passed onto the next generation via DNA. 

DNA undergoes degradation by nucleases that cleave the phosphodiester bond between nucleotides. This enzyme is also present in the human digestive tract that digests the nucleic acid taken in the form of diet into nucleotides that can be absorbed. 

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is another example of polynucleotide. It is a polymer of ribonucleotides. Contrary to the DNA, it consists of only a single long chain of nucleotides. The nucleotides in RNA are also linked together via the phosphodiester bonds. 

RNA is essential for passing information from the nucleus into the cytoplasm and also for the synthesis of proteins in the cell. 

RNA taken in diet is digested by nuclease of the digestive tract into nucleotides that are then absorbed into the blood. 

Polymers are the macromolecules formed when several identical repeating units combine to form long chains as a result of chemical bonding. 

A compound must have the following properties to be a polymer; 

• It must be made up of identical repeating units called monomers. 
• Monomers can have linear or branched configuration.
• The size of the polymer depends on its chain length.
• In morphology, it may have chains that are disordered, linear, or cross-linked. 

Two broad categories of polymers include;

• Artificial or Synthetic Polymers

Depending on the nature of monomers forming a polymer, they are classified as;

• Homopolymer (only one type of monomer)
• Copolymer (two or more types of monomers)

Artificial polymers made for industrial and commercial uses include artificial rubber, PVC, nylon, etc. 

Natural polymers are made within the living organisms. These include;

Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides that are tasteless and odorless amorphous solids. 

Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are the most important polysaccharide. All these are the polymers of glucose. 

Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants while glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals. 

Cellulose is present in plant cell walls

Polypeptides are the polymers made up of single, unbranched chain of amino acids linked via peptide bonds. 

These polypeptides undergo different spatial organization to form complex structural and functional proteins.

The functions performed by polypeptides are also the same as performed by proteins. 

Polynucleotides are the polymers of nucleotides and include nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.  

They are also single unbranched chains consisting of 13 or more nucleotides. 

The phosphodiester bond between the individual nucleotides is cleaved by the nuclease enzymes that are present in the cells as well as the digestive tract of animals. 

Frequently Asked Questions

Examples of polymers include starch, proteins, DNA, etc. Starch is a polymer of glucose molecules, proteins are polymers of amino acids, and DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. 

Some types of polymers include natural polymers, synthetic polymers, biodegradable polymers, etc. Proteins, starch, DNA, etc are natural polymers. Nylon, polyester, etc. are synthetic polymers. Most of natural polymers are biodegradable. 

Water as a molecule is a simple molecule. However, when talking on a large scale, water belongs to a class of polymers known as dynamic polydisperse branched polymers.

Yes, plastic is a polymer. It belongs to the synthetic category of polymers. Different kinds of plastic present in the market have different structures. 

•  Matthews, C. E.; K. E. Van Holde; K. G. Ahern (1999) Biochemistry. 3rd edition. Benjamin Cummings.  ISBN   0-8053-3066-6
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• Ten Feizi ; Wengang Chai (2004). “Oligosaccharide microarrays to decipher the glyco code”. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology.  5  (7): 582–588.  doi : 10.1038/nrm1428 .  PMID   15232576 .
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• D. Margerison, G. C. East, J. E. Spice (1967). An Introduction to Polymer Chemistry. Pergamon Press.  ISBN   978-0-08-011891-8 .

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Surface treatment of additively manufactured polyetheretherketone (peek) by centrifugal disc finishing process: identification of the key parameters.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. 3d-printing specimen, 2.2. centrifugal disc finishing process.

• The centrifugal disc finishing machine (OTEC Präzisionsfinish GmbH, ECO-MAXI, Straubenhardt-Conweiler, Germany)
• The abrasive media
• A sedimentation box with a pump to reuse water

2.3. Specimen Preparation

• Ultrasonic cleaning for one hour at room temperature with acetone
• Ultrasonic cleaning for four hours at 80 °C with cleaning agent
• Ultrasonic cleaning for one hour with deionized water at 80 °C
• Drying at 100 °C for eight hours

2.4. Weight Measurements

2.5. surface waviness measurements, 2.6. experimental design, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. statistical analysis, 3.2. optical analysis, 4. conclusions, author contributions, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

Click here to enlarge figure

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Share and Cite

Zentgraf, J.; Nützel, F.; Mühlbauer, N.; Schultheiss, U.; Grad, M.; Schratzenstaller, T. Surface Treatment of Additively Manufactured Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) by Centrifugal Disc Finishing Process: Identification of the Key Parameters. Polymers 2024 , 16 , 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162348

Zentgraf J, Nützel F, Mühlbauer N, Schultheiss U, Grad M, Schratzenstaller T. Surface Treatment of Additively Manufactured Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) by Centrifugal Disc Finishing Process: Identification of the Key Parameters. Polymers . 2024; 16(16):2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162348

Zentgraf, Jan, Florian Nützel, Nico Mühlbauer, Ulrich Schultheiss, Marius Grad, and Thomas Schratzenstaller. 2024. "Surface Treatment of Additively Manufactured Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) by Centrifugal Disc Finishing Process: Identification of the Key Parameters" Polymers 16, no. 16: 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162348

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