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Academic Appeal: The 11 Best Fonts for Academic Papers

• BY Bogdan Sandu
• 26 February 2024

Imagine settling into the rhythm of crafting your academic magnum opus—the words flow, ideas chime, yet it all hinges on how your prose meets the reader’s eye. You’re well aware that  the best fonts for academic papers  don’t just whisper to the intellect; they shout to the discerning critic in each evaluator. Here unfolds a narrative, not merely of  typography  but your academic saga’s silent ambassador.

In forging this guide, I’ve honed focus on one pivotal, often underestimated player in the academic arena:  font selection .

Navigate through this roadmap and emerge with a treasure trove of  legible typefaces  and format tips that ensure your paper stands hallmark to clarity and professionalism.

Absorb insights—from the revered  Times New Roman  to the understated elegance of  Arial —paired with indispensable  formatting nuggets  that transcend mere compliance with  university guidelines .

Dive deep, and by article’s end, unlock a dossier of sage advice, setting your documents a class apart in the scrutinous world of academic scrutiny. Here’s to  typography  serving not just as a vessel but as your ally in the scholarly discourse.

The Best Fonts for Academic Papers

Traditional Choices and Their Limitations

Times new roman : ubiquity and readability vs. overuse.

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5 fonts that add credibility and professionalism to scientific research

by ikumikayama | Apr 29, 2013 | Uncategorized | 14 comments

Choosing the right fonts can affect how your scientific research is received.

Note: This is part 2 of a 2-part blog series about choices in fonts. You can read part 1 here .

You are dressed in your best. You edited the manuscript with a fine-tooth comb…but are your figures and images wearing flip-flops?

Last time we talked about fonts that suck professionalism out of your scientific research . In this article, we’ll talk about fonts that actually add credibility and professionalism to your research. Dress your research in a custom-tailored suit by just using these fonts!

My friend and colleague, Cassio Lynm described how a good figure should be like a billboard found in many highways around the country. Anyone who sees the billboard will understand what they are advertising in a split second. If someone is confused or gets the wrong idea, the image is not very successful.

Similarly, the best professional fonts should be one that’s easy to read with very little “bells and whistles”. When writing prose of informational value such as scientific research, a reader should pay attention to what the text is describing, not how the text looks.  A good professional font should be like air–we don’t really even pay attention to it most of the time.

Some of the fonts I’ll share with you today are considered “boring” and “overused” by some. These fonts are everywhere because they are champions of legibility and simplicity.  Make your work professional and trustworthy by using a time-tested font.

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1. Arial- “All-Around Champion with IBM Roots”

According to fonts.com , Arial is one of the most used typefaces of the last 30 years. Its electronic origins go back to 1982 for IBM laser-xerographic printers by designers Robin Nicholas and Patricia Saunders. When it came out, it was supposed to compete with Helvetica, which was one of the core fonts in Apple Computers in the mid 1980’s.

Arial letters have more round shapes and the edges of letters do not end in a horizontal line. Instead, the edges are at an angle.

Arial is an easy-to-read font in small and large blocks of text. Nature requests that the figure text be in Arial or Helvetica. It’s especially nice for figure labels and legends. When using Arial as figure legends, keep the font size small ~8 points for best results.

2. Helvetica- “All-Around Champion with Apple Roots”

Helvetica is the most heavily-used font. Helvetica was originally designed by a Swiss designer named Max Miedinger in 1957. The font was designed to be an easy-to-read font. The name “Helvetica” comes from “Helvetia” – Latin name for Switzerland. Actually, the font received a facelift in 1983-the newer version is called, you guessed it, Neue Helvetica.

Helvetica even has its own movie . I haven’t seen it yet, but please comment in the section below if you have.

Besides its Hollywood (Indie) status, Helvetica is a font that looks great on both print and on screen.  Nature , Science , and Cell request that their figure labels be in Helvetica. (If you need assistance setting up figures, I’m here to help). It looks great small as in figure labels, and it looks pretty good in large formats as posters. I lost count of how many figures I labeled using Helvetica, since that’s what one of the publishers used for their books.

3. Baskerville- “Tends to have positive influence on readers”

Baskerville’s history goes all the way back to 1757 when John Baskerville designed a typeface that works well in print and easy to read.  Mr. Baskerville preferred his letters simple and refined. He was also a writing master, so he had some ornamental letters like the upper case Q.

There was an  informal study  (not official, but some experiments here and there) that showed using Baskerville font increased trustworthiness of the text compared to other fonts. In the same study, Comic Sans had the most negative influence on the readers.

Baskerville is a serif font, which means that there are “tails” at the edge of the letters. Generally, serif fonts are better suited for print. This font works best when used in long blocks of text. Try to keep this font between 8 and 14pts for best results. This font looks dignified, so use this for your important professional occasions-award ceremonies, recognitions, etc.

4. Caslon- “When in doubt, use Caslon”

Caslon is another font with a long history. William Cason I designed the typeface back in the early 1700’s. This font is considered as the first original typeface from England. This font was very popular in colonial America, and it was used for many historical documents including the US Declaration of Independence.

Caslon is a serif font (with tails), and is best used in blocks of text. Like Baskerville, try to keep this font between 8 and 14 points for best results. Using this in a report or an application would be a good places.

5. Garamond – “Second best font after Helvetica”

This font’s history also goes way back. The font was designed by Claude Garamond (or Jean Jannon), who was commissioned to make a typeface for King Francis I of France (1515-47) to be used in series of books. The modern, electric version was revived in 1989 by Robert Slimbach.

Because there are different sources available for Garamond, there are numbers of different variations of the font. Adobe Garamond is the most popular and widely-available version today.

Garamond is still used extensively by French publishers. They also insist that Garamond be printed in size 9.  Some of the most famous publications in France are in Garamond such as Histoire de l’édition français.  The publishers prefer this font “for its beauty, its richness and its legibility” combined with “an uncluttered graphic style that underscores the rigour of essays and analysis providing a radical critique of contemporary society”.

Garamond is a great font to be used in long proses such as textbooks, dissertations and theses. Keeping it at 9 point is optional. In fact, my master’s thesis was in Garamond.

So that’s the 5 fonts that add credibility and professionalism to your scientific research. Did you find your favorite fonts here? Do you have other favorites? Please share your thoughts in the comment section. Also, please feel free to send this article along to those who might benefit from this short article.

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Now that you know about great scientific fonts, learn more about: PowerPoint Tips for the Scientist

Sources and Further reading:

Arial vs Helvetica – fonts.com

Research on font trustworthiness: Baskerville vs. Comic Sans

Caslon typeface

History of Garamond

Cell Press Figure Guide

Nature -Guide to preparing final artwork

Science Magazine: Preparing your manuscript

14 Comments

I’d rather like to know which font was used to write that article – it’s simple and readable, better than all presented above.

And the font being used for that article is Helvetica, which is one of the fonts mentioned above 😀

Hi Ewa! Great point. The font used is called “Open Sans” by Steve Matteson. For my blog, I made the font color dark grey to make it easier on the eyes, and also made them slightly bigger than average for easier reading. Hope this helps!

Hollo there, i liked the article but none of this fonts looks like the one used in the papers i read, (Journals of the American Chemical Society), do you know which one they use?

Hi There! Thank you for the note! ACS suggests Arial and Helvetica for their journal figures, so that’s what I introduced in this article–for the text, they might very well have their own custom font they use for their publications. I’ll dig into this a little deeper–thank you again!

I’m sorry, but this article is full of misinformation. Part 1 is a reiteration of articles that have been around for years. Absolutely nothing new there, and honestly, is there anyone even considering the typefaces you name there for scientific articles? Is it conceivable that anyone would use Curlz for his essay?

But my real concern goes to the second part. Arial and Helvetica are absolutely not scientific typefaces. The notion that ACS suggests these typefaces doesn’t make them suitable for scientific works. I think you ought to do research as to WHY these typefaces came recommended. Helvetica has history, as it won out of contemporaries like Univers as Helvetica was very heavily marketed. As a side note, Helvetica is actually based on the Akzidenz Grotesk model. Arial was designed to have the same metrics as Helvetica so it could be used on the same printers without having to pay a license fee to use Helvetica. Arial is more legible while Helvetica is more neutral and clear, but neither is particularly great.

So I would say Helvetica and Arial haven’t been chosen because they’re perfect. They’ve been chosen because they’re popular, and Arial is on every Windows computer, so people don’t have to purchase any fonts. I would say neither Arial and Helvetica are known to be particularly good to read. I suspect typefaces like Proxima Nova and Avenir will fair better. To be clear, I don’t think Arial or Helvetica are bad choices for labels and such, but to suggest them as top 5 typefaces, that’s very clearly misinformation.

“When using Arial as figure legends, keep the font size small ~8 points for best results.” For best results? Not entirely. It’s probably a good estimate, but in actuality the pt size should depend on the layout. I would recommend always making a test print to see if the text looks good in print, if that’s what it is intended for. Sometimes 0.2pts more or less could make the difference.

“Helvetica is the most heavily-used font.” I don’t think so. First off, Helvetica is not a font. It’s a typeface. Helvetica Regular would be a font. Helvetica is the most heavily-used typeface in graphic design, and likely the most heavily-used sans typeface. It’s not the most heavily-used typeface. At least, I would be very surprised if it was. I suspect Times New Roman is the most heavily-used.

“The font was designed to be an easy-to-read font.” No, Helvetica was designed to steal the popularity of Akzidenz Grotesk away.

Also, follow this link to see some of the problems of Helvetica at small sizes, and what professionals in the field have to say about it: http://spiekermann.com/en/helvetica-sucks/

“Actually, the font received a facelift in 1983-the newer version is called, you guessed it, Neue Helvetica.” Who would guess that the prefix for the new Helvetica would be German though? Small detail… Anyway, if you like Helvetica but want a more professional typeface (because really, Max Miedinger was not a type designer and as far as I’m concerned that shows), I can recommend Neue Haas Grotesk (a typeface that is true to the original Helvetica, but improved) or Neue Haas Unica (a more fresh looking Helvetica that deviates from the original).

“Helvetica even has its own movie. I haven’t seen it yet, but please comment in the section below if you have.” I have seen it a few times now. It’s quite a pleasure to watch, but there’s a lot of propaganda involved as well. You have the likes of Massimo Vignelli drooling over how great Helvetica is. The man was a pretty great graphic designer (although insisting on always using Helvetica has little to do with graphic design, as one ought to select the perfect typeface for the job, not use one typeface for every job), but he had no insight in type design. On the other hand, you have Erik Spiekermann formulate perfectly what Helvetica stands for. I would say for a type designer the Helvetica documentary is quite pleasant to watch. For the layman I’m afraid the documentary amounts to propaganda. It gives the layman the feeling this is one of the best typefaces out there and it’s simply not, by far.

“Besides its Hollywood (Indie) status, Helvetica is a font that looks great on both print and on screen.” Absolutely not! On Windows computers, websites set in Helvetica tend to look horrendous. The problem is that Helvetica is not well hinted, and so rendering problems occur. Helvetica was obviously not designed for monitors. Neue Helvetica doesn’t have the rendering problem to the same extent I believe, but relatively few people have Neue Helvetica, so it wouldn’t be wise to use that on your website, unless you embed the fonts. For websites I highly recommend using Arial rather than Helvetica.

“Baskerville’s history goes all the way back to 1757 when John Baskerville designed a typeface that works well in print and easy to read.” Easy to read? Not particularly, though it’s not bad either. Baskerville is a transitional typeface, meaning the weight modulation is vertical and the contrast is high. This is the tradition of the Baroque, but it’s not the most pleasant to read. However, Baskerville does look quite academic. For typefaces that are more pleasant to read, I would look at the Garalde style. Garamond and Caslon belong to that classification. They have a diagonal weight modulation, which naturally leads the eyes to the next letters. Typefaces with vertical weight modulation and high contrast tend to feature a fence effect, which disturbs the reading experience. To see this effect well, look at Didone typefaces like Didot and Bodoni.

“This font works best when used in long blocks of text. Try to keep this font between 8 and 14pts for best results.” 14pt seems quite large. Try 9–12pt. This goes for any serif typeface to be used for body text that is intended for print (for the web try 10–14pt, also depending on which device it’s intended for). But again, it will depend on the layout, and always make test prints to make sure it’s pleasant to read.

“Garamond is a great font to be used in long proses such as textbooks, dissertations and theses. Keeping it at 9 point is optional. In fact, my master’s thesis was in Garamond.” I distinctly remember years ago I noticed my Harry Potter book was set in Garamond. Both Garamond and Caslon are still used extensively for books.

However, Garamond may be a bit much for scientific documents. It’s quite classical and it has a low x-height, which these days is not preferable. Caslon is a bit less expressive and has a taller x-height. I would say Caslon is probably better for scientific articles.

One group of typefaces that certainly seems to be missing here is Century. Typefaces like Century Roman and Century Schoolbook. They belong to the Clarendon classification and are reminiscent of typefaces like Baskerville. These typefaces have been popular since the late 19th century and are still used extensively in academic literature. But I suppose you should also make a consideration of whether your article should be about the most comfortable typefaces to read, or the best suitable for scientific work, because they most certainly don’t amount to the same thing, yet you seem to be equating the two in this article.

Hi Martin! Thank you so much for your in-depth note! I have to look over and digest all your excellent points. Would you be open to expanding your writing and be a guest author or send me a link to your website/blog so the readers can have more information about what types to use for their work?

THE quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog!!!!!

Leelawadee is a bit underrated. It is easy on the eyes, and simple. It could use a bit of a TimesNewRoman-punch to it, though.

Where can I download Helvetica from? I couldn’t find it anywhere

Seriously? I don’t know what this smug guy does with typography, in which he seems to be well versed, but if he were to take up writing he would need to work on his grammar.

I’m not an expert on fonts, but I’m currently using Helvetica for headlines and other Sans text in my thesis and DejaVu for the main text. Feels pretty scientific to me 🙂

I enjoyed the historical aspect of this article. Thanks! PS. I see you use a sans serif font.

How i download these font types?

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Ten simple rules for typographically appealing scientific texts

Lars ole schwen.

Fraunhofer Institute for Digital Medicine MEVIS, Bremen, Germany

Introduction

Text is ubiquitous in everyday scientific work—when was the last time you spent 5 minutes working without writing, reading, or interacting with any kind of equipment that had text (scales, labels, brand name, etc.) on it? Most forms of communicating ideas and findings in science are based on text, e.g., BSc/MSc/PhD theses, manuscript drafts, grant proposals, reports, or job applications. In addition, text appears in figures, (electronic) slides for presentations, and posters, i.e., in formats focused more strongly on a graphical presentation.

All these documents are usually written to convince the audience of the quality of your ideas or results, ultimately with the goal of a positive evaluation (grading, decision on funding/hiring, etc.). A good visual appearance of the text and graphical elements is key for making a good first impression on the audience. When sustaining this impression by clearly structured and well-written text, professional layout is again important because less-than-optimally typeset texts distract the audience from fully appreciating the high-quality content [ 1 ]. Even though single visual inconsistencies cost the readers only a fraction of a second, these interruptions to the flow of reading add up and subconsciously frustrate the readers, possibly undermining your credibility. Poor visual appearance and language can be spotted at first glance in Fig 1 , and incorrect content (or a confusing structure, not shown in Fig 1 ) take much longer to notice. Properly formatting text is particularly challenging in interdisciplinary fields like Computational Biology, where authors are faced with a variety of text elements, e.g., Greek characters, mathematical formulas, chemical formulas, and source code listings. Similar to inconsistent writing style, inconsistent formatting may indicate plagiarism, e.g., stray dashes resulting from copying and pasting hyphenated text, garbled characters, and fonts/formatting copied from the source.

Poor formatting, incorrect language, or wrong contents?

Scientists frequently need to produce final document layout themselves, either from scratch or based on a template—where some templates are well designed and others are, well, “designed.” If a template is given, fewer decisions need to be made, but some typographical knowledge is still helpful to understand the template and to deal with issues unforeseen therein. Ideally, the actual typesetting is subsequently done by trained professionals, e.g., working with publishers, who know what they are doing [ 2 ]. Submissions should, in this case, follow the publishers’ guidelines and templates, but still be prepared carefully, as “reviewers’ opinion about a manuscript can be skewed by careless formatting” [ 3 ]. Typography is thus one of the tools of the trade for scientists.

This article is meant as a practical guide for typesetting scientific texts, including motivation for the recommendations. While focusing on the intended layout, the rules also provide hints on how these results can be obtained in common text processing/typesetting tools (such as Microsoft Word/LibreOffice Writer, Google Docs, and LaTeX). These rules are meant to complement

• detailed typography textbooks or reference books [ 4 – 7 ] by providing hands-on recommendations for everyday scientific writing;
• software manuals (typically focused on features and how to achieve specific formatting) by explaining which formatting makes sense in which case;
• style manuals [ 8 – 10 ];
• tips for scientific writing [ 11 – 17 ] and collaboration tools [ 18 – 21 ]; and
• specialized recommendations for slides [ 22 , 23 ] and posters [ 24 , 25 ].

The rules primarily apply to English (specifically American English), and many of them also apply to other languages using the Latin alphabet and beyond. However, ligatures and diacritics (Rule 2), punctuation and its spacing (Rule 2), hyphenation (Rule 3), and number formatting (Rule 8) vary between languages.

Rule 1: Fonts—Choose a suitable (type)face for your work

Fonts should be chosen according to the intended function. Documents primarily consisting of text are usually typeset in serif fonts where letters end in horizontal lines (see Fig 2A ) guiding the readers’ eyes through the lines like a “railroad track” [ 26 ]. Moreover, serifs provide distinctive shapes of words ( Fig 2B ). This allows more easily reading text by fixing a few points in each line (saccades, [ 27 ]) rather than continuously reading each individual letter. These properties generally make serif fonts easily readable.

(A) Terminology to describe the “anatomy” of glyphs. (B, C) Samples of serif (B) and sans serif fonts (C), all of them nominally of the same size (but notice the differences in width, x versus ascender/descender height and overall apparent size). (D) Confusing use of fonts for a purpose they were not designed for.

In contrast, posters, slides, and figure annotations containing only little text and incomplete sentences require each word to be clearly legible. In this case, sans serif fonts are more suitable ( Fig 2C ). Nonproportional (typewriter-like) fonts where each glyph has the same width have a technical appearance and are used, e.g., for source code listings. Calligraphic, handwritten, or otherwise creative fonts may lack a serious appearance and should be used with care in scientific content, e.g., if a handwritten/sketched look is intended [ 28 ]. Besides the function, fonts can convey characteristics like elegant, modern, or traditional (see Fig 2D ) [ 29 ].

In 1 document, only as many fonts as necessary should be mixed. Fonts should be combined to complement each other with the intended level of contrast and with matching x height and length of ascenders/descenders. The main font for the text should include all required diacritics (e.g., for proper names), non-Latin characters (e.g., Greek), and symbols (e.g., arrows or for mathematical formulas), cf. Rule 2.

Rule 2: Individual characters and words—Get the details right

Text is composed of single characters including (uppercase and lowercase) letters, numbers, punctuation, characters with diacritics, and symbols. Typographically, however, text is composed of glyphs, representations of characters in a specific shape and design.

Certain combinations of letters appear differently when combined, forming so-called ligatures (e.g., the “fi” in the word fish in Fig 2A ). Ligatures enhance readability by avoiding visual gaps inside words and are examples of 1 glyph representing multiple characters.

Punctuation is used to structure sentences and should use correct glyphs (cf. Fig 3A ).

(A) Typographically correct symbols make a difference between sloppily written and conveniently readable texts. (B) Many language use the Latin alphabet combined with different types of diacritics and additional characters.

Quotation marks exist in 2 forms: straight/dumb (as typed on the keyboard) and typographic form. In English, raised 6/66 and 9/99 forms as shown in Fig 3A are used as opening and closing quotation marks, respectively, depending on whether you follow a style using single or double quotes. Punctuation is placed before or after closing quotation marks depending on whether it is part of the quote, except for periods and commas always placed before the closing quotation mark [ 10 ]. Apostrophes have the raised-9 form of a closing single quotation mark. Prime and double prime symbols are used, e.g., for feet/inches, arcminutes/arcseconds in geographic latitude and longitude (cf. Fig 3B ), and derivatives in mathematics and to indicate positions of carbon on ribose rings in molecular biology. Neither of these symbols should be confused with accents (see below).

Dashes come in 3 flavors. For hyphenation (see also Rule 3) and compound words, a standard dash (-) is used. The slightly longer en dash (–) is used for ranges (e.g., pages 24–33), sometimes as the symbol in bullet lists (see Rule 6), and to indicate naming after separate persons (e.g., the Michaelis–Menten reaction) as opposed to hyphenated names (e.g., 2008 Nobel laureate Françoise Barré-Sinoussi). The minus sign is typically similar to the en dash. The em dash—as shown here—is used as a phrase marker—or for adding afterthoughts. However, besides unspaced em dashes, spaced en dashes are also recommended for these purposes [ 7 ].

Accents and other diacritics (cf. Fig 3B ) may be complicated, in particular outside one’s native language. Still, they are worth getting right—imagine what a picky reviewer will think about your scientific work if you cited them, but did not even manage to spell their name correctly.

Correct symbols that cannot directly be typed can be selected/copied from a character table or entered via their respective Unicode code points. Both these options are tedious. Using defined macros or auto-correction features of the text processing software can be more convenient, but do not always work as intended and should be checked.

Rule 3: Lines and paragraphs—Keep the text flowing

Paragraphs consist of lines of text (see Rule 5 for a discussion of line width). Paragraphs can be typeset left-aligned, centered, right-aligned, or fully justified; cf. Fig 4A . Justifying text requires aligning both the left and right ends of lines, and this is commonly achieved by stretching the spacing between words. Paragraphs in continuous text are usually typeset justified. This is most convenient to read as paragraph breaks can be spotted easily, and there is no random graphical emphasis on words at the beginning or end of lines which are longer than the surrounding lines. Shorter pieces of text can also be typeset left-aligned, e.g., on posters and slides. Centered and right-aligned text is sometimes used for headings, displayed equations, or tables (cf. Rule 7). Such alignment is not suitable for longer texts as it makes finding the next line inconvenient ( Fig 4A ).

(A) Left-aligned text randomly emphasizes words appearing at the end of the line (indicated in orange); right-aligned text makes finding the next line unnecessarily difficult for the readers (indicated in blue); centered text combines both disadvantages; and justified text avoids these issues and has the calmest appearance. (B) Examples where hyphenation or line breaks interrupt the flow of reading (hyphenation examples from p. 115 in [ 30 ]). (C) Indenting the first line of paragraphs (except after headings) clearly indicates where a new paragraph starts, and this may be unclear at the top of a page otherwise.

Line breaks in paragraphs should not interrupt the flow of reading. To prevent undesired line breaks, e.g., between numbers and their unit ( Fig 4B ), non-breaking spaces should be used.

Words may need to be hyphenated to avoid large gaps in lines in justified text. Text should be hyphenated by the respective feature of the text processing/typesetting software. Automatic hyphenation usually works well if language settings are correct, but should be checked for misleading hyphenations ( Fig 4B ). Enforcing hyphenation by manually entering dashes and spaces/line breaks may lead to stray dashes when fur-ther editing the text.

The first line of paragraphs is frequently indented ( Fig 4C ) to clearly indicate that a new paragraph has started (except immediately after headings where indentation would be redundant). In contrast to vertically spacing paragraphs, indenting is also visible after a page break, below a figure, and after lists.

Alignment, indentation, and other formatting of paragraphs should not be applied manually for each paragraph, but via suitably defined paragraph or document styles. Ideally, this is provided by the document template.

Rule 4: Emphasize what is important, and only that

Not all words in a text are equally important, and some need to be distinguished visually. Visual emphasis, however, should not happen by accident (e.g., because a word happens to appear at the end of a line or because a symbol needs to be used from a different font). Instead, emphasis should result from a conscious decision, and a suitable and consistent way of formatting different types of importance should be used. The main purposes of increased visibility of words are.

• structuring (providing “entry points” on the page where one could start reading),
• emphasis (where stressing something only makes sense within the context), and
• markup (e.g., in bibliographies or for syntax highlighting in source code).

Typographically, there are different variants of highlighting ( Fig 5A ), ranging from subtle to highly prominent. The prominence of emphasis can be characterized by the change of “color” [ 7 ] (or “type color” [ 31 ]), i.e., how dark the page appears at some location when viewed out of focus. Larger changes of type color are more prominent highlighting and easier to spot when just glancing at the page/poster/slide. Italic (no change in type color) is usually the formatting of choice for emphasis within context. In contrast, bold (notable change in type color) is useful, e.g., for headings or terms defined in a glossary. Small caps (no change in type color) are sometimes used to distinguish family names from given names or real-world from model entities. Underlining used to be one of the few possibilities of emphasis using a typewriter (see Fig 5B ), but is neither particularly nice nor useful nowadays.

(A) Text in italics, small caps, or a matching alternative font does not change the type color of the page and emphasizes words within the context while reading. Bold text, uppercase letters, and different colors are more prominent and serve as “entry points” to the text. Using a contrasting alternative font, letter spacing, and underlining words forms an even stronger visual contrast, but is challenging to get looking good. (B) In the era of typewriters, authors were much more limited in using emphasis in their texts. (C) Italic, bold, and small caps should be used as properly designed font variants and not be faked by slanting (making the text look unnatural), making lines thicker (leading to, e.g., shrunken eyes and unbalanced spacing), or scaling capitals (making glyphs skinny). (Disclosure of image manipulation: text typed using a mechanical typewriter was digitized and edited for clarity, and color channels of the RGB image were manipulated to imitate red text from a 2-color ink ribbon).

Emphasis in continuous texts should be used sparingly. If 80% of a text is emphasized, actually the remaining 20% of the text are most visible. In contrast, text not meant to be read as a whole may profit from extensively combining different ways of highlighting, e.g., markup in bibliographies or syntax highlighting in source code listings.

Pitfalls of highlighting are shown in Fig 5C . Italic, bold, and small caps of a font should only be used if available as properly designed variants. Automatically created variants (slanting glyphs, using thicker lines, or shrinking uppercase letters) are of lower quality (“Frankensteinian manipulation” [ 32 ]) and best avoided.

To achieve consistent visual emphasis throughout a document, suitable styles or macros should be defined and used. Naming these by purpose rather than appearance makes it easy to consistently change formatting when editing and revising a document (cf. Rule 9).

Rule 5: Pages—Visually distribute your story

Unlike information on web pages, printed material and presentation slides are arranged on separate pages of fixed size. Contents thus need to be distributed with page breaks at useful locations (unless, of course, only a single page or a poster is needed). Besides text, also non-text material (figures, tables, and footnotes) needs to be positioned on pages.

For good readability, lines should not be longer than 75 to 80 characters [ 7 ] or require additional line spacing; otherwise, the readers’ eyes cannot easily jump from 1 line to the next. Reducing the margin width is thus not a good way to squeeze more content into a given number of pages. Also, margins are needed for the readers simply to hold the document without fingers covering part of the content and to take notes. Only little text such as page numbers should be placed in the margin (top outside, bottom outside, or bottom center). Two-column layout allows more readable text per page, but makes placing wide elements like figures or tables more complex. One-sided layout with page numbers at the bottom center is more robust if readers will likely print the document themselves and might not use duplexing or might print 2-on-1 (swapping left and right pages).

If not defined by a template, one easy way [ 33 ] to define page margins (cf. Fig 6A ) is to first determine how wide the text block needs to be to fit about 70 characters on average. The page is then divided into an n × n grid such that using 2 stripes of cells each as the left and right margins leaves the desired text width. One and 2 horizontal stripes are then used as the top and bottom margins, respectively. For 2-sided layout, each page should have only 1 stripe as the inner margin. In both cases, additional space for binding may need to be considered. For 12-point Cambria text on an A4-sized page, this construction results in n = 12 and margins of 35 mm, 25 mm, and 50 mm on the left/right, top, and bottom, respectively. In contrast, using a default setting of 1-inch margins for a letter-sized page containing 10-point Times New Roman text results in about 115 characters per line, too much for convenient reading.

(A) One way to construct page margins for 1-sided and 2-sided layouts, also considering the type of binding used (here: spiral binding with narrower inner margin—glue or sewn binding requires enlarging the inner margin). (B) Figures (or tables) are commonly placed at the top of a page (or on figure-only pages), but not in between the text. (C) Orphans and widows, single lines of text separated from the rest of their paragraph, should be avoided.

Besides the running text, documents contain “floating” objects like figures or tables. These also need to be placed on the pages, typically at the top or bottom or on figure-only pages, ideally close to where they are referenced; see Fig 6B . Placing figures inside the running text would interrupt reading and may cause distracting page breaks. Instead, presenting figures in a separate “thread” outside the continuous text also permits readers to just browse through the figures and quickly find what interests them.

Footnotes, as the name suggests, are placed at the bottom of the page where they are referenced (which, clearly, should be done automatically). Footnotes are useful for relevant information complementing the main text without interrupting its flow (e.g., translations), see below for an example. Sometimes (e.g., to make presentation slides self-contained), footnotes are also used for literature references.

When optimizing page breaks, no single lines should be separated from the rest of a paragraph; see Fig 6C . Such single lines at the bottom and top of a page are denoted as widows (“have no future”) and orphans (“have no past”), respectively [ 33 ]. (The previous sentence is an example where a footnote would make sense: This vivid terminology is also used in other languages, e.g., the German terms for widow and orphan are “Hurenkind” [politically correct translation: offspring of a person working in the world’s oldest profession] and “Schusterjunge” [shoemaker’s apprentice].)

Text processing/typesetting software can places figures and partially prevent orphans and widows automatically, but this may require additional fine-tuning. Tricks for optimizing page breaks include rephrasing the text to make a paragraph on the affected page 1 line longer or shorter; enlarging the page vertically or breaking the page a line earlier; and moving, enlarging, or shrinking figures.

Rule 6: Lists—Present some content in structured form

Not all textual information is best presented as complete sentences in continuous text. In particular, as few text as possible should be used on slides [ 22 , 23 ] and posters [ 24 , 25 ]. Also in longer written texts, some information is best presented in (sub-)structured lists, either unsorted (itemized/bulleted) or sorted (numbered) lists; see Fig 7 . The readability of lists may profit from manually optimizing line breaks, in particular on slides and posters.

(A) Hard-to-recognize list, (B) properly formatted unsorted list, and (C) properly formatted numbered list.

Numbered lists are most useful for step-by-step instructions or if some of the entries are referenced from elsewhere (“item 5c” is more convenient than “the third sub-item of the fifth item”). Other common types of structured lists are glossaries (alphabetically sorted definition of terms where readers should quickly find the term they are looking for) and bibliographies (which additionally require cross-referencing from the main text). Itemized and numbered lists should be formatted consistently, i.e., they should be entered as the appropriate type of list and not by manually entering bullets/numbers and indentation; see Fig 7 .

Particularly in bibliographies, it makes sense to conceptually distinguish content and layout. Here, the same information (author, title, journal, volume, year, etc.) should be printed in 1 consistent style (format, referencing from the text, and sorting). Using suitable reference management integrated with the text processing avoids manually formatting bibliographies.

Rule 7: Figures, plots, and tables—Do not neglect the text outside the continuous text

Typography is relevant not only for the continuous text, but also for text in figures, plots, and tables. Figures convey content in easy-to-grasp graphical form, and plots present data in visual form, whereas tables provide precise numbers. Creating high-quality and well-readable figures [ 28 , 34 – 39 ] can be challenging, but is worth spending effort; well-designed figures with self-contained captions telling the main story are a useful way of reaching hurried readers just browsing through your work [ 15 ] or starting reading by looking at figures [ 40 ]. In particular, a good graphical abstract [ 41 ] or concept figure [ 42 ] can attract readers (even though the impact on citations is unclear [ 43 ]).

Figures may contain different amounts of text that should be consistent with the main text not only in terminology, but also in terms of fonts and symbols. Figures are often created in separate software, so consistency may be challenging. However, the limited capability of software is not a convincing excuse for low-quality figures (cf. Fig 8A versus Fig 8B ), and malicious readers could interpret it as limited capability of the author.

(A) Poor-quality plot: numbers are hard to read, symbols are not displayed properly, and color provides no additional information (except that automatic spell checking marked part of the axis labels as wrong). (B) Same data, better plot quality. (C) Poor-quality table: excessive lines and hard-to-read numbers, even in the right-aligned column due to the footnote symbol and numerals of different width. (D) Same information, better table layout.

Table formatting includes proper column alignment. While text should be left-aligned in columns, numbers in columns can only be compared conveniently if printed right-aligned and written in numerals that are all of the same width (table figures). Tables should not include too many prominent lines to prevent the impression of a “prison cell” (cf. Fig 8C versus Fig 8D ). Instead, tables can be structured optically by moderate spacing, light shading of every other row, or light lines. Whitespace is useful for structuring contents [ 44 , 45 ], elsewhere as well, e.g., in figures and lists (cf. Rule 6).

Rule 8: Mathematical and chemical formulas—Do not let doubt enter the equation

Numbers should not only be correct, but should also be formatted appropriately. Numbers with more than 4 digits are grouped using commas between each group of 3 digits: 31,556,952. For decimal numbers, a period (“point”) is used as the decimal separator: 3.14. Following [ 10 ], ordinal numbers should be written as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, … without superscript letters. When reporting computer-generated results, notation like 5·10 −9 is easier to read than pasting 5e−9 verbatim (and shows that you know what the “e” stands for).

Formulas provide precise information in a very condensed form. They are difficult to get right in the first place, and incorrect typesetting can alter the meaning: consider, e.g., 2 3 = 8 versus 23, or the isotope 14 C versus 14 carbon atoms. Formulas are a particular example where correct typesetting is indispensable to show you understood what you have written. Shorter and simpler formulas can be included “inline” in the text ( Fig 9A and 9B ). In this case, font, font size, and the base line should match the surrounding text. More complex formulas, those to be cross-referenced by number or formulas too high to fit in the text without modified line spacing, are better written as displayed formulas ( Fig 9C and 9D ). From a grammar and punctuation perspective, also displayed formulas should be considered part of the sentences in the containing text. Depending on the text processing software used, formulas can be entered via math syntax or equation editors or (e.g., in case of complex chemical formulas) may need to be created in external software and imported as images.

(A versus B) Formulas in the text should use a font matching the text and match the baseline of the text. Mathematical variables should be typeset in italic, unlike text parts of formulas or certain functions. (C versus D) Similarly, displayed formulas should match the surrounding text and are easier to understand if properly aligned. (E) Chemical formulas include subscript and superscript indices around symbols for chemical elements.

In formulas, mathematical variables are commonly typeset in italic. However, mathematical functions like sin (sine), text (including, e.g., abbreviations in indices), units, chemical elements, and certain constants should not appear in italic ( Fig 9B, 9D, and 9E ). To make longer formulas easier to read, proper alignment and grouped brackets of matching size are helpful ( Fig 9D ).

Rule 9: Use templates and styles for automatic and consistent formatting

When writing texts, unfinished layout may distract from content and structure. However, these topics should be addressed and concentrated on first, see Rule 10. Using software like Microsoft Word, LibreOffice Writer, or Google Docs that uses the “what you see is what you get” principle, layout needs to be ignored actively, unless a structure view, disabled page preview, or similar is used. Writing text in markup languages (e.g., Markdown or LaTeX using “what you see is what you mean”) makes the separation of content/structure and format/layout easier, but requires more technological affinity.

Structure in texts should be defined by styles/macros declaring, e.g., a section heading as a “level 1 heading” rather than manually numbering it, formatting it to a specific font size in bold with additional line spacing, making sure it is not followed by a page break, etc.; see Fig 10 . Properly structuring in this way also permits automatically creating a table of contents, cross-referencing to section numbers without keeping them up to date manually, automatically using the same style, or conveniently switching the style if the template is changed. Similarly, figures and tables with captions should be included as such objects so that they can be positioned automatically at the top/bottom or on separate pages, again with the side effect of automatic numbering and cross-referencing.

(A versus B) Marking headings as the appropriate level of headings (instead of manually formatting it bold and larger) ensures consistent layout (Google Docs example). (C) Using automatically numbered headings and proper cross-references (rather than manually entering it) allows keeping them up to date automatically (Microsoft Word example). (D) Using a macro name indicating its purpose (rather than having to remember the formatting for a specific purpose) makes writing easier (LaTeX example).

Rule 10: Iterative writing and typesetting—Do first things first and last things last

Formatting manuscripts is an iterative process, just like writing the contents [ 12 , 16 ]. When drafting contents at an early stage of the writing process, it only makes sense to pay attention to typographic issues that will likely be missed or cause problems/increased efforts later. This includes proper structuring, cross-referencing, and using template styles/macros. When editing the text later on, effort should be invested in those parts to be kept in the final manuscript. Issues relevant at this stage include, e.g., the contents of proper formulas, tables, and figures. Only when the contents have been finalized, it makes sense to polish the layout by optimizing line or page breaks and figure placement. Prematurely polishing either language or layout of parts of text that are deleted later is wasted effort.

Solitary and collaborative [ 18 , 20 ] writing may use a different format/platform than the one used for formatting and finalizing the submission, e.g., one may collaborate via a Google Doc or via Markdown files in a Git repository followed by finalizing the layout in LibreOffice Writer or LaTeX. Moreover, input from one or different authors needs to be unified also on a technical level, regardless of the technical platform used. Enough time should be planned for the work needed to turn finalized content into a formatted document ready for submission.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the organizers of CdE-SommerAkademie 2017 and the participants of the “Getting Things Finished” workshop for providing an inspiring environment where he wrote a substantial part of this manuscript. Moreover, the author would like to acknowledge Simon Kempny for fruitful discussions about a draft of this manuscript.

Funding Statement

The author did not receive funding for preparing this manuscript.

Scientific Fonts: How to Select the Right One

Choosing the right font for the right kind of content is imperative, this article will aid your decision when it comes to scientific fonts.

It can be very difficult to choose the ideal font for a project, as any graphics designer could confirm. Deciding the font becomes more important when you anticipate its extensive and frequent usage.

It’s an essential part of typography , which is the art of making your design appear visually cohesive. A font group’s general design usually kicks off the search, but with a little digging, you can find yourself in the creator’s most detailed selection.

There are a number of research studies that have focused on typography to discover some good grounds for selecting a particular font for a particular project category.

It is also best to pick a professional font that is easy to read without many extraneous features.

Scientific research, for example, should be written in such a manner that the reader focuses on the information, not just the format.

Some people find today’s scientific fonts boring and overdone. Because of their legibility and simplicity, these fonts are everywhere. Use a trusted font to make your work appear professional.

In terms of font selection, there are more considerations than seem to be apparent at first glance. For instance, some fonts have a reputation for being legitimate, while others don’t.

We have a handful of scientific findings to share throughout this article in the hopes that they will aid your decision-making when it comes to scientific fonts.

If you have ever found the choice of fonts intimidating, the purpose of this article is to offer guidance and information to help you make a decision.

What is the importance of Fonts?

When a typeface is carefully chosen, it is able to deliver the desired effect to the reader, and give the words the sense of life they deserve, all the while reflecting the field it represents.

The font represents the words on a page visually instead of an image, allowing the words to convey their intended meanings as they are read. A font that is too large or small may not convey the seriousness of some issues or messages.

What is the most recent time that you wrote a text or sent an email and the words were read incorrectly? We can communicate more effectively using our vocal tonality, simple hand gestures and expressions, we can convey our message more effectively than simple words on a paper.

On fancy documents such as invitations, using a script font can be spectacular, but on children’s books it can look off, and in the event of too much text it may not be readable.

As you can see, choosing the right font for the right kind of content is very important. However, using the right font is only part of the equation. Misleading fonts result in incorrect information.

7 fonts that strengthen scientific research’s credibility and professional appearance

In recent years, fonts.com has reported that Arial is among the most used typefaces. With its distinctly contemporary design, Arial is more in sync with the last decade of the twentieth century than many of its predecessors.

There is no horizontal line at the bottom of the edges of Arial letters. They are angled instead. It helps give the face a more organic appearance by cutting the terminals on a diagonal.

The Arial family of typefaces is incredibly robust. Suitable for setting text for reports, articles, publications, and for use in display media, newspapers, and promotional materials.

Whether you’re writing small or large chunks of text, Arial makes reading easy. Figures should be formatted in Arial or Helvetica as per Nature’s instructions.

Labels and legends in particular benefit from this typeface. As a rule of thumb, keep font sizes small *8 points when using Arial for figure legends.

2. Baskerville

Designed by John Baskerville in 1757, Baskerville is a typeface that can be read easily and looks good in print.  The letters were straightforward and elegant according to Baskerville.

Here and there, Baskerville font was found to increase reliability of text in comparison to other fonts. The readers’ behavior on the same study was most negatively influenced by Comic Sans.

The Baskerville family of fonts are known as the first transitional roman. These fonts distinguish between thin and thick strokes. The large size of Baskerville looks good because of this feature.

Based on its serif style, Baskerville has “tails” on the edges of its letters. This font is best suited for printing. For long text blocks, it is most suitable.

For best results, try to keep the font size between 8 and 14 points. Then your text will look more professional.

3. Helvetica

The most commonly used font is Helvetica. Max Miedinger, a Swiss designer, initially created Helvetica in 1957.

Designed to be simple to read, the font immediately gained popularity. It is named after the Latin term for Switzerland, Helvetia. Neue Helvetica is the name of the newer version of the font, which was introduced in 1983.

Even a movie has been made about Helvetica. Helvetica is not only a Hollywood (Indie) font, it looks fantastic on screen and print. 

Science, Nature, and Cell ask for the figure captions to be in Helvetica.  Even though it looks good when printed in small formats, it looks even better when printed in large formats.

It’s hard for authors to keep track of how many figures they’ve labelled with Helvetica now, since that’s what publishers use.

In spite of Georgia’s role in providing clarity at low resolutions on the screen, it is imbued with a typographic aesthetic that strikes a chord with readers.

This friendly face is evident even at small sizes. A stunning, smooth italic accompanies Georgia’s design; the artwork minimizes the complexity of making a screen-friendly italic.

As opposed to many contemporary typefaces, it has authentic italics, including the slender lowercase letters a and g.

The bold weight is also carefully tailored, with a heavier weight than the regular; this is particularly useful at small screen sizes where the two weights must be distinguished(phone screens).

5. Garamond

The history of this font also dates back a long way. French King Francis I of France (1515-1547) commissioned Claude Garamond to design a typeface for use in a series of books.

It was revived by Robert Slimbach in 1989 as an electric typeface. Garamond comes in many different variations because there are different sources available. The most commonly used version is Adobe Garamond.

French publishers continue to use Garamond extensively. Size 9 is also a must for Garamond in France.  The history of France’s publishing industry is published in Garamond, as is Histoire de l’édition française . 

This font was chosen due to its elegance, opulence, and legibility as well as a simple layout highlighting the detailed writing and offer an enlightened insight on the contemporary aspect of the content.

In long documents such as thesis papers, dissertations, and academic books, Garamond is a reliable font to use. Garamond is the font that many master’s thesis writers use.

Among the long-established fonts is Caslon. The typeface was designed in the early 1700s by William Caslon. English typefaces began with this one. It was a common font used in colonial America, and even the US Declaration of Independence was written with this font.

Because there is no enforceable trademark on the name “Caslon”, there are many typefaces called “Caslon”, some of which are exact copies of the originals, while others are not.

It is best used in blocks of text since it is a serif font (with tails). If you want best results, keep the font size between 8 and 14 points, as you would with Baskerville. The best place to make use of this would be in an application or a report.

7. Times New Roman

First published by The Times of London newspaper in 1932, this typeface was designed for the publication.

In the years since, it has evolved into one of the most popular typefaces in the world. Victor Lardent at The Times created the original designs under the direction of Stanley Morison.

Monotype’s Type Drawing Office then further refined it in an extensive step-by-step process. Many of its characteristics were taken from Morison’s experiments with Perpetua and Plantin, but it was adapted so that it was highly readable and also very efficient.

There are vast uses for it in books and journals, in reports, in presentations, and in advertising.

Is there anything else you need to think about when selecting the right font?

When choosing a font, there are a number of things to keep in mind besides these categories. For example, does it have all the features you are looking for?

You may be able to get away with just using the letters of the alphabet for the first piece, but what if you have to write a quick article for the public?

Are there symbols such as a currency symbol or exclamation point in the text? Especially when you are submitting a funding proposal. (Read our guide to everything you need to know about Research Proposals .)

Every once in a while, we find ourselves trying to add a price but the symbol we need isn’t there.

As well as the font size, there are other considerations, such as does it come in many sizes and styles or are only light, regular and bold available?

If you don’t have a lot of specifics, that’s alright, but you should take into account a broader perspective and what you intend to accomplish.

When it comes to communicating your message, different font sizes can be really helpful. Despite the fact that it’s good to have different typefaces, there is a rule that suggests only using a maximum of three typefaces in one contribution.

If you use any more than that, you risk-taking away the emphasis of what is being said. Complementary fonts are important, but they shouldn’t be too similar as this could result in a cluttered look that could be confusing.

Lastly, when picking a font, we should consider the print aspects to ensure it will be easy to read. These factors include colour, size, and style. The most decorative script fonts may look good, but they aren’t always a good option.

Hence, make sure to put into consideration every possible aspect of the information that may be published around the world through various mediums.

How to use Scientific fonts?

A reader’s primary objective should be to understand the facts about your project clearly. An easy-to-read document will help you achieve that goal.

The editors of newspapers, as well as publishers of journals, have developed many guidelines to make text more readable. These guidelines are now available for scientific purposes.

• Keep the main body text font size at least 16 points . Any smaller would make the text difficult to read.
• A project title should have a minimum height of 2 inches.
• It is recommended that headlines have at least one inch tall letters .
• If you want to stay with the norm, use Arial , Times New Roman , or another typeface similar to these.
• If you intend to draw attention to anything, use italics or boldface .
• Place your text below your picture ; that makes it easier to read.
• Please refrain from using ALL CAPS ; they can be difficult to perceive.
• You should not use reverse typeface (light text on dark background).
• If you type in a script font, avoid using artistic fonts , since they are harder to follow.
• You can choose between Serif or Sans Serif depending on the medium or the audience you will be addressing to.
• Your poster or paper should not contain more than two or three contrasting fonts .
• For body copy and headings, Time New Roman and Arial combine nicely.

Please note that every journal or publication house has different guidelines based on how they handle submissions, so make sure you check them.

It is also important to consider the medium on which the text will appear when choosing a font. Posters will need to have better fonts that appear decent when printed.

Selecting the wrong font can negatively affect future decision-making. It is important to remember that the typeface that you select to present your research or information will have a major impact on its effectiveness.

Make sure you make the right choice because it will leave a meaningful impression on the reader. (You can learn how to create an outstanding presentation that will leave the audience impressed, here )

Fonts for scientific illustrations and infographics

Infographics, or informational graphics, are a growing trend in data presentation. This style of presentation allows you to convey your message quickly and easily.

In order to make complex topics understandable, illustrations are extremely useful. A good font is essential no matter what.(See our guide to scientific illustrations )

Your choice of font is as important as the research itself when it comes to presenting it. (In most cases.) Generally, book, journal, and newspaper fonts are serif fonts, which are characterized by small lines at the end of each stroke.

The vast majority of online content uses sans serif fonts. Serif fonts make it easier for readers to follow lines of text, which is certainly useful when designing illustrations or use the infographic maker.

The best typeface for graphic design is sans serif. Arial, Calibri, Helvetica, Verdana, and open sans, which are readily available, improve content legibility significantly.

If you understand how certain font choices affect the composition of your content, deciding on a family of fonts and a typography scheme becomes much more straightforward.

As you become more familiar with the values, tone, and vision of the work, you will begin to can identify what works. It is possible to convey your ideas in a non-verbal and yet powerful way, using fonts.

Now that we have reached our final section, you should also know where to find all the fonts in one place.

You can find all the best science fonts for graphic design at one place

We at mind the graph understand the importance of typography and how it plays an integral part in representation of scientific ideas. Mind the graph, the most user-friendly tool.

Scientists and academicians from over 100 top academic, educational, and industrial institutions trust Mind the Graph. This is why everything is up-to-date and scientifically sound.

You will find all the A to Z fonts you need for all things scientific here. Besides that, we also suggest fonts that are appropriate for your content type. You can choose from the list we have.

Furthermore, we have many templates to assist in the creation of posters and graphics. Additionally, they can be customized according to your needs. However, guess what is even better than that? We offer a FREE trial, so you can decide what plan fits you best. 

When you join, you join us in our mission to increase easy access to the best science tool for as many people as possible. Our blog section has a variety of information about everything from making Science posters to a list of the best science podcasts of 2022, definitely worth checking out.

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About Fabricio Pamplona

Fabricio Pamplona is the founder of Mind the Graph - a tool used by over 400K users in 60 countries. He has a Ph.D. and solid scientific background in Psychopharmacology and experience as a Guest Researcher at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry (Germany) and Researcher in D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR, Brazil). Fabricio holds over 2500 citations in Google Scholar. He has 10 years of experience in small innovative businesses, with relevant experience in product design and innovation management. Connect with him on LinkedIn - Fabricio Pamplona .

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What font should I choose for my thesis?

This post is by DrJanene Carey, a freelance writer and editor based in Armidale NSW. She occasionally teaches academic writing at the University of New England and often edits academic theses, articles and reports. Her website is http://www.janenecarey.com

Arguably, this question is a classic time waster and the student who poses it should be told to just get on with writing up their research. But as someone who edits theses for a living, I think a bit of time spent on fonts is part of the process of buffing and polishing what is, after all, one of the most important documents you will ever produce. Just bear in mind that there is no need to immerse yourself so deeply in the topic that you start quibbling about whether it’s a font or a typeface that you are choosing .

Times New Roman is the standard choice for academic documents, and the thesis preparation guidelines of some universities stipulate its use. For many years, it was the default body text for Microsoft Word. With the release of Office 2007, the default became a sans serif typeface called Calibri. Lacking the little projecting bits (serifs) at the end of characters makes Calibri and its many friends, such as Arial, Helvetica and Verdana, look smoother and clearer on a screen, but generally makes them less readable than a serif typeface when used for printed text . The other problem with choosing a sans serif for your body text is that if you want passages in italics (for example, lengthy participant quotes) often this will be displayed as slanted letters, rather than as a true italic font.

You would like your examiners to feel as comfortable as possible while their eyes are traversing the many, many pages of your thesis, so maximising legibility and readability is a good idea. Times New Roman is ubiquitous and familiar, which means it is probably the safest option, but it does have a couple of drawbacks. Originally designed for The Times in London, its characters are slightly narrowed, so that more of them can be squished into a newspaper column. Secondly, some people intensely dislike TNR because they think it has been overused, and regard it as the font you choose when you are not choosing a font .

If you do have the luxury of choice (your university doesn’t insist you use Times New Roman, and you have defined document styles that are easy to modify, and there’s enough time left before the submission deadline) then I think it is worth considering what other typefaces might work well with your thesis. I’m not a typographical expert, but I have the following suggestions.

• Don’t use Calibri, or any other sans serif font, for your body text, though it is fine for headings. Most people agree that dense chunks of printed text are easier to read if the font is serif, and examiners are likely to expect a typeface that doesn’t stray too far from the standard. To my eye, Calibri looks a little too casual for the body of a thesis.
• Typefaces like Garamond, Palatino, Century Schoolbook, Georgia, Minion Pro, Cambria and Constantia are all perfectly acceptable, and they come with Microsoft Word. However, some of them (Georgia and Constantia, for example) feature non-lining numerals, which means that instead of all sitting neatly on the base line, some will stand higher or lower than others, just like letters do. This looks nice when they are integrated with the text, but it is probably not what you want for a tabular display.
• Consider using a different typeface for your headings. It will make them more prominent, which enhances overall readability because the eye scanning the pages can quickly take in the hierarchy of ideas. The easiest way to get a good contrast with your serif body text is to have sans serif headings. Popular combinations are Garamond/Helvetica; Minion Pro/Myriad Pro; Times New Roman/Arial Narrow. But don’t create a dog’s breakfast by having more than two typefaces in your thesis – use point sizes, bold and italics for variety.

Of late, I’ve become quite fond of Constantia. It’s an attractive serif typeface that came out with Office 2007 at the same time as Calibri, and was specifically designed to look good in print and on screen. Increasingly, theses will be read in PDF rather than book format, so screen readability is an important consideration.  Asked to review Microsoft’s six new ClearType fonts prior to their release, typographer Raph Levien said Constantia was likely to be everyone’s favourite, because ‘Even though it’s a highly readable Roman font departing only slightly from the classical model, it still manages to be fresh and new.’

By default, Constantia has non-lining numerals, but from Word 2010 onwards you can set them to be lining via the advanced font/number forms option, either throughout your document or in specific sections, such as within tables.

Here is an excerpt from a thesis, shown twice with different typefaces. The first excerpt features Calibri headings with Constantia body text, and the second has that old favourite, Times New Roman. As these examples have been rendered as screenshots, you will get a better idea of how the fonts actually look if you try them on your own computer and printer.

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14 Best Fonts For Reports and Papers

Isometric illustration kit – People By  Formfrom

#ezw_tco-2 .ez-toc-title{ font-size: 120%; ; ; } #ezw_tco-2 .ez-toc-widget-container ul.ez-toc-list li.active{ background-color: #ededed; } Contents

When it comes to creating reports or papers, the font is usually the last thing on everyone’s minds. But did you know that choosing the right font can help make or break the experience of your reader? 

With a little help from Creative Market, you’ll be able to veer away from that boring Word format and give your reports a more creative and professional look! 

How to Choose the Best Font for Papers and Reports

So you have your paper and now you’re just looking for the perfect typeface to use. Here are some tips to help you choose the best font for reports and papers!

Research Fonts Used in Other Academic Papers and Reports

When looking for the best font to use for yours, it’s good to read other papers and reports to see if a standard font is used. Another route you can take is to check out Creative Market report templates for inspiration. For example, if you’re looking for a font to use for an annual report, you can check out the Creative Market blog to see what fonts can be used when you create your own report.

Best Fonts for Essays and Reports: Serif or Sans-Serif?

When determining whether to use a serif or a sans serif font for your report, it all boils down to the formality and where it will be published. The casual nature of sans serif fonts works for informal reports, while the elegance of serif fonts works for more formal academic papers. If we’re considering where it will be published, it is generally recommended to use a sans serif because it’s more legible and less tiring to read on a computer screen. 

For most reports and papers, no matter where they are published, what works is a combination of serif and sans serif fonts in one document. One style usually works for headings or block quotes, while the other can work for the main body of text. 

Considerations When Choosing a Font for Papers and Reports

Content. Before choosing the best font for your paper or report, have a clear idea of the content. If your document will contain several words in another language, consider getting a font with multi-language support. 

Tone. Does your paper have a formal tone or is it going to be more casual and conversational? Knowing this will help you determine whether you should go for a serif or sans-serif typeface. 

Readability. Last but not least, can your font be easily read? With a legible font, you’re giving your audience a seamless reading experience, helping them easily understand and digest your content. 

Best Fonts for Essays and Reports

With thousands of fonts available on Creative Market, it’s easy to get intimidated. That’s why we’ve rounded up the 14 best fonts you can use for your papers and reports: 

Barnaby is a text serif that works beautifully as body text. Designed to be used at a smaller scale, this particular font works well whether you’re submitting your paper digitally or in print. The availability of two weights makes it a great font choice for both headings and body text, perfect for reports that also serve as legal documents. 

2. Artifex CF

Artifex CF is a professional font that’s easy on the eyes whether read on paper or on screen. This typeface made up of 16 font styles is a great font choice for formal papers on language and anthropology because of the wide language coverage of this typeface. 

3. Albra Text

Albra Text is a serif font that is designed to work well in smaller sizes, making this an excellent font choice to give your academic papers a professional feel. With six font styles and wide language support, this typeface will definitely boost the credibility of your paper.

4. Laca Text

Laca Text is sans serif version of the Laca typeface, a cleaner version that works well rendered in smaller sizes. Because of its very straightforward look, this versatile typeface is great for use in reports, working for both formal and informal settings. 

Texta is a contemporary and versatile typeface that can be used for different types of papers or reports. With over 32 font styles, Texta is truly “a sans for all” that functions at any font size, and works well whether you’re using it for creative reports or dissertation papers.  

6. Famba 

Famba is a set of modern sans serif fonts in six styles. It’s worth noting that the letterforms in this typeface are specifically designed for accessibility and legibility, taking into account the problematic letterforms confused by the general public and children, as well as dyslexic, visually-impaired, and aging individuals. This readable typeface works well for papers and reports whether they are viewed on printed materials or through computer screens. 

7. Chesna Grotesk 

Chesna Grotesk is a geometric sans serif font with 20 styles. Inspired by typefaces Avenir, Futura, and Circular, Chesna Grotesk is an easily readable typeface and works for research papers. This is a particularly great font choice for documents with pages heavy on numbers and diagrams, with the typeface also featuring fractions, tabular numbers, and arrows. 

Quilty is a beautiful serif with 14 font styles. The letters of this typeface work beautifully in text-heavy papers and can work well for documents with large blocks of text (like blockquotes!) jumping out of the page.

Autor is a set of sans serifs with a clean and sharp look. Created for editorials and body text, this typeface is a great font choice for papers and reports that utilize varying headers and titles.

10. Maine 

Maine is a modernized version of the classic Book Antiqua serif, with 12 font styles. A set of professional fonts ranging from light to extra bold, this typeface works especially well for the body text of formal academic papers that require a professional and dignified look.

11. Neftalí Pro

The award-winning Neftalí typeface is designed specifically for reading long texts, making this a great font choice for lengthy papers and reports. With 12 font styles to choose from, this typeface is a meticulously-designed font that experiments with Baroque and Roman styles and infuses calligraphic details. Neftalí works especially well for papers and reports with translations because of its language support with its delicately-designed glyphs. 

Macaw is a set of modern roman serifs rooted in classical typography. The regular style contrasts if this set of fonts makes it a great choice for papers and reports because its design takes inspiration from the Italian newspaper market at the beginning of the 20th century when roman typography was predominant. These typefaces can be used whether your paper is meant for print or on-screen reading, and is easily adaptable to preserve readability and versatility.

Gelion is a typeface with 14 font styles. Its clean look is inspired by the forms of classic fonts like Futura, Avenir, and Akzidenz-Grotesk that have a gracefully geometric look. This legible typeface is a great choice when used at standard point size for any type of essay.

14. Config 

Config is a condensed geometric sans serif family with 40 fonts that can be used for both formal academic papers and creative reports. Because of its style and versatility, this typeface works especially well for academic papers that require a lot of formatting. 

Whether you’re creating an academic paper for peer review or drafting a creative annual report, it’s important to select a font that matches the tone and content of your paper. More importantly, select a typeface that is readable so your audience can focus on the content. At the end of the day, documents that are hard to read can be off-putting for your potential reader! 

With Creative Market, you have more than 11,000 typefaces to choose from when selecting a font that you can use for large bodies of text , like those seen in reports or papers. If you’re going a more creative route, Creative Market even has report templates that you can use anytime.

Elevate your usual Microsoft Word format and sign up on Creative Market to communicate your ideas more creatively and effectively! 

Download these worksheets and start practicing with simple instructions and tracing exercises.

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What are the recommended fonts for a scientific research paper?

When it comes to choosing fonts for a scientific research paper, it is important to prioritize readability and professionalism. Here are some recommended fonts that are commonly used in scientific research papers:

Arial: Arial is a widely used font that is known for its readability. It is easy to read in both small and large blocks of text. Nature, a prominent scientific journal, requests that figure text be in Arial or Helvetica [1] . Arial is especially suitable for figure labels and legends, and a font size of around 8 points is recommended for best results.

Helvetica: Helvetica is another popular font that is widely used in scientific research. It is known for its versatility and readability. Nature, Science, and Cell, among others, request that their figure labels be in Helvetica [1] . Helvetica looks great both in print and on screen, making it a suitable choice for various purposes.

Baskerville: Baskerville is a serif font that has a long history and is known for its positive influence on readers. Some informal studies have shown that using Baskerville font can increase the trustworthiness of the text compared to other fonts [1] . Serif fonts, like Baskerville, are generally better suited for print. This font works best when used in long blocks of text, and a font size between 8 and 14 points is recommended for optimal results.

Caslon: Caslon is another serif font that has a long history and is considered the first original typeface from England. It was widely used in colonial America and even appeared in historical documents such as the US Declaration of Independence. Caslon is best used in blocks of text, and a font size between 8 and 14 points is recommended for optimal results.

Garamond: Garamond is a classic font with a rich history. It was originally designed in the 16th century and has been revived in various forms since then. Garamond is often used extensively by French publishers and is considered a great font for long texts such as textbooks, dissertations, and theses [1] . The font size can vary, but some French publishers prefer Garamond to be printed in size 9.

It's important to note that different journals and conferences may have their own specific font requirements, so it's always a good idea to check the guidelines provided by the target publication or conference.

Learn more:

• 5 fonts that add credibility and professionalism to scientific research | |Studio Kayama|
• publications - What is the standard/recommended font to use in papers? - Academia Stack Exchange
• Scientific fonts: How to select the right one for your work

Continue the conversation

Explore more.

Fonts for Professional and Credible Scientific Research

No matter if you are a writer, or a scientist writing your research reports, choosing the correct fonts is important, as it can give you more credible looks in your scientific research reports, your thesis, and your article’s writing. The best font for movie or website might not be the best for scientific reports, hence, there are always the correct fonts for the correct situations.

If you want to know more about the fonts used, and the recommendations for the use of fonts for every situation, design, and writing, then you have come to the right place. Here, we can give you many recommendations not just for writing a thesis, or professional writing, but we also provide our selections for the best font for movie, website design, or T-shirt logo design.

When choosing the correct fonts for a professional research report, you need to consider a few things, such as the readability, legibility, and credibility of the fonts you choose. To get you better idea of how to choose the correct fonts to give your research more credibility, and readability, read our article here.

Why is it important to use proper fonts?

To put it simply, imagine that you have written your scientific masterpiece, you compile your research result carefully, creating smooth and organized contents in your writings, and edited your manuscript to each letter, and number, however, your images, and figures are used cartoonish flip-flops of fonts? This is why proper fonts are always needed to bring out more legibility and credibility of the research.

Choosing the correct fonts for your scientific manuscript

Here are 4 notable fonts that give your paper more professionalism and credibility:

Arial is one of the most common, and most used typefaces in the last decades, and its origin has been known from the IBM laser-xerographic printers. This font was supposed to compete with Helvetica as one of the most prominent, and core fonts for IBM computers, and Apple computers.

Arial is one of the most common, and prominent typefaces, that can be used as standard research fonts. It is also standard font for website articles and online research papers. The design for this font is thin, with rounded edges, and a sharp tone.

Helvetica has been one of the most prominent competitors for Arial fonts. If Arial was developed by IBM, Helvetica was developed by Apple. inc. Helvetica was designed by Swiss designer, Max Miedinger, and it was designed as an easy-to-read font. Unique facts, the name Helvetica comes from the word “Helvetia” a Latin word for Switzerland.

Helvetica looks great for printing and also gives you professional looks for the research paper. It is also widely used by many university papers as their common standard font. Helvetica along with Arial has been the most common fonts to use for proper research papers.

When in doubt about what fonts to use, choose Caslon. Caslon was designed by William Caslon, as a common typeface to use in England. It is then very popular as the typeface for newspapers, magazines, and research papers. Caslon was popular in the Colonial America era, and when they gain independence, Caslon has even used in the US declaration of independence.

Caslon is one of the most commonly used serif fonts, and it is used commonly in the body of text. Along with other fonts like Baskerville, it is best to use this font in around the size of 8 to 14 and become one of  best font for movie.

• Baskerville

Baskerville has had a long history since 1757. It was designed by John Baskerville as a typeface that is a standard, easy-to-read font. It has simple letters, yet a refined style. It is now widely regarded as a classic font with the roots of the classic England era.

There was even a study that stated that using Baskerville fonts will give out more positivity, increase the trustworthiness of the text, and bring out more legibility, and credibility to the text. These are the perfect fonts to use when you are looking for research fonts for your papers.

That’s it on our guide on how to choose professional fonts to make your research reports way more credible, and looks professional. These are important things to know, as they can give your research more credibility, and professionalism, and avoid critics regarding the writing of your research. See also our other article for the best font for movie and web design.

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• Mar 9, 2021

Which Fonts to Use on Your Scientific Poster

Choosing the right font (A.K.A. typeface) for your scientific poster is all about two things: readability and style.

But with thousands of fonts to choose from, it can be overwhelming.

So where do you start? You’ve come to the right place.

Here is what you need to know to choose a clear and stylish font for your scientific poster.

Serif or sans serif?

A serif font is one with those little bits on the end of the characters, the little moustaches. And, like a moustache, those little bits are just for style - they might be cool, but they’re not necessary.

What’s more, a serif font tends to give off a sophisticated, yet dated, vibe. As you want to your poster to reflect the innovative and contemporary research you’re conducting, it’s a good idea to stay away from serif fonts.

You need a font that is without serif, that’s sans serif. We recommend downloading your next favourite Sans Serifs fonts at Creative Fabrica . 👈

How many fonts?

Like so much of good design: less is more.

One or two fonts is all you need. If you have more fonts than this, your poster will look like a ransom note received in the mail.

As you know, it’s a good idea to make the headers clearly visible so help the viewer navigate the poster.

You can do this by making the headings bold or ALL CAPS. If you like the look of all caps, I strongly recommend against using any long headings. Long chucks of all caps is very difficult to read. So keep your headings short.

Decorative fonts

Look, I get it. You found the Disney font and you want to use it on your poster. A decorative font may be tempting, but it’s just not helpful - they’re very rarely easier to read than the standard sans serif fonts available. Take a look below to see what I mean.

Comic Sans?

Comic Sans is a sans serif font, it’s also fun - can we use it on our scientific posters?

Every time a scientist uses Comic Sans a graphic designer dies

BUT there is one exception. That is if your poster IS a comic!

If that’s the case, go for it! In this context Comic Sans is perfect and it would almost be a crime not to use it. Here’s a comic-style graphical abstract that is a perfect partner for the much maligned Comic Sans.

Bigger is better. At Animate Your Science, we believe posters are best served as a visual representation of your abstract. It’s about starting a conversation and that’s it - the rest is up to you.

So a poster with few elements, that can be seen from across the room, is perfect.

For this we recommend the following font sizes as a minimum for your text (based on an A0 size):

Headers : 40

Body text : 36

Your body text should be easily readable from 1 metre away.

To check that you have the right sizes, I suggest zooming in on your poster to 100 %. Then, take a step back to a metre or so. If you can clearly read the body text, then at a minimum, your text is big enough. You can use the same technique to test the sizes of your headers and title too.

Some suitable fonts

You have plenty of fonts to choose from. You’re not even limited to those default fonts installed on your computer. Check out Font Squirrel , Dafont , and 1001freefonts where you can download some new fonts for free.

For some ideas, check out these fonts:

That’s plenty of info dedicated to fonts for your scientific poster, so thanks for hanging in there with me.

But, we’ve only just scratched the surface on what makes a great scientific poster.

To properly cover this topic, we’ve developed a whole online course: How to Design an Award-Winning Scientific Poster. You can learn at your own pace and arm yourself with the tools, templates, skills and knowledge to create your own award-winning scientific posters. We’ve had excellent feedback on the 33 video lessons, 3 hours of learning and 8 templates & downloads included - so we’re confident that you’ll love it too.

Take-Away Points

One or two fonts

Sans serif is your friend

Make it large enough to be easily readable

Dr Tullio Rossi

Dr Flynn Slattery

#scicomm #poster #science

Related Posts

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How to make scientific figures for publication: A 10-step guide

Depending on your graphic design skills, perfectionism level, and available time, making scientific figures for publication could take as long as, or longer than, writing your research paper.

To save time, you might want to recycle and reuse some of the images you made for a poster or PowerPoint presentation. But tweaking them to fit the journal can be time-consuming. That’s why it’s often best to make graphics for research papers from scratch so you have publication-quality images.

Learn how to make scientific figures for publication in an effective way.

How to make scientific figures for publication in 10 steps

A good way to prepare figures for manuscripts starts with defining the purpose of your graphics and ends with proofreading the text in the figure. Here I explain these and all the other steps in between, to give you some direction.

1. What’s the aim of the figure?

Before you even open your graphics software, you need to decide what you want the image to tell the reader. A figure is a statement that uses visual symbols—lines, colors, shapes, numbers, words—to tell a story.

So, what’s the story you want the figure to tell?

Write down the answer. Then, take a minute to consider whether the reader will understand your argument better as an image than as text. If the answer is yes, go ahead to step 2.

2. Select the essential info for manuscript figures

The next step is selecting the information you need to include in your figure.

The reader expects to take in almost all the information in a figure at a glance. So, select only what you need to prove your point. You can add more details in the appendix or supplemental data of your scientific paper.

Consider the information in all parts of the figure. Think about the labels, text, and caption. Use descriptive captions and titles, but keep them as concise as possible. The title helps the reader identify a figure. The caption explains what’s in the figure.

Resist the urge to tell your readers what they don’t need to know. Cut “ chartjunk ” and keep captions simple to make good scientific figures.

3. Choose the type of figure for your scientific manuscript: line art vs. image

Compare the various types of figures and decide which one serves your purpose best.

Many journals classify figures into two major types: line art and images. Line art includes graphs, charts (bar charts, pie charts, flowcharts, etc.), and diagrams (like logical trees), among others. Images include photos, drawings, and graphical representations other than line art.

Choose one type of figure or a combination of more types. For example, in geology a combination of field photographs and line drawings is very useful.

4. Put pencil to paper and make a sketch

Forget software for now. Instead, make a sketch on paper. Even if you have no drawing skills, your paper sketch will likely save you precious hours tweaking a digital image.

Once you’ve got a sketch, think about your aim again. Is the image effective in telling your story (see step 1)? At this point, it’s wise to ask a colleague’s opinion. Get feedback and use it to improve your sketch.

5. Choose the graphics software for preparing manuscript figures

You’re now ready to choose the software for your manuscript figures. You might already have a graphic design program installed on your work computer. Or you might prefer to use open-source graphic design software so you can install it on your home computer as well.

Here’s how to make scientific figures for publication when you’re short on time: use the software you’re comfortable with and already know how to use. Learning how to use new graphic design tools while preparing figures for manuscripts can make this task take forever. For example, I used CorelDRAW for my whole time in academia just because it was the first graphics software I learned to use. It wasn’t as advanced as Adobe Photoshop or Illustrator, but it did the trick.

6. Understand the basics of graphic design

Any graphics software will do the bulk of the work for you. But you still have to know the basics of graphic design to make scientific figures for publication. Two of the concepts you need to understand are image quality and color mode.

Raster vs. vector graphs

Image quality depends on the type of graphs: raster or vector.

Raster graphs store information as pixels. When you zoom in, your figure loses quality. An example of a raster graph is a TIFF file. Vector graphs store information as objects. When you zoom in, the quality remains the same. An example of a vector graph is a PDF image.

Should you use raster or vector graphs for scientific figures? It depends on the type of figures you will need for your manuscript. Use raster graphs (TIFF, PNG, EPS, JPG) for images with no text or graphs. Use PDF or EPS for line art (for example, diagrams).

CMYK vs. RGB

The second concept is color mode. Color images can be one of two modes: CMYK or RGB. CMYK images look best on paper; RGB images look best on screen.

Submit RGB files to journals, unless they ask for CMYK. If the journal has a print version as well as an online edition, the journal’s designers will convert your RGB images to CMYK once your paper is accepted.

You’ll be able to choose the color mode when you save the file in your graphic design program.

7. Check the details (file type, resolution, size, etc.) of your manuscript figures

In a figure with the right size and resolution all the symbols are legible, whether you look at the figure on paper or on screen.

In general, reputed journals have detailed guidelines on how to make scientific figures for publication. If you don’t have detailed guidelines, choosing the figure size for manuscripts can be a hassle. Deciding the best letter font and size for figures can also make you waste time. The following tips can help you prepare the figures for your research paper:

Manuscript figure font size and type

• Use standard sans serif fonts for text. Examples are Arial, Helvetica, and Calibri.
• All words and other symbols should be large enough to be legible. In general, this means you need a font size of at least 8 points.
• Ensure the font typeface, as well as its size, is consistent across figures.

Manuscript figure resolution

• The minimum resolution for line art should be 1000–1200 dpi.
• Figure resolution should be around 300 dpi for color images and 600 dpi for grayscale images.
• For manuscript figures that combine photos with line art, aim for around 600 dpi.

Figure size for scientific publications

• The canvas width for small figures (half page width) should be at least 8 cm.
• The canvas width for large figures (whole page width) should be 17–18 cm.
• The maximum height for the figure and its caption should be 22.5 cm.

Graphic files can become behemoths very fast. Working with huge files doesn’t just lead to your program crashing or becoming very slow. It can also make it impossible to upload the file to the journal’s system when you submit your manuscript. So, learn how to reduce manuscript figure size in your graphics software. As a rule of thumb, aim for up to 10 MB per figure.

Manuscript file format for images

• If you have vector figures, save them as PDF. It usually takes less space than an EPS file.
• Save TIFF files with LZW compression, because it doesn’t affect image quality.
• Save JPEG files with the maximum quality your software allows.

8. Avoid image manipulation

Most scientific journals emphasize that authors need to keep image manipulation techniques to a minimum. For example, Nature says, “the final image must correctly represent the original data and conform to community standards.”

Some degree of graphic editing is usually acceptable (for example, if applied uniformly across the whole image, such as making the image brighter or dimmer). But excessive “Photoshopping” of manuscript images can misrepresent the information.

Journals may also ask for a copy of the original image, so keep the unaltered figure in a separate file.

9. Secure permission to borrow images from other publications

If you want to use some images from other publications in your manuscript, you must get permission from the copyright holder. This is your responsibility, not the publisher’s. Many journals say, “Permission should be indicated in the figure legend, and the original source included in the reference list.”

Here you can find more information about permissions to use figures in scientific papers:

• Fair use copyright in the United States
• Fair use copyright in Canada
• Fair use copyright in Australia
• Creative Commons and copyright

10. Proofread the figures in your scientific manuscript

You’ve finished the figures for your manuscript and are ready to upload them to the journal’s online editorial manager. Don’t skip the last step of this guide on how to make scientific figures for publication: proofreading the text in the figures.

Don’t rely on the graphics software’s spell-checker . Check the text yourself, or ask someone to proofread it for you.

It’s easy for authors to forget about checking the text in manuscript figures. And that’s where the most hideous, and the most hilarious, typos will find a cozy home. You don’t want your figure to say “turkey treatment plants” instead of “turnkey treatment plants”, or “salt diaper” instead of “salt diapir”. So, proofread, proofread, proofread.

How to make figures for manuscript submission without professional help

In public universities, research funding is tight. So, most university academics can’t afford to work with a professional illustrator. They’ll have to become good enough at graphic design to produce professional-looking figures for manuscripts without expert advice.

If you need to rely on your own resources to make scientific figures for publication, seek help. Talk to other researchers who’ve published a lot, ask the advice of a friend who knows more about graphic design than you do, and use free resources like this 10-step guide on how to make scientific figures for publication.

Do you need a proofreader for your scientific manuscript? Send me a message at [email protected].

Related posts:

• Publishing economics papers: Advice from the experts
• Writing geoscience papers: A list of useful resources
• What to do if the journal editor recommends English language editing services

Last revised on 1 November 2023

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Font used in scientific articles diagrams/graphs [closed]

I'm very careful with visual appearance of what I write, and I want to know if there is some convention with the font used in the graphs or diagrams of an article. Normally the articles are written with the defoult LaTex font,

• LaTex font, Tex

But in the other hand there are a lot of articles in internet that for the graphics use the default font of python matplotlib, that I have seen a lot in sites as SciPost for example,

• Python font sans-serif

Wich one do you think is better or more appropiate for an article?, or if exist some convention that tells the graphics should be in the same font that the article.

What you do in your articles?

• publications

• 5 The "TeX font" is called Computer Modern. –  phipsgabler Commented May 6, 2022 at 9:38

3 Answers 3

I will cite from a contribution by Jillian M. Buriak (see reference below):

Sans serif fonts are ideal for graphics because they have a cleaner appearance, enabling your reader to quickly read the text unimpeded as they work through your data. Many people have a strong aversion to Times font in graphics, particularly in chemical structures (e.g., ChemDraw images), and thus a standard Arial or Helvetica font will avoid such an effect.

This is pretty much in line with what I think is aesthetic, but surely it is partly a matter of personal preference. And, as usual, when preparing graphics for publication in a journal, consult the corresponding author guidelines. Often, journals have specific requirements for formatting.

Jillian M. Buriak, "Which Font Looks Best in a Figure?", Chem. Mater. 2016 , 28 , 3, 689–690. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b00306

The best font for scientific diagrams and graphs is the same font or fonts that are used in the main text of the paper itself. This consistency is particularly important for mathematics, where the way how each symbol appears may significantly impact what this particular symbol means.

The way to achieve is for example to embed graphs as pdf+LaTeX or TikZ in your main TeX-based document. Alternatively, you may need to set up your graph-drawing software with the fonts used in the style file of your target journal, which may not be easy to find and also may be subject to change.

• 1 The way to achieve is for example to embed graphs as pdf+LaTeX or TikZ in your main TeX-based document. – This needs an restriction like: “if the journal accepts this”. Even in the TeX-friendly field of physics, most journals don’t accept embedded TeX files as graphics. –  Wrzlprmft ♦ Commented May 6, 2022 at 16:58
• @Wrzlprmft From my experience, the chance to have it accepted is higher if you never ask. –  Dmitry Savostyanov Commented May 6, 2022 at 17:09
• True, but so is the chance to waste your time. Also, IIRC, at least some journals explicitly disallow this. –  Wrzlprmft ♦ Commented May 6, 2022 at 17:12
• I do not disagree, but generally I think the more we push for the right things, the more chances journals are to accommodate it. And embedded graphics (like TikZ) is clearly a right thing compared to external pdf or even jpg. –  Dmitry Savostyanov Commented May 6, 2022 at 17:14

For the most part the choice of font is a matter of taste (on which I am mostly neutral).

There is one exception: When possible mathematical symbols should appear in the same font as they appear in the main text. For mathematical symbols, different typesetting is often used to convey different meanings. Consequently, even when your text does not ascribe a different meaning to x in a serif font vs x in a sans-serif font, having a different symbol appear in your graphics can lead to unnecessary confusion among your readers.

(This effect is amplified for the typesetting of non-latin characters.)

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged publications graphics .

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• IEEE Paper Format | Template & Guidelines

IEEE Paper Format | Template & Guidelines

Published on August 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 6, 2023.

IEEE provides guidelines for formatting your paper. These guidelines must be followed when you’re submitting a manuscript for publication in an IEEE journal. Some of the key guidelines are:

• Formatting the text as two columns, in Times New Roman, 10 pt.
• Including a byline, an abstract , and a set of keywords at the start of the research paper
• Placing any figures, tables, and equations at the top or bottom of a column, not in the middle
• Following the appropriate heading styles for any headings you use
• Including a full list of IEEE references at the end
• Not including page numbers

To learn more about the specifics of IEEE paper format, check out the free template below. Note that you may not need to follow these rules if you’ve only been told to use IEEE citation format for a student paper. But you do need to follow them to submit to IEEE publications.

Table of contents

Ieee format template, ieee heading styles, frequently asked questions about ieee.

The template below can be used to make sure that your paper follows IEEE format. It’s set up with custom Word styles for all the different parts of the text, with the right fonts and formatting and with further explanation of key points.

Make sure to remove all the explanatory text in the template when you insert your own.

Download IEEE paper format template

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

IEEE recommends specific heading styles to distinguish the title and different levels of heading in your paper from each other. Styles for each of these are built into the template.

The paper title is written in 24 pt. Times New Roman, centered at the top of the first page. Other headings are all written in 10 pt. Times New Roman:

• Level 1 text headings begin with a roman numeral followed by a period. They are written in small caps, in title case, and centered.
• Level 2 text headings begin with a capital letter followed by a period. They are italicized, left-aligned, and written in title case.
• Level 3 text headings begin with a number followed by a closing parenthesis . They are italicized, written in sentence case, and indented like a regular paragraph. The text of the section follows the heading immediately, after a colon .
• Level 4 text headings begin with a lowercase letter followed by a closing parenthesis. They are italicized, written in sentence case, and indented slightly further than a normal paragraph. The text of the section follows the heading immediately, after a colon.
• Component headings are used for the different components of your paper outside of the main text, such as the acknowledgments and references. They are written in small caps, in title case, centered, and without any numbering.

You should use 10 pt. Times New Roman font in your IEEE format paper .

For the paper title, 26 pt. Times New Roman is used. For some other paper elements like table footnotes, the font can be slightly smaller. All the correct stylings are available in our free IEEE format template .

No, page numbers are not included in an IEEE format paper . If you’re submitting to an IEEE publication, page numbers will be added in the final publication but aren’t needed in the manuscript.

IEEE paper format requires you to include an abstract summarizing the content of your paper. It appears at the start of the paper, right after you list your name and affiliation.

The abstract begins with the word “Abstract,” italicized and followed by an em dash. The abstract itself follows immediately on the same line. The entire section is written in bold font. For example: “ Abstract —This paper discusses … ”

You can find the correct format for your IEEE abstract and other parts of the paper in our free IEEE paper format template .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, April 06). IEEE Paper Format | Template & Guidelines. Scribbr. Retrieved September 21, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/ieee/ieee-paper-format/

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Submission guidelines

Format of articles, cover letter, revised manuscripts, tex/latex files, writing your manuscript, copy editing services, acknowledgements, author contributions, competing interests, data availability, ethics declarations, approval for animal experiments, approval for human experiments, consent to participate/consent to publish.

• Supplementary information

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General figure guidelines, figures for peer review, figures for publication, statistical guidelines, chemical and biological nomenclature and abbreviations, gene nomenclature, characterisation of chemical and biomolecular materials, registered reports.

Scientific Reports publishes original research in two formats: Article and Registered Report. For Registered Reports, see section below . In most cases, we do not impose strict limits on word count or page number. However, we strongly recommend that you write concisely and stick to the following guidelines:

• Articles should ideally be no more than 11 typeset pages
• The main text should be no more than 4,500 words (not including Abstract, Methods, References and figure legends)
• The title should be no more than 20 words, should describe the main message of the article using a single scientifically accurate sentence, and should not contain puns or idioms
• The abstract should be no more than 200 words

For a definitive list of which limits are mandatory please visit the submission checklist page .

Please do not include any references in your Abstract. Make sure it serves both as a general introduction to the topic and as a brief, non-technical summary of the main results and their implications. Abstract should be unstructured, i.e. should not contain sections or subheadings.

We allow the use of up to 6 keywords/key phrases that can be used for indexing purposes. These should represent the main content of the submission.

Your manuscript text file should start with a title page that shows author affiliations and contact information, identifying the corresponding author with an asterisk. We recommend that each section includes an introduction of referenced text that expands on the background of the work. Some overlap with the Abstract is acceptable. Large Language Models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT , do not currently satisfy our authorship criteria . Notably an attribution of authorship carries with it accountability for the work, which cannot be effectively applied to LLMs. Use of an LLM should be properly documented in the Methods section (and if a Methods section is not available, in a suitable alternative part) of the manuscript. In response to emerging information, advice, guidance and policy around artificial intelligence (AI), we have created a dedicated AI section in our  Editorial Policy page . Please familiarize yourself with this content and comply with relevant policies.

For the main body of the text, there are no specific requirements. You can organise it in a way that best suits your research. However, the following structure will be suitable in many cases:

• Introduction
• Results (with subheadings)
• Discussion (without subheadings)

You should then follow the main body of text with:

• References (limited to 60 references, though not strictly enforced)
• Acknowledgements (optional)
• Data availability statement (mandatory)
• Additional Information (including a Competing Interests Statement)
• Figure legends (these are limited to 350 words per figure)
• Tables (maximum size of one page)

Please note, footnotes should not be used. 

We do not automatically include page or line numbers in the materials sent to Editorial Board Members and reviewers. Please consider including those in your manuscript; this can help facilitate the evaluation of the paper and makes giving feedback on specific sections easier.

You may include a limited number of uncaptioned molecular structure graphics and numbered mathematical equations if necessary. Display items are limited to 8 ( figures and/or tables ). However, to enable typesetting of papers, we advise making the number of display items commensurate with your overall word length. So, for Articles of 2,000 words or less, we suggest including no more than 4 figures/tables. Please note that schemes should not be used and should be presented as figures instead.

Your submission must also include:

• A cover letter
• Individual figure files and optional supplementary information files

For first submissions (i.e. not revised manuscripts), you may incorporate the manuscript text and figures into a single file up to 3 MB in size. Whilst Microsoft Word is preferred we also accept LaTeX, or PDF format. Figures can be inserted in the text at the appropriate positions, or grouped at the end.

Supplementary information should be combined and supplied as a single separate file, preferably in PDF format.

A submission template is available in the Overleaf template gallery to help you prepare a LaTeX manuscript within the Scientific Reports formatting criteria.

In your cover letter, you should include:

• The affiliation and contact information of your corresponding author
• A brief explanation of why the work is appropriate for Scientific Reports
• The names and contact information of any reviewers you consider suitable
• The names of any referees you would like excluded from reviewing

Finally, you should state whether you have had any prior discussions with a Scientific Reports Editorial Board Member about the work described in your manuscript.

For revised manuscripts, you should provide all textual content in a single file, prepared using either Microsoft Word or LaTeX. Please note, we do not accept PDF files for the article text of revised manuscripts. Make sure you:

• Format the manuscript file as single-column text without justification.
• Number the pages using an Arabic numeral in the footer of each page.
• Use the default Computer Modern fonts for your text, and the 'symbols' font for any Greek characters.
• Supply any figures as individual files.
• Combine and supply any Supplementary Information as a separate file, preferably in PDF format.
• Include the title of the manuscript and author list in the first page of the Supplementary Information file.

If you do not wish to incorporate the manuscript text and figures into a single file, please provide all textual content in a separate single file, prepared using either Microsoft Word or LaTeX.

If you’re submitting LaTeX files, you can either use the standard ‘Article’ document class (or similar) or the wlscirep.cls file and template provided by Overleaf . For graphics, we recommend your use graphicx.sty. Use numerical references only for citations.

Our system cannot accept .bib files. If you prepare references using BibTeX (which is optional), please include the .bbl file with your submission (as a ‘LaTeX supplementary file’) in order for it to be processed correctly; this file is included automatically in the zip file generated by Overleaf for submissions. Please see this help article on Overleaf for more details.

Alternatively, you can make sure that the references (source code) are included within the manuscript file itself. As a final precaution, you should ensure that the complete .tex file compiles successfully on its own system with no errors or warnings, before submission.

Scientific Reports is read by a truly diverse range of scientists. Please therefore give careful thought to communicating your findings as clearly as possible.

Although you can assume a shared basic knowledge of science, please don’t expect that everyone will be familiar with the specialist language or concepts of your particular field. Therefore:

• Avoid technical jargon wherever possible, explaining it clearly when it is unavoidable.
• Keep abbreviations to a minimum, particularly when they are not standard.
• If you must use an abbreviation, make sure you spell it out fully in the text or legend the first time it appears.
• Clearly explain the background, rationale and main conclusions of your study.
• Write titles and abstracts in language that will be readily understood by any scientist.

We strongly recommend that you ask a colleague with different expertise to review your manuscript before you submit it. This will help you to identify concepts and terminology that non-specialist readers may find hard to grasp.

We don’t provide in-depth copy editing as part of the production process. So, if you feel your manuscript would benefit from someone looking at the copy, please consider using a copy editing or language editing service. You can either do this before submission or at the revision stage. You can also get a fast, free grammar check of your manuscript that takes into account all aspects of readability in English.

We have two affiliates who can provide you with these services: Nature Research Editing Service and American Journal Experts . As a Scientific Reports author, you are entitled to a 10% discount on your first submission to either of these.

Claim 10% off English editing from Nature Research Editing Service

Claim 10% off American Journal Experts

Please note that the use of an editing service is at your own expense, and doesn’t ensure that your article will be selected for peer-review or accepted for publication.

We don't impose word limits on the description of methods. Make sure it includes adequate experimental and characterisation data for others to be able to reproduce your work. You should:

• Include descriptions of standard protocols and experimental procedures.
• Only identify commercial suppliers of reagents or instrumentation when the source is critical to the outcome of the experiments.
• Identify sources for any kits you use in your procedures.
• Include any experimental protocols that describe the synthesis of new compounds.
• Use the systematic name of any new compound and put its bold Arabic numeral in the heading for the experimental protocol, indicating it thereafter by its assigned, bold numeral.
• Describe the experimental protocol in detail, referring to amounts of reagents in parentheses, when possible (eg 1.03 g, 0.100 mmol).
• Use standard abbreviations for reagents and solvents.
• Clearly identify safety hazards posed by reagents or protocols.
• Report isolated mass and percent yields at the end of each protocol.

If you’re reporting experiments on live vertebrates (or higher invertebrates), humans or human samples, you must include a statement of ethical approval in the Methods section (see our detailed requirements for further information on preparing these statements).

We don’t copy edit your references. Therefore, it’s essential you format them correctly, as they will be linked electronically to external databases where possible. At Scientific Reports , we use the standard Nature referencing style. So, when formatting your references, make sure they:

• Run sequentially (and are always numerical).
• Sit within square brackets.
• Only have one publication linked to each number.
• Only include papers or datasets that have been published or accepted by a named publication, recognised preprint server or data repository (if you include any preprints of accepted papers in your reference list, make sure you submit them with the manuscript).
• Include published conference abstracts and numbered patents, if you wish.
• Don’t include grant details and acknowledgements.

Sorry, we cannot accept BibTeX (.bib) bibliography files for references. If you are making your submission by LaTeX, it must either contain all references within the manuscript .tex file itself, or (if you’re using the Overleaf template) include the .bbl file generated during the compilation process as a ‘LaTeX supplementary file’ (see the "Manuscripts" section for more details).

In your reference list, you should:

• Include all authors unless there are six or more, in which case only the first author should be given, followed by 'et al.'.
• List authors by last name first, followed by a comma and initials (followed by full stops) of given names.
• Use Roman text for Article and dataset titles, with only the first word of the title having an initial capital and written exactly as it appears in the work cited, ending with a full stop.
• Use italics for book titles, giving all words in the title an initial capital.
• Use italics for journal and data repository names, abbreviating them according to common usage (with full stops).
• Use bold for volume numbers and the subsequent comma.
• Give the full page range (or article number), where appropriate.

Published papers:

Printed journals Schott, D. H., Collins, R. N. & Bretscher, A. Secretory vesicle transport velocity in living cells depends on the myosin V lever arm length. J. Cell Biol . 156 , 35-39 (2002).

Online only Bellin, D. L. et al. Electrochemical camera chip for simultaneous imaging of multiple metabolites in biofilms . Nat. Commun . 7 , 10535; 10.1038/ncomms10535 (2016).

For papers with more than five authors include only the first author’s name followed by ‘et al.’.

Books: Smith, J. Syntax of referencing in How to reference books (ed. Smith, S.) 180-181 (Macmillan, 2013).

Online material:

Babichev, S. A., Ries, J. & Lvovsky, A. I. Quantum scissors: teleportation of single-mode optical states by means of a nonlocal single photon. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0208066 (2002).

Manaster, J. Sloth squeak. Scientific American Blog Network http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/psi-vid/2014/04/09/sloth-squeak (2014).

Hao, Z., AghaKouchak, A., Nakhjiri, N. & Farahmand, A. Global integrated drought monitoring and prediction system (GIDMaPS) data sets.  figshare   https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.853801 (2014).

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, most adopted format for high school science research papers.

Hi guys, I'm about to start on a science research paper for school, and I'm unsure about the formatting. Is there a most common or recommended format that we high school students should follow? Any tips would be really useful. Thanks in advance!

In high school science research papers, the most commonly adopted format is the American Psychological Association (APA) format. It's frequently used in the social and behavioral sciences (including some areas of natural sciences), while the Modern Language Association (MLA) format is typically utilized in the humanities.

Here is a quick rundown on APA format basics:

- Use a 1-inch margin on all sides.

- Times New Roman, 12-point font is standard.

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- Include a header with a shortened version of your title flush left and the page number flush right.

- The title page should include the title of your work, your name, and the affiliation (your school)

- Use headings and subheadings to organize the sections of your paper.

The abstract, main body, and references are the primary sections in an APA paper.

1. The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that typically focuses on the study objective, research methods used, key findings, and conclusions - all in about 150-250 words.

2. The main body of the paper usually contains an introduction, method, results, and discussion sections. The introduction provides context for your study, the method section details how you performed your research, the results section offers your findings, and the discussion section interprets the results.

3. Lastly, the Reference page includes a list of all the sources you cited in your paper.

Remember, always check with your teacher for specific guidelines as some schools might have their own preferred style. Consider also using citation generators or formatting tools to help ensure that your references are correctly formatted. Good luck with your science research paper!

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O’Reilly, T. (2023). Breaking Bad: The journey from collective intelligence to algorithmic rents . Minderoo Centre Lecture, Cambridge University, October 10, 2023.

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Evolution @Vanderbilt

Mitochondrial dna evolution: new study reveals how selfish mtdna evolve and thrive.

Posted by flickaj on Friday, September 20, 2024 in featured .

By Andy Flick, Evolutionary Studies scientific coordinator

Vanderbilt University researchers, led by alumnus Bryan Gitschlag, have uncovered groundbreaking insights into the evolution of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). In their paper in Nature Communications titled “ Multiple distinct evolutionary mechanisms govern the dynamics of selfish mitochondrial genomes in Caenorhabditis elegans , ” the team reveals how selfish mtDNA, which can reduce the fitness of its host, manages to persist within cells through aggressive competition or by avoiding traditional selection pressures. The study combines mathematical models and experiments to explain the coexistence of selfish and cooperative mtDNA within the cell, offering new insights into the complex evolutionary dynamics of these essential cellular components.

Gitschlag, an alumnus of Vanderbilt University, conducted the research while in the lab of Maulik Patel , assistant professor of biological sciences . He is now a postdoctoral researcher at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in David McCandlish’s lab . Gitschlag collaborated closely with fellow Patel Lab members, including James Held, a recent PhD graduate, and Claudia Pereira, a former staff member of the lab.

According to Patel, “in biology, ‘cheater’ is defined as an entity that benefits from a cooperative relationship without reciprocating. Selfish mtDNA are bona fide cheaters in this sense. They benefit from their symbiotic relationship with the nucleus, by being replicated using machinery expressed in the nuclear genome, but without conferring the usual metabolic advantages associated with being a mitochondrial genome.”

Experimental Studies

The study centered on mtDNA in Caenorhabditis elegans , a tiny nematode that has long served as a model organism in genetic research. With its simple structure and fully mapped genome, C. elegans provides an ideal system for exploring the dynamics of mitochondrial DNA, including the balance between selfish and cooperative genetic elements. A key focus of this research was the uaDf5 mutation, a deletion in the mtDNA that behaves selfishly by outcompeting healthy mitochondria, even though it reduces the overall fitness of the organism.

This discovery has wide-reaching implications for the study of mitochondrial diseases, many of which arise from dysfunctional mtDNA. Understanding how selfish mitochondrial elements evolve and persist offers new pathways for investigating mitochondrial disorders and developing therapeutic interventions. Additionally, these findings provide a framework for studying similar evolutionary dynamics in other systems where selfish and cooperative elements coexist.

Mathematical Models

The mathematical model developed by the team helps explain how the uaDf5 mutation in mtDNA persists despite reducing the organism’s fitness, shedding light on how similar defective DNA might contribute to aging and disease. Following up, the team used this model to study other instances where mutations in mtDNA, which damage important genes, continue to persist and spread within cells, despite their harmful effects. The next step was to apply the model to other mtDNA mutations.

The researchers found that some mutations persist over time due to a balance between selection pressures operating both within and between individual organisms (multi-level selection), while other mutations persist due to a balance between selection pressures operating entirely within an organism. The paper suggests that mutations that have no effect would typically either become lost or become fixed in the population by random genetic drift. Accordingly, their model revealed that some mutations confer a net replicative advantage over unmutated (wildtype) mtDNA, causing the mutant mtDNA to proliferate within individual organisms. However, since this tends to occur at the expense of organism fitness, natural selection favors organisms with fewer copies of mutant mtDNA, enabling the mutant genome to stably persist through multi-level selection. Alternatively, some mutations provide a small but meaningful advantage that quickly disappears as mutant copies rise in number, becoming outcompeted by the wildtype mtDNA.

Surprisingly, the researchers found that the levels of mutant mtDNA are distributed among individual carriers in different ways depending on the underlying selection pressures at play. This serves to illustrate how evolutionary theory can offer insights into a broad class of genetic disorders for which there currently exists no cure. Since the severity of effects of a mutation depend on its relative abundance within an individual (which in turn depends on the evolutionary forces at work), understanding these population-genetic behaviors provides a potential window into predicting the risk of developing mitochondrial disorders from population data.

According to Patel, “our study represents one of the most rigorous applications to date of the evolutionary concept of multilevel selection. This concept refers to the idea that natural selection operates not only at the level of individuals but also at multiple levels of biological organization.”

Gitschlag concluded, “despite its theoretical significance, it has proven extremely challenging to empirically measure selection in isolation at different levels. Ours is one of the first studies to achieve this feat. Thus, what is super exciting about our work is that we believe it will stand the test of time and hope that it becomes a classic in the field.”

Citation : Gitschlag, B.L., Pereira, C.V., Held, J.P., McCandlish, D.M. & Patel, M.R., 2024. Multiple distinct evolutionary mechanisms govern the dynamics of selfish mitochondrial genomes in Caenorhabditis elegans . Nature Communications . 15: 8237.

Funding Statement : This work was supported by the NIH research project grants R01 GM123260 and R35 GM145378 (Patel). Discovery Award (PR170792) from the Department of Defense’s Congressionally Directed Medical Research Program (Patel), the Vanderbilt University Medical Center Diabetes Research and Training Center Pilot & Feasibility Grant (Patel), the NIH-sponsored Cellular, Molecular and Biochemical, and Molecular Sciences Training Program (5T32GM008554-18, Gitschlag), the Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award Individual Predoctoral Fellowship (1F31GM125344, Gitschlag), R35 GM133613 (McCandlish), an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship and additional funding from the Simons Center for Quantitative Biology and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (McCandlish).

Tags: Arts and Science , Arts and Science Research , bryan gitschlag , caenorhabditis elegans , department of biological sciences , evolution , featured

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