what is the definition of a research project

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Research Project – Definition, Writing Guide and Ideas

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Research Project

Definition :

Research Project is a planned and systematic investigation into a specific area of interest or problem, with the goal of generating new knowledge, insights, or solutions. It typically involves identifying a research question or hypothesis, designing a study to test it, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the findings.

Types of Research Project

Types of Research Projects are as follows:

Basic Research

This type of research focuses on advancing knowledge and understanding of a subject area or phenomenon, without any specific application or practical use in mind. The primary goal is to expand scientific or theoretical knowledge in a particular field.

Applied Research

Applied research is aimed at solving practical problems or addressing specific issues. This type of research seeks to develop solutions or improve existing products, services or processes.

Action Research

Action research is conducted by practitioners and aimed at solving specific problems or improving practices in a particular context. It involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners, and often involves iterative cycles of data collection and analysis, with the goal of improving practices.

Quantitative Research

This type of research uses numerical data to investigate relationships between variables or to test hypotheses. It typically involves large-scale data collection through surveys, experiments, or secondary data analysis.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research focuses on understanding and interpreting phenomena from the perspective of the people involved. It involves collecting and analyzing data in the form of text, images, or other non-numerical forms.

Mixed Methods Research

Mixed methods research combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research, using multiple data sources and methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Longitudinal Research

This type of research involves studying a group of individuals or phenomena over an extended period of time, often years or decades. It is useful for understanding changes and developments over time.

Case Study Research

Case study research involves in-depth investigation of a particular case or phenomenon, often within a specific context. It is useful for understanding complex phenomena in their real-life settings.

Participatory Research

Participatory research involves active involvement of the people or communities being studied in the research process. It emphasizes collaboration, empowerment, and the co-production of knowledge.

Research Project Methodology

Research Project Methodology refers to the process of conducting research in an organized and systematic manner to answer a specific research question or to test a hypothesis. A well-designed research project methodology ensures that the research is rigorous, valid, and reliable, and that the findings are meaningful and can be used to inform decision-making.

There are several steps involved in research project methodology, which are described below:

Define the Research Question

The first step in any research project is to clearly define the research question or problem. This involves identifying the purpose of the research, the scope of the research, and the key variables that will be studied.

Develop a Research Plan

Once the research question has been defined, the next step is to develop a research plan. This plan outlines the methodology that will be used to collect and analyze data, including the research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.

Collect Data

The data collection phase involves gathering information through various methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, or secondary data analysis. The data collected should be relevant to the research question and should be of sufficient quantity and quality to enable meaningful analysis.

Analyze Data

Once the data has been collected, it is analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques or other methods. The analysis should be guided by the research question and should aim to identify patterns, trends, relationships, or other insights that can inform the research findings.

Interpret and Report Findings

The final step in the research project methodology is to interpret the findings and report them in a clear and concise manner. This involves summarizing the results, discussing their implications, and drawing conclusions that can be used to inform decision-making.

Research Project Writing Guide

Here are some guidelines to help you in writing a successful research project:

Choose a topic: Choose a topic that you are interested in and that is relevant to your field of study. It is important to choose a topic that is specific and focused enough to allow for in-depth research and analysis.
Conduct a literature review : Conduct a thorough review of the existing research on your topic. This will help you to identify gaps in the literature and to develop a research question or hypothesis.
Develop a research question or hypothesis : Based on your literature review, develop a clear research question or hypothesis that you will investigate in your study.
Design your study: Choose an appropriate research design and methodology to answer your research question or test your hypothesis. This may include choosing a sample, selecting measures or instruments, and determining data collection methods.
Collect data: Collect data using your chosen methods and instruments. Be sure to follow ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants if necessary.
Analyze data: Analyze your data using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods. Be sure to clearly report your findings and provide interpretations based on your research question or hypothesis.
Discuss your findings : Discuss your findings in the context of the existing literature and your research question or hypothesis. Identify any limitations or implications of your study and suggest directions for future research.
Write your project: Write your research project in a clear and organized manner, following the appropriate format and style guidelines for your field of study. Be sure to include an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Revise and edit: Revise and edit your project for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Be sure to proofread for spelling, grammar, and formatting errors.
Cite your sources: Cite your sources accurately and appropriately using the appropriate citation style for your field of study.

Examples of Research Projects

Some Examples of Research Projects are as follows:

Investigating the effects of a new medication on patients with a particular disease or condition.
Exploring the impact of exercise on mental health and well-being.
Studying the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student learning outcomes.
Examining the impact of social media on political participation and engagement.
Investigating the efficacy of a new therapy for a specific mental health disorder.
Exploring the use of renewable energy sources in reducing carbon emissions and mitigating climate change.
Studying the effects of a new agricultural technique on crop yields and environmental sustainability.
Investigating the effectiveness of a new technology in improving business productivity and efficiency.
Examining the impact of a new public policy on social inequality and access to resources.
Exploring the factors that influence consumer behavior in a specific market.

Characteristics of Research Project

Here are some of the characteristics that are often associated with research projects:

Clear objective: A research project is designed to answer a specific question or solve a particular problem. The objective of the research should be clearly defined from the outset.
Systematic approach: A research project is typically carried out using a structured and systematic approach that involves careful planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Rigorous methodology: A research project should employ a rigorous methodology that is appropriate for the research question being investigated. This may involve the use of statistical analysis, surveys, experiments, or other methods.
Data collection : A research project involves collecting data from a variety of sources, including primary sources (such as surveys or experiments) and secondary sources (such as published literature or databases).
Analysis and interpretation : Once the data has been collected, it needs to be analyzed and interpreted. This involves using statistical techniques or other methods to identify patterns or relationships in the data.
Conclusion and implications : A research project should lead to a clear conclusion that answers the research question. It should also identify the implications of the findings for future research or practice.
Communication: The results of the research project should be communicated clearly and effectively, using appropriate language and visual aids, to a range of audiences, including peers, stakeholders, and the wider public.

Importance of Research Project

Research projects are an essential part of the process of generating new knowledge and advancing our understanding of various fields of study. Here are some of the key reasons why research projects are important:

Advancing knowledge : Research projects are designed to generate new knowledge and insights into particular topics or questions. This knowledge can be used to inform policies, practices, and decision-making processes across a range of fields.
Solving problems: Research projects can help to identify solutions to real-world problems by providing a better understanding of the causes and effects of particular issues.
Developing new technologies: Research projects can lead to the development of new technologies or products that can improve people’s lives or address societal challenges.
Improving health outcomes: Research projects can contribute to improving health outcomes by identifying new treatments, diagnostic tools, or preventive strategies.
Enhancing education: Research projects can enhance education by providing new insights into teaching and learning methods, curriculum development, and student learning outcomes.
Informing public policy : Research projects can inform public policy by providing evidence-based recommendations and guidance on issues related to health, education, environment, social justice, and other areas.
Enhancing professional development : Research projects can enhance the professional development of researchers by providing opportunities to develop new skills, collaborate with colleagues, and share knowledge with others.

Research Project Ideas

Following are some Research Project Ideas:

Field: Psychology

Investigating the impact of social support on coping strategies among individuals with chronic illnesses.
Exploring the relationship between childhood trauma and adult attachment styles.
Examining the effects of exercise on cognitive function and brain health in older adults.
Investigating the impact of sleep deprivation on decision making and risk-taking behavior.
Exploring the relationship between personality traits and leadership styles in the workplace.
Examining the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for treating anxiety disorders.
Investigating the relationship between social comparison and body dissatisfaction in young women.
Exploring the impact of parenting styles on children’s emotional regulation and behavior.
Investigating the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions for treating depression.
Examining the relationship between childhood adversity and later-life health outcomes.

Field: Economics

Analyzing the impact of trade agreements on economic growth in developing countries.
Examining the effects of tax policy on income distribution and poverty reduction.
Investigating the relationship between foreign aid and economic development in low-income countries.
Exploring the impact of globalization on labor markets and job displacement.
Analyzing the impact of minimum wage laws on employment and income levels.
Investigating the effectiveness of monetary policy in managing inflation and unemployment.
Examining the relationship between economic freedom and entrepreneurship.
Analyzing the impact of income inequality on social mobility and economic opportunity.
Investigating the role of education in economic development.
Examining the effectiveness of different healthcare financing systems in promoting health equity.

Field: Sociology

Investigating the impact of social media on political polarization and civic engagement.
Examining the effects of neighborhood characteristics on health outcomes.
Analyzing the impact of immigration policies on social integration and cultural diversity.
Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in older adults.
Exploring the impact of income inequality on social cohesion and trust.
Analyzing the effects of gender and race discrimination on career advancement and pay equity.
Investigating the relationship between social networks and health behaviors.
Examining the effectiveness of community-based interventions for reducing crime and violence.
Analyzing the impact of social class on cultural consumption and taste.
Investigating the relationship between religious affiliation and social attitudes.

Field: Computer Science

Developing an algorithm for detecting fake news on social media.
Investigating the effectiveness of different machine learning algorithms for image recognition.
Developing a natural language processing tool for sentiment analysis of customer reviews.
Analyzing the security implications of blockchain technology for online transactions.
Investigating the effectiveness of different recommendation algorithms for personalized advertising.
Developing an artificial intelligence chatbot for mental health counseling.
Investigating the effectiveness of different algorithms for optimizing online advertising campaigns.
Developing a machine learning model for predicting consumer behavior in online marketplaces.
Analyzing the privacy implications of different data sharing policies for online platforms.
Investigating the effectiveness of different algorithms for predicting stock market trends.

Field: Education

Investigating the impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement.
Analyzing the effectiveness of different pedagogical approaches for promoting student engagement and motivation.
Examining the effects of school choice policies on academic achievement and social mobility.
Investigating the impact of technology on learning outcomes and academic achievement.
Analyzing the effects of school funding disparities on educational equity and achievement gaps.
Investigating the relationship between school climate and student mental health outcomes.
Examining the effectiveness of different teaching strategies for promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Investigating the impact of social-emotional learning programs on student behavior and academic achievement.
Analyzing the effects of standardized testing on student motivation and academic achievement.

Field: Environmental Science

Investigating the impact of climate change on species distribution and biodiversity.
Analyzing the effectiveness of different renewable energy technologies in reducing carbon emissions.
Examining the impact of air pollution on human health outcomes.
Investigating the relationship between urbanization and deforestation in developing countries.
Analyzing the effects of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
Investigating the impact of land use change on soil fertility and ecosystem services.
Analyzing the effectiveness of different conservation policies and programs for protecting endangered species and habitats.
Investigating the relationship between climate change and water resources in arid regions.
Examining the impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
Investigating the effects of different agricultural practices on soil health and nutrient cycling.

Field: Linguistics

Analyzing the impact of language diversity on social integration and cultural identity.
Investigating the relationship between language and cognition in bilingual individuals.
Examining the effects of language contact and language change on linguistic diversity.
Investigating the role of language in shaping cultural norms and values.
Analyzing the effectiveness of different language teaching methodologies for second language acquisition.
Investigating the relationship between language proficiency and academic achievement.
Examining the impact of language policy on language use and language attitudes.
Investigating the role of language in shaping gender and social identities.
Analyzing the effects of dialect contact on language variation and change.
Investigating the relationship between language and emotion expression.

Field: Political Science

Analyzing the impact of electoral systems on women’s political representation.
Investigating the relationship between political ideology and attitudes towards immigration.
Examining the effects of political polarization on democratic institutions and political stability.
Investigating the impact of social media on political participation and civic engagement.
Analyzing the effects of authoritarianism on human rights and civil liberties.
Investigating the relationship between public opinion and foreign policy decisions.
Examining the impact of international organizations on global governance and cooperation.
Investigating the effectiveness of different conflict resolution strategies in resolving ethnic and religious conflicts.
Analyzing the effects of corruption on economic development and political stability.
Investigating the role of international law in regulating global governance and human rights.

Field: Medicine

Investigating the impact of lifestyle factors on chronic disease risk and prevention.
Examining the effectiveness of different treatment approaches for mental health disorders.
Investigating the relationship between genetics and disease susceptibility.
Analyzing the effects of social determinants of health on health outcomes and health disparities.
Investigating the impact of different healthcare delivery models on patient outcomes and cost effectiveness.
Examining the effectiveness of different prevention and treatment strategies for infectious diseases.
Investigating the relationship between healthcare provider communication skills and patient satisfaction and outcomes.
Analyzing the effects of medical error and patient safety on healthcare quality and outcomes.
Investigating the impact of different pharmaceutical pricing policies on access to essential medicines.
Examining the effectiveness of different rehabilitation approaches for improving function and quality of life in individuals with disabilities.

Field: Anthropology

Analyzing the impact of colonialism on indigenous cultures and identities.
Investigating the relationship between cultural practices and health outcomes in different populations.
Examining the effects of globalization on cultural diversity and cultural exchange.
Investigating the role of language in cultural transmission and preservation.
Analyzing the effects of cultural contact on cultural change and adaptation.
Investigating the impact of different migration policies on immigrant integration and acculturation.
Examining the role of gender and sexuality in cultural norms and values.
Investigating the impact of cultural heritage preservation on tourism and economic development.
Analyzing the effects of cultural revitalization movements on indigenous communities.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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The What: Defining a research project

During Academic Writing Month 2018, TAA hosted a series of #AcWriChat TweetChat events focused on the five W’s of academic writing. Throughout the series we explored The What: Defining a research project ; The Where: Constructing an effective writing environment ; The When: Setting realistic timeframes for your research ; The Who: Finding key sources in the existing literature ; and The Why: Explaining the significance of your research . This series of posts brings together the discussions and resources from those events. Let’s start with The What: Defining a research project .

Before moving forward on any academic writing effort, it is important to understand what the research project is intended to understand and document. In order to accomplish this, it’s also important to understand what a research project is. This is where we began our discussion of the five W’s of academic writing.

Q1: What constitutes a research project?

According to a Rutgers University resource titled, Definition of a research project and specifications for fulfilling the requirement , “A research project is a scientific endeavor to answer a research question.” Specifically, projects may take the form of “case series, case control study, cohort study, randomized, controlled trial, survey, or secondary data analysis such as decision analysis, cost effectiveness analysis or meta-analysis”.

Hampshire College offers that “Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.” in their online resource titled, What is research? The resource also states that “Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive framework; to assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further inquiries.”

TweetChat participant @TheInfoSherpa , who is currently “investigating whether publishing in a predatory journal constitutes blatant research misconduct, inappropriate conduct, or questionable conduct,” summarized these ideas stating, “At its simplest, a research project is a project which seeks to answer a well-defined question or set of related questions about a specific topic.” TAA staff member, Eric Schmieder, added to the discussion that“a research project is a process by which answers to a significant question are attempted to be answered through exploration or experimentation.”

In a learning module focused on research and the application of the Scientific Method, the Office of Research Integrity within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states that “Research is a process to discover new knowledge…. No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well it is designed and done.”

Wenyi Ho of Penn State University states that “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon.” in an online resource which further shares four types of knowledge that research contributes to education, four types of research based on different purposes, and five stages of conducting a research study. Further understanding of research in definition, purpose, and typical research practices can be found in this Study.com video resource .

Now that we have a foundational understanding of what constitutes a research project, we shift the discussion to several questions about defining specific research topics.

Q2: When considering topics for a new research project, where do you start?

A guide from the University of Michigan-Flint on selecting a topic states, “Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information.”

Schmieder responded to the chat question with his approach.“I often start with an idea or question of interest to me and then begin searching for existing research on the topic to determine what has been done already.”

@TheInfoSherpa added, “Start with the research. Ask a librarian for help. The last thing you want to do is design a study thst someone’s already done.”

The Utah State University Libraries shared a video that “helps you find a research topic that is relevant and interesting to you!”

Q2a: What strategies do you use to stay current on research in your discipline?

The California State University Chancellor’s Doctoral Incentive Program Community Commons resource offers four suggestions for staying current in your field:

Become an effective consumer of research
Read key publications
Attend key gatherings
Develop a network of colleagues

Schmieder and @TheInfoSherpa discussed ways to use databases for this purpose. Schmieder identified using “journal database searches for publications in the past few months on topics of interest” as a way to stay current as a consumer of research.

@TheInfoSherpa added, “It’s so easy to set up an alert in your favorite database. I do this for specific topics, and all the latest research gets delivered right to my inbox. Again, your academic or public #librarian can help you with this.” To which Schmieder replied, “Alerts are such useful advancements in technology for sorting through the myriad of material available online. Great advice!”

In an open access article, Keeping Up to Date: An Academic Researcher’s Information Journey , researchers Pontis, et. al. “examined how researchers stay up to date, using the information journey model as a framework for analysis and investigating which dimensions influence information behaviors.” As a result of their study, “Five key dimensions that influence information behaviors were identified: level of seniority, information sources, state of the project, level of familiarity, and how well defined the relevant community is.”

Q3: When defining a research topic, do you tend to start with a broad idea or a specific research question?

In a collection of notes on where to start by Don Davis at Columbia University, Davis tells us “First, there is no ‘Right Topic.’”, adding that “Much more important is to find something that is important and genuinely interests you.”

Schmieder shared in the chat event, “I tend to get lost in the details while trying to save the world – not sure really where I start though. :O)” @TheInfoSherpa added, “Depends on the project. The important thing is being able to realize when your topic is too broad or too narrow and may need tweaking. I use the five Ws or PICO(T) to adjust my topic if it’s too broad or too narrow.”

In an online resource , The Writing Center at George Mason University identifies the following six steps to developing a research question, noting significance in that “the specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the ‘all-about’ paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.”

Choose an interesting general topic
Do some preliminary research on your general topic
Consider your audience
Start asking questions
Evaluate your question
Begin your research

USC Libraries’ research guides offer eight strategies for narrowing the research topic : Aspect, Components, Methodology, Place, Relationship, Time, Type, or a Combination of the above.

Q4: What factors help to determine the realistic scope a research topic?

The scope of a research topic refers to the actual amount of research conducted as part of the study. Often the search strategies used in understanding previous research and knowledge on a topic will impact the scope of the current study. A resource from Indiana University offers both an activity for narrowing the search strategy when finding too much information on a topic and an activity for broadening the search strategy when too little information is found.

The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing identifies scope as an element to be included in the problem statement. Further when discussing problem statements, this resource states, “If you are focusing on a problem, be sure to define and state it specifically enough that you can write about it. Avoid trying to investigate or write about multiple problems or about broad or overly ambitious problems. Vague problem definition leads to unsuccessful proposals and vague, unmanageable documents. Naming a topic is not the same as defining a problem.”

Schmieder identified in the chat several considerations when determining the scope of a research topic, namely “Time, money, interest and commitment, impact to self and others.” @TheInfoSherpa reiterated their use of PICO(T) stating, “PICO(T) is used in the health sciences, but it can be used to identify a manageable scope” and sharing a link to a Georgia Gwinnett College Research Guide on PICOT Questions .

By managing the scope of your research topic, you also define the limitations of your study. According to a USC Libraries’ Research Guide, “The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research.” Accepting limitations help maintain a manageable scope moving forward with the project.

Q5/5a: Do you generally conduct research alone or with collaborative authors? What benefits/challenges do collaborators add to the research project?

Despite noting that the majority of his research efforts have been solo, Schmieder did identify benefits to collaboration including “brainstorming, division of labor, speed of execution” and challenges of developing a shared vision, defining roles and responsibilities for the collaborators, and accepting a level of dependence on the others in the group.

In a resource on group writing from The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, both advantages and pitfalls are discussed. Looking to the positive, this resource notes that “Writing in a group can have many benefits: multiple brains are better than one, both for generating ideas and for getting a job done.”

Yale University’s Office of the Provost has established, as part of its Academic Integrity policies, Guidance on Authorship in Scholarly or Scientific Publications to assist researchers in understanding authorship standards as well as attribution expectations.

In times when authorship turns sour , the University of California, San Francisco offers the following advice to reach a resolution among collaborative authors:

Address emotional issues directly
Elicit the problem author’s emotions
Acknowledge the problem author’s emotions
Express your own emotions as “I feel …”
Set boundaries
Try to find common ground
Get agreement on process
Involve a neutral third party

Q6: What other advice can you share about defining a research project?

Schmieder answered with question with personal advice to “Choose a topic of interest. If you aren’t interested in the topic, you will either not stay motivated to complete it or you will be miserable in the process and not produce the best results from your efforts.”

For further guidance and advice, the following resources may prove useful:

15 Steps to Good Research (Georgetown University Library)
Advice for Researchers and Students (Tao Xie and University of Illinois)
Develop a research statement for yourself (University of Pennsylvania)

Whatever your next research project, hopefully these tips and resources help you to define it in a way that leads to greater success and better writing.

What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

Identify potential and new customers
Understand existing customers
Set pragmatic goals
Develop productive market strategies
Address business challenges
Put together a business expansion plan
Identify new business opportunities
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

One-to-one Interview
Focus Groups
Ethnographic studies
Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

Survey research
Descriptive research
Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
Act on your strategies
Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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What is Research? – Purpose of Research

By DiscoverPhDs
September 10, 2020

The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the development of scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through forming hypotheses, collecting data, analysing results, forming conclusions, implementing findings into real-life applications and forming new research questions.

What is Research

Simply put, research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that was not previously known.

As a more formal definition of research, the following has been extracted from the Code of Federal Regulations :

While research can be carried out by anyone and in any field, most research is usually done to broaden knowledge in the physical, biological, and social worlds. This can range from learning why certain materials behave the way they do, to asking why certain people are more resilient than others when faced with the same challenges.

The use of ‘systematic investigation’ in the formal definition represents how research is normally conducted – a hypothesis is formed, appropriate research methods are designed, data is collected and analysed, and research results are summarised into one or more ‘research conclusions’. These research conclusions are then shared with the rest of the scientific community to add to the existing knowledge and serve as evidence to form additional questions that can be investigated. It is this cyclical process that enables scientific research to make continuous progress over the years; the true purpose of research.

What is the Purpose of Research

From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find new ways to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving our lives.

The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can develop further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape our society and our everyday lives.

Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:

Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not yet been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better understanding of the exact nature of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the problem itself. This enables us to conduct more in-depth research later on.
Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research problem or phenomenon by describing it according to its characteristics and population. Descriptive research focuses on the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.
Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual research, is conducted to determine how variables interact, i.e. to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory research deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on experiments.

Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and experiments.
Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.
Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e. research should lead to a new line of questioning.
Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except those under investigation.
Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.
Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential errors and anomalies.
Objective – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research findings are valid.
Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into something more meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

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Types of Research

Research can be divided into two main types: basic research (also known as pure research) and applied research.

Basic Research

Basic research, also known as pure research, is an original investigation into the reasons behind a process, phenomenon or particular event. It focuses on generating knowledge around existing basic principles.

Basic research is generally considered ‘non-commercial research’ because it does not focus on solving practical problems, and has no immediate benefit or ways it can be applied.

While basic research may not have direct applications, it usually provides new insights that can later be used in applied research.

Applied Research

Applied research investigates well-known theories and principles in order to enhance knowledge around a practical aim. Because of this, applied research focuses on solving real-life problems by deriving knowledge which has an immediate application.

Methods of Research

Research methods for data collection fall into one of two categories: inductive methods or deductive methods.

Inductive research methods focus on the analysis of an observation and are usually associated with qualitative research. Deductive research methods focus on the verification of an observation and are typically associated with quantitative research.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a method that enables non-numerical data collection through open-ended methods such as interviews, case studies and focus groups .

It enables researchers to collect data on personal experiences, feelings or behaviours, as well as the reasons behind them. Because of this, qualitative research is often used in fields such as social science, psychology and philosophy and other areas where it is useful to know the connection between what has occurred and why it has occurred.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a method that collects and analyses numerical data through statistical analysis.

It allows us to quantify variables, uncover relationships, and make generalisations across a larger population. As a result, quantitative research is often used in the natural and physical sciences such as engineering, biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, finance, and medical research, etc.

What does Research Involve?

Research often follows a systematic approach known as a Scientific Method, which is carried out using an hourglass model.

A research project first starts with a problem statement, or rather, the research purpose for engaging in the study. This can take the form of the ‘ scope of the study ’ or ‘ aims and objectives ’ of your research topic.

Subsequently, a literature review is carried out and a hypothesis is formed. The researcher then creates a research methodology and collects the data.

The data is then analysed using various statistical methods and the null hypothesis is either accepted or rejected.

In both cases, the study and its conclusion are officially written up as a report or research paper, and the researcher may also recommend lines of further questioning. The report or research paper is then shared with the wider research community, and the cycle begins all over again.

Although these steps outline the overall research process, keep in mind that research projects are highly dynamic and are therefore considered an iterative process with continued refinements and not a series of fixed stages.

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Find out the differences between a Literature Review and an Annotated Bibliography, whey they should be used and how to write them.

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What (Exactly) Is A Research Proposal?

A simple explainer with examples + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Whether you’re nearing the end of your degree and your dissertation is on the horizon, or you’re planning to apply for a PhD program, chances are you’ll need to craft a convincing research proposal . If you’re on this page, you’re probably unsure exactly what the research proposal is all about. Well, you’ve come to the right place.

Overview: Research Proposal Basics

What a research proposal is
What a research proposal needs to cover
How to structure your research proposal
Example /sample proposals
Proposal writing FAQs
Key takeaways & additional resources

What is a research proposal?

Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification), and how you plan to investigate it (your methodology).

The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so to speak) is to convince your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is suitable (for the requirements of the degree program) and manageable (given the time and resource constraints you will face).

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to sell your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit . This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news).

A research proposal is a formal document that explains what you plan to research , why it's worth researching and how you'll do it.

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “ what “, “ why ” and” how ” of the proposed study. Let’s look at each of these attributes in a little more detail:

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic . This needs to be specific and unambiguous . Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context. Here’s an example of a well-articulated research topic:

An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote or advocate for a brand of a specific makeup brand
Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
In what context – the United Kingdom

So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed explanation of your research topic . If possible, also briefly outline your research aims and objectives , and perhaps even your research questions (although in some cases you’ll only develop these at a later stage). Needless to say, don’t start writing your proposal until you have a clear topic in mind , or you’ll end up waffling and your research proposal will suffer as a result of this.

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As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original . In other words, what makes it unique ? What gap in the current literature does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.

But, originality alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box, you also need to justify why your proposed topic is important . In other words, what value will it add to the world if you achieve your research aims?

As an example, let’s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have commercial value . That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal. If you’re struggling to find a research topic that makes the cut, watch our video covering how to find a research topic .

Free Webinar: How To Write A Research Proposal

It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and valuable, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

How will you actually undertake your research (i.e., your methodology)?
Is your research methodology appropriate given your research aims?
Is your approach manageable given your constraints (time, money, etc.)?

While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed-out methodology at the proposal stage, you’ll likely still need to provide a high-level overview of your research methodology . Here are some important questions you’ll need to address in your research proposal:

Will you take a qualitative , quantitative or mixed -method approach?
What sampling strategy will you adopt?
How will you collect your data (e.g., interviews, surveys, etc)?
How will you analyse your data (e.g., descriptive and inferential statistics , content analysis, discourse analysis, etc, .)?
What potential limitations will your methodology carry?

So, be sure to give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at least a basic methodological plan before you start writing up your proposal. If this all sounds rather intimidating, the video below provides a good introduction to research methodology and the key choices you’ll need to make.

How To Structure A Research Proposal

Now that we’ve covered the key points that need to be addressed in a proposal, you may be wondering, “ But how is a research proposal structured? “.

While the exact structure and format required for a research proposal differs from university to university, there are four “essential ingredients” that commonly make up the structure of a research proposal:

A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
An initial literature review covering the existing research
An overview of the proposed research methodology
A discussion regarding the practicalities (project plans, timelines, etc.)

In the video below, we unpack each of these four sections, step by step.

Research Proposal Examples/Samples

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of two successful research proposals (Master’s and PhD-level), as well as our popular free proposal template.

Proposal Writing FAQs

How long should a research proposal be.

This varies tremendously, depending on the university, the field of study (e.g., social sciences vs natural sciences), and the level of the degree (e.g. undergraduate, Masters or PhD) – so it’s always best to check with your university what their specific requirements are before you start planning your proposal.

As a rough guide, a formal research proposal at Masters-level often ranges between 2000-3000 words, while a PhD-level proposal can be far more detailed, ranging from 5000-8000 words. In some cases, a rough outline of the topic is all that’s needed, while in other cases, universities expect a very detailed proposal that essentially forms the first three chapters of the dissertation or thesis.

The takeaway – be sure to check with your institution before you start writing.

How do I choose a topic for my research proposal?

Finding a good research topic is a process that involves multiple steps. We cover the topic ideation process in this video post.

How do I write a literature review for my proposal?

While you typically won’t need a comprehensive literature review at the proposal stage, you still need to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the key literature and are able to synthesise it. We explain the literature review process here.

How do I create a timeline and budget for my proposal?

We explain how to craft a project plan/timeline and budget in Research Proposal Bootcamp .

Which referencing format should I use in my research proposal?

The expectations and requirements regarding formatting and referencing vary from institution to institution. Therefore, you’ll need to check this information with your university.

What common proposal writing mistakes do I need to look out for?

We’ve create a video post about some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a proposal – you can access that here . If you’re short on time, here’s a quick summary:

The research topic is too broad (or just poorly articulated).
The research aims, objectives and questions don’t align.
The research topic is not well justified.
The study has a weak theoretical foundation.
The research design is not well articulated well enough.
Poor writing and sloppy presentation.
Poor project planning and risk management.
Not following the university’s specific criteria.

Key Takeaways & Additional Resources

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose: to convince . Your research proposal needs to sell your study in terms of suitability and viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative to ensure a strong proposal.

At the same time, pay close attention to your university’s requirements. While we’ve covered the essentials here, every institution has its own set of expectations and it’s essential that you follow these to maximise your chances of approval.

By the way, we’ve got plenty more resources to help you fast-track your research proposal. Here are some of our most popular resources to get you started:

Proposal Writing 101 : A Introductory Webinar
Research Proposal Bootcamp : The Ultimate Online Course
Template : A basic template to help you craft your proposal

If you’re looking for 1-on-1 support with your research proposal, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the proposal development process (and the entire research journey), step by step.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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51 Comments

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You’re most welcome. We don’t have any research proposals that we can share (the students own the intellectual property), but you might find our research proposal template useful: https://gradcoach.com/research-proposal-template/

Cheruiyot Moses Kipyegon

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What Is a Project? Definition, Types & Examples

What is a project, exactly? We talk a lot about specific facets of project management, but it’s sometimes valuable to start at the root and dig into the basics.

To fully understand high-level project management concepts, it’s important to know the simple answers. When you can call on this knowledge, more complicated concepts are easier to master. Whether you’re the project manager or a stakeholder, give your next project definition with these project management tips in mind.

Project Definition

A project is a set of tasks that must be completed within a defined timeline to accomplish a specific set of goals. These tasks are completed by a group of people known as the project team, which is led by a project manager, who oversees the planning , scheduling, tracking and successful completion of projects.

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Project Plan Template

Use this free Project Plan Template for Word to manage your projects better.

Besides the project team, projects require resources such as labor, materials and equipment. Organizations and individuals manage projects with a wide range of objectives. These can take many forms, from constructing a building to planning an event and even completing a certain duty. Retailers, for example, may pursue projects that improve the way they track order fulfillment. Construction teams complete projects any time they plan and build something—and so on!

Project management software gives you the tools to manage all the parts of a project so it is delivered on time and within budget. ProjectManager is award-winning project management software with features to plan, manage and track your project in real time. Organize tasks on our robust Gantt, link all four types of task dependencies to avoid costly delays and save your project plan by setting a baseline. This allows you to track your actual progress against your planned progress to help you stay on track. Get started with ProjectManager today for free.

What Are the Characteristics of a Project?

There are certain features or characteristics that are unique to projects and differentiate them from the daily operations or other types of activities of an organization. Here are the main characteristics of a project.

1. Any Project Needs a Project Manager and a Project Team

One of the most important characteristics of a project is that it’s a team effort. While the structure of project teams might change from one organization to another, projects usually involve a project manager and a team of individuals with the necessary skills to execute the tasks that are needed.

2. Every Project Needs a Project Plan

Project team members need clear directions from the project manager and other project leaders so that they can execute the work that’s expected from them. These directions come in the form of a project plan. However, a project plan is more than just a set of instructions for the project team. It’s a comprehensive document that describes every aspect of a project, such as the project goals, project schedule and project budget among other important details.

3. All Projects Go Through the Same Project Lifecycle

The project life cycle refers to the five phases all projects must progress through, from start to finish. The five phases of a project lifecycle serve as the most basic outline that gives a project definition. These five phases are initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and closure.

4. All Projects Share the Same Project Constraints

All projects no matter their size or complexity are subject to three main constraints: time, scope and cost. This simply means that projects must be completed within a defined timeline, achieve a defined set of tasks and goals and be delivered under a certain budget .

These project constraints are known as the triple constraint or the project management triangle and are one of the most important project features to know about.

5. Every Project Needs Resources

A resource is anything necessary to complete a project, such as for example, labor, raw materials, machinery and equipment. For example, in construction, raw materials such as wood, glass or paint are essential project resources . That said, other resources — like time, labor and equipment — are just as important.

A project manager must be able to identify all of the project resources in order to create a resource plan and manage the resources accordingly. When resources are left unaccounted for, it is easy to mismanage them.

Types of Projects

Projects can take many shapes and forms, which makes classifying them into types a very difficult task that requires different approaches. Here are some of the types of projects grouped by funding source, industry and project management methodology .

Types of Projects By Funding Source

One simple way to categorize projects is to look at their source of capital.

Private projects: Projects that are financed by businesses or private organizations.
Public projects: Projects which are funded by Government agencies.
Mixed projects: Projects that are financed by a public-private partnership.

Types of Projects By Industry

Projects can be executed by large or small organizations from any industry. However, some industries are more project-intensive than others. Here are some of the most common types of projects by industry.

Construction projects: The main goal of any construction project is to make a building that can be used for different purposes such as infrastructure, residential or commercial use.
Manufacturing projects: Manufacturing projects consist of manufacturing physical products to generate profits for a company.
IT projects: Information technology projects consist in establishing an IT framework for the processing of data at a company-wide scale.
Software development projects: The main goal of a software development project is to create a software product for a client.
Business projects: The term business project could refer to creating a new business, creating a new business unit for an existing company or simply launching a new business initiative.

Types of Projects By Project Management Methodology

Besides the types of projects mentioned above, projects can also be classified by the project management methodology that’s used to plan, schedule and execute them.

Waterfall projects: Waterfall is the most traditional project management methodology, where the project plan is defined before the project begins and each major project phase must be completed in sequence.
Agile projects: Agile projects are planned and executed in short iterations known as sprints , where project teams plan their activities as they execute the project.

Project Examples

Now that we’ve reviewed the main characteristics of a project and the various project types that exist, let’s review some common project examples to better illustrate what a project is.

Construction Project Examples

Construction infrastructure projects: Building a bridge, a road, a mass transportation system or a water treatment facility.
Residential construction projects: Building a house, a residential building or an apartment complex.
Commercial construction projects: Building a shopping mall, a parking lot or a hotel.

Manufacturing Project Examples

Building a factory from scratch
Manufacturing products for retail sale
Manufacturing products for a B2B purchase order
Improving an existing production line by acquiring new machinery and training employees

Key Project Terms to Know

No matter the project, there are universal project terms that are used regardless of project type, project size or any other factor. Know these seven terms like the back of your hand and you’ll be a step ahead before the project begins:

Project Scope

Project scope is a key aspect of the project planning stage. In many ways, it is the starting point. Determining project scope requires the project manager and their team to set goals and objectives, detail deliverables, create tasks, establish important dates and more. Project scope defines desired outcomes and all specific factors which will affect reaching them.

Project Stakeholder

A stakeholder refers to anyone and everyone involved in a project. A stakeholder can be involved at every stage of the project, or just in a certain way. Stakeholder analysis helps categorize how investors, team members, vendors, contractors and more can affect your project.

Project Deliverables

A deliverable refers to the specific outcome(s) a project creates. Deliverables can be “tangible” or “intangible,” meaning they can be a physical product or something conceptual. Typically, deliverables are the need that inspired the project in the first place. If someone contracts a builder to design and construct an office space, the office is a tangible deliverable.

Project Milestones

Milestones are predetermined achievements that help track project progress. Think of milestones as checkpoints. These checkpoints are decided on before a project begins, so the project manager and team know when they are on track to achieve deliverables. Without milestones, it’s difficult to know if the project is on the road to success or needs to reroute.

Project Dependencies

Project dependencies refer to how resources must be shared and allocated within a project. Many projects will use the same physical materials for different purposes and across different stages. Understanding this dependency is the only way to ensure there is enough resources to go around. Similarly, all projects are broken down into tasks. When one task cannot begin before another is completed, these tasks share a dependency.

What It Means to Work on a Project

Whether it’s the project manager, a team member or any other project stakeholder, they’re a member of the greater project team and their actions directly affect other team members. Like any team, you “win” or “lose” as a unit, so it’s incredibly important to communicate and listen to other team members in order to coordinate efforts and succeed. Most project mishaps and project failures are the direct results of poor communication or lack of collaboration.

Why does this matter as long as the work is getting done? Working on a project is about understanding the project as a whole just as much as it is about doing the work. The only way to see this big picture is by listening to the team and learning from one another.

What Is Project Management?

The process of project management starts with the conception of the project and continues all the way through the project lifecycle. This requires detailed knowledge of company resources and how to assign them in order to complete tasks, duties, events and other projects.

A wide range of industries relies on project management methods and tools to execute projects. A few examples of these industries are construction, IT, engineering, marketing and advertising. Any team working together to reach a shared objective is engaging in some form of project management.

What Does a Project Manager Do?

A project manager is more than just a manager, in the traditional sense. This individual is the leader of the project team and oversees every aspect of the project, from beginning to end. The project manager will typically write the project plan, run team meetings, assign tasks and do quality control tests to ensure everything is running smoothly. A project manager can’t carry the entire project on their back, though. One of their key duties, in fact, is knowing how to entrust various responsibilities to team members.

With the help of their team, project managers will create project schedules and budgets. They will also create project reports throughout the project lifecycle.

As you can see, their responsibilities are widespread, but that doesn’t mean spreading too thin. Ideally, a project manager creates the foundation of the project—like the foundation of a house. They then appoint other individuals to finish out each room.

Project Definition: Best Practices for Project Management

Regardless of the project, the size of the team, or anything else, there are practices that exponentially increase the chances of success. As vital as it is to hit goals and achieve deliverables , it’s just as important to create a positive culture within the project. These five tips may seem simple, but they make a big difference:

Set Regular Team Check-ins

It’s easy to meet with the team “as needed,” but once a project begins it gets harder to find time in everyone’s schedule. Instead, schedule regular meetings before a project even starts. These meetings serve as check-ins where team members can give each other updates, voice concerns, ask questions, make adjustments and do anything else they may need. When these check-ins are already built into the schedule, no one is waiting to meet until there’s a mishap or issue.

Part of what gives a project definition is knowing how to delegate. Whether it’s the project managers or a team member, they’ll more than likely need help with a task at some point. Now, this doesn’t mean just passing along the task to someone else. It means that every team member has equal responsibilities. Instead, the best project managers know how to relinquish some control and delegate to team members.

Know the Team

Everyone on the project management team should be familiar with each other’s strengths, weaknesses and specialties. For example, if a team member needs information from a different department, they should know exactly who to ask. This familiarity cuts down on lost time. It is especially important for a project manager to know their team extremely well.

When a project member knows these things, they can make decisions that play to their team members’ strengths, not around their weaknesses. Knowing the team is a huge aspect of creating a positive culture within a project, as it celebrates everyone’s abilities.

team charter template for project management

Celebrate Milestones

Speaking of positive culture, never underestimate the power of taking a moment to mark meeting a milestone . Reaching one means the team has made significant progress and the project is still on track. At the very least, it’s important to announce reaching milestones during team check-ins. This keeps everyone on the same page and improves team efficacy.

Choose Superior PM Tools

Project management is an extremely complex job. Without the proper tools, it’s easy to make mistakes, become disorganized and even fail to complete the project. The best way to protect your project from these missteps is by choosing tools that simplify the entire process.

The best project management software does just that. Using project management software unleashes your team’s and the project’s full potential and takes the end result to new heights. The key is finding an intuitive, user-friendly project management software that makes no compromises in functionality.

How ProjectManager Makes Managing Projects Easy

ProjectManager is an award-winning project management software that makes managing projects easier than ever. Our online software allows the entire team to work on the project while in the field or on the go, and our modern interface combines functionality with user-friendly navigation. This means no more wasted time just trying to familiarize yourself with a new tool and more time perfecting your project definition.

Plan on Gantt Charts

Plan your projects from start to finish with ProjectManager’s powerful Gantt chart feature, which allows you to map out project tasks in phases. You can even create dependencies and set milestones. Plus, you can import Excel files and Microsoft Project files, so switching over to our software is seamless.

Track on Project Dashboards

As the project team moves forward with tasks, project managers can track every status update on our real-time dashboard that you can personalize to show the most important metrics. Every change to a task is tracked and automatically updates the colorful, easy-to-read charts and graphs. Keeping an eye on your project’s progress has never been easier!

ProjectManager’s dashboard view, which shows six key metrics on a project

Get all these features and more when you use ProjectManager. All of these tools are available in our software to help you plan, track and report on your project in real time. See what it can do for you by taking this free 30-day trial run!

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What is the Difference Between Research and Project

The main difference between research and project is that research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions, while a project is a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements.

Both research and projects use a systematic approach. We also sometimes use the term research project to refer to research studies.

Key Areas Covered

1. What is Research – Definition, Features 2. What is a Project – Definition, Features 3. Difference Between Research and Project – Comparison of Key Differences

Research, Project

Difference Between Research and Project - Comparison Summary

What is Research

Research is a careful study a researcher conducts using a systematic approach and scientific methods. A research study typically involves several components: abstract, introduction , literature review , research design, and method , results and analysis, conclusion, bibliography. Researchers usually begin a formal research study with a hypothesis; then, they test this hypothesis rigorously. They also explore and analyze the literature already available on their research subject. This allows them to study the research subject from multiple perspectives, acknowledging different problems that need to be solved.

There are different types of research, the main two categories being quantitative research and qualitative research. Depending on their research method and design, we can also categorize research as descriptive research, exploratory research, longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, etc.

Furthermore, research should always be objective or unbiased. Moreover, if the research involves participants, for example, in surveys or interviews, the researcher should always make sure to obtain their written consent first.

What is a Project

A project is a collaborative or individual enterprise that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim. We can also describe it as a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements. This result can be tangible or intangible; for example, product, service, competitive advantage, etc. A project generally involves a series of connected tasks planned for execution over a fixed period of time and within certain limitations like quality and cost. The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) defines a project as a “temporary endeavor with a beginning and an end, and it must be used to create a unique product, service or result.”

Compare Research and Project - What's the difference?

Difference Between Research and Project

Research is a careful study conducted using a systematic approach and scientific methods, whereas a project is a collaborative or individual enterprise that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim.

Research studies are mainly carried out in academia, while projects can be seen in a variety of contexts, including businesses.

The main aim of the research is to seek or revise facts, theories, or principles, while the main aim of a project is to achieve a tangible or intangible result; for example, product, service, competitive advantage, etc.

The main difference between research and project is that research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions, while the project is a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements.

1. “ What Is a Project? – Definition, Lifecycle and Key Characteristics .” Your Guide to Project Management Best Practices .

Image Courtesy:

1. “ Research ” by Nick Youngson (CC BY-SA 3.0) via The Blue Diamond Gallery 2. “ Project-group-team-feedback ” (CC0) via Pixabay

About the Author: Hasa

Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

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Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

Research design
Data collection procedures
Data analysis methods
Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

Participants should not be subjected to harm.
Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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Policy & Compliance
Human Subjects

Definition of Human Subjects Research

Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or
Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens."

Decision Tool: Am I Doing Human Subjects Research?

The questionnaire is a tool to assist you with determining whether your project involves non-exempt human subjects research, meets the criteria for exempt human subjects research, or does not involve human subjects research.

Human Subjects Research Infographic

This resource summarizes the definition of human subjects research and provides examples of human subjects research projects. It also describes what you will need when you are preparing your NIH application and what is required if you are funded.

Exempt Human Subjects Research Infographic

This resource is a guide to simplify the understanding of the exemptions from the federal regulations for the protection of human subjects research. It summarizes Exemptions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, providing basic definitions, examples of studies that meet and do not meet the criteria of the exemption, and aspects one must consider when engaged in exempt or non-exempt human subjects research.

Research Involving Private Information or Biospecimens Flowchart

Studies involving the use of human specimens or data may or may not be considered to be research involving human subjects, depending on the details of the materials to be used. Use this flowchart to help determine if studies involving private information or biospecimens may meet the definition of human subjects research.

Public Health Surveillance Exclusions

Learn about research activities which may qualify for a public health surveillance exclusion. Find useful information, key resources, and instructions for NIH applicants and offerors.

This page last updated on: January 13, 2020

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Definitions of Research and Development: An Annotated Compilation of Official Sources

Introduction.

This document provides definitions of research and development from U.S. and international sources.

The first section (I) presents statistical definitions of R&D from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development. The next three sections are organized by sectors of the U.S. economy that perform or fund R&D—businesses (II), federal and state governments (III), and academic and nonprofit organizations (IV). Sources for definitions of R&D include the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), federal procurement, tax and accounting guidance, and surveys from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) within the National Science Foundation (NSF). The last section (V) presents R&D definitions from international statistical manuals on the System of National Accounts and globalization.

R&D definitions are provided unedited as they appear in their original sources.

I. OECD—Frascati Manual

Description.

The updated Frascati Manual (7th ed., OECD 2015) provides the definition of research and experimental development (R&D) and of its components: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. To provide guidance on what is and what is not an R&D activity, five criteria are provided requiring the activity to be novel, creative, uncertain in its outcome, systematic, and transferable and/or reproducible.

2.5 Research and experimental development (R&D) comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of humankind, culture and society—and to devise new applications of available knowledge.

2.6 A set of common features identifies R&D activities, even if these are carried out by different performers. R&D activities may be aimed at achieving either specific or general objectives. R&D is always aimed at new findings, based on original concepts (and their interpretation) or hypotheses. It is largely uncertain about its final outcome (or at least about the quantity of time and resources needed to achieve it), it is planned for and budgeted (even when carried out by individuals), and it is aimed at producing results that could be either freely transferred or traded in a marketplace. For an activity to be an R&D activity, it must satisfy five core criteria.

2.7 The activity must be:

transferable and/or reproducible.

2.8 All five criteria are to be met, at least in principle, every time an R&D activity is undertaken whether on a continuous or occasional basis. The definition of R&D just given is consistent with the definition of R&D used in the previous editions of the Frascati Manual and covers the same range of activities.

2.9 The term R&D covers three types of activity: basic research, applied research and experimental development. Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view. Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective. Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.

Distribution by type of R&D

2.23 A breakdown by type of R&D is recommended for use in all four of the sectors used in this manual [Business enterprise; Higher education; Government; and Private nonprofit].

2.24 There are three types of R&D:

basic research
applied research
experimental development.

Basic research

2.25 Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view.

Applied research

2.29 Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective.

Experimental development

2.32 Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.

OECD, Frascati Manual , 7th ed, Chapter 2. The full Frascati Manual is available at http://oe.cd/frascati.

II. U.S. Business Enterprise R&D

A. financial accounting standards board.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) provides U.S. GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles) for businesses. ASC is organized by “topics” and Topic 730 is devoted to research and development (formerly covered in FASB Statement No. 2 “Accounting for Research and Development Costs”). Material formerly covered in FASB Statement No. 68 “Research and Development Arrangements” also appears under Topic 730. The FASB material below, copyrighted by the Financial Accounting Foundation, 401 Merritt 7, Norwalk, CT 06856, is used with permission.

Topic 730 Research and Development, 730-10-20 Glossary

Research is planned search or critical investigation aimed at discovery of new knowledge with the hope that such knowledge will be useful in developing a new product or service (hereinafter “product”) or a new process or technique (hereinafter “process”) or in bringing about a significant improvement to an existing product or process.

Development is the translation of research findings or other knowledge into a plan or design for a new product or process or for a significant improvement to an existing product or process whether intended for sale or use. It includes the conceptual formulation, design, and testing of product alternatives, construction of prototypes, and operation of pilot plants.

Topic 730 Research and Development, 730-10-55 Implementation Guidance and Illustrations Examples of Activities Typically Included in Research and Development 55-1.

The following activities typically would be considered research and development within the scope of this Topic (unless conducted for others under a contractual arrangement [see NOTES below]):

Laboratory research aimed at discovery of new knowledge
Searching for applications of new research findings or other knowledge
Conceptual formulation and design of possible product or process alternatives
Testing in search for or evaluation of product or process alternatives
Modification of the formulation or design of a product or process
Design, construction, and testing of preproduction prototypes and models
Design of tools, jigs, molds, and dies involving new technology
Design, construction, and operation of a pilot plant that is not of a scale economically feasible to the entity for commercial production
Engineering activity required to advance the design of a product to the point that it meets specific functional and economic requirements and is ready for manufacture
Design and development of tools used to facilitate research and development or components of a product or process that are undergoing research and development activities.

Examples of Activities Typically Excluded from Research and Development 55-2.

The following activities typically would not be considered research and development within the scope of this Topic:

Engineering follow-through in an early phase of commercial production
Quality control during commercial production including routine testing of products
Trouble-shooting in connection with break-downs during commercial production
Routine, ongoing efforts to refine, enrich, or otherwise improve upon the qualities of an existing product
Adaptation of an existing capability to a particular requirement or customer's need as part of a continuing commercial activity
Seasonal or other periodic design changes to existing products
Routine design of tools, jigs, molds, and dies
Activity, including design and construction engineering, related to the construction, relocation, rearrangement, or start-up of facilities or equipment other than the following:
Pilot plants (see [h] in the preceding paragraph)
Facilities or equipment whose sole use is for a particular R&D project [see NOTES below]
Legal work in connection with patent applications or litigation, and the sale or licensing of patents.

Topic 730 covers R&D expense or R&D costs funded by the reporting entity. Accounting for the costs of R&D activities conducted for others under a contractual arrangement is part of accounting for contracts in general (see, for example, Topic 606). See also paragraphs 25-8 to 25-10 under 730-20-25.

See Subtopic 912 under 730 for guidance to government contractors related to identifying R&D activities included in government contracts and the accounting for such activities.

For guidance on R&D arrangements, see Subtopics 730-20 and 810-30. For guidance regarding design and development costs for products to be sold under long-term supply arrangements, see Subtopic 340-10. Topic 850 specifies disclosure requirements for related party transactions.

For guidance on materials, property, plant, and equipment acquired or constructed for R&D projects, see paragraph 25-2 under 730-10-25 and Topic 360. For intangibles and contract services used for R&D, see paragraph 25-2 under 730-10-25 and Topic 720.

For guidance on computer software as a cost of R&D (formerly covered in part in FASB Statement No. 86 “Accounting for the Costs of Computer Software to Be Sold, Leased, or Otherwise Marketed” paragraphs 28–36), see Topic 730, Subtopic 10, especially paragraphs 25-3 and 25-4. Subtopic 350-40 covers general guidance on costs of computer software developed or obtained for internal use and Subtopic 985-20 covers computer software intended to be sold, leased or marketed. In particular, paragraph 985-20-25-1 offers guidance regarding costs incurred to establish the technological feasibility of a computer software product. For guidance related to a funded software-development arrangement, see paragraphs 985-605-25-86 through 25-87.

The accounting for recognized intangible assets acquired by an entity, other than intangibles acquired in a business combination, is specified in Topic 350 (formerly covered in FASB Statement No. 142 “Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets”). R&D assets acquired in a business combination or an acquisition by a not-for-profit entity is covered in Subtopic 805-20.

The material from FASB in this section was compiled in 2016 and is not meant to be an exhaustive summary of U.S. business R&D accounting guidance. For more information and FASB updates, see cited source.

FASB statements and other pronouncements. Available at https://asc.fasb.org and http://www.iasplus.com/en-us/standards/fasb/expenses/asc730 .

B. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations

Section 1.174-2 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations ( Title 26, Internal Revenue ) specifies the definition of R&D for tax filing purposes.

1.174-2 Definition of research and development expenditures.

(a) In general.

(1) The term research or experimental expenditures , as used in section 174, means expenditures incurred in connection with the taxpayer’s trade or business which represent research and development costs in the experimental or laboratory sense. The term generally includes all such costs incident to the development or improvement of a product. The term includes the costs of obtaining a patent, such as attorneys’ fees expended in making and perfecting a patent application. Expenditures represent research and development costs in the experimental or laboratory sense if they are for activities intended to discover information that would eliminate uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of a product. Uncertainty exists if the information available to the taxpayer does not establish the capability or method for developing or improving the product or the appropriate design of the product. Whether expenditures qualify as research or experimental expenditures depends on the nature of the activity to which the expenditures relate, not the nature of the product or improvement being developed or the level of technological advancement the product or improvement represents.

(2) For purposes of this section, the term product includes any pilot model, process, formula, invention, technique, patent, or similar property, and includes products to be used by the taxpayer in its trade or business as well as products to be held for sale, lease, or license.

(3) The term research or experimental expenditures does not include expenditures for:

i. The ordinary testing or inspection of materials or products for quality control (quality control testing);

ii. Efficiency surveys;

iii. Management studies;

iv. Consumer surveys;

v. Advertising or promotions;

vi. The acquisition of another’s patent, model, production or process; or

vii. Research in connection with literary, historical, or similar projects.

26 CFR 1.174-2. Available at https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/26/1.174-2 .

C. NCSES Surveys on Business R&D

Business enterprise research and development (berd) survey.

Annual Business Survey (R&D for Microbusiness module)

The BERD Survey is the primary source of information on R&D performed or funded by businesses within the United States and is successor to the Business R&D and Innovation Survey (BRDIS) and the Survey of Industrial Research and Development. The BERD Survey covers for-profit, nonfarm businesses with ten or more employees. The survey is conducted by the Census Bureau for NCSES. For more information and statistics, see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyberd/ .

R&D comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge and to devise new applications of available knowledge. This includes (a) activities aimed at acquiring new knowledge or understanding without specific immediate commercial applications or uses (basic research); (b) activities aimed at solving a specific problem or meeting a specific commercial objective (applied research); and (c) systematic work, drawing on research and practical experience and resulting in additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes (development). R&D includes both direct costs such as salaries of researchers as well as administrative and overhead costs clearly associated with the company’s R&D.

The term R&D does NOT include expenditures for the following:

Costs for routine product testing, quality control, and technical services unless they are an integral part of an R&D project
Market research
Efficiency surveys or management studies
Literary, artistic, or historical projects, such as films, music, or books and other publications
Prospecting or exploration for natural resources

The following are examples of activities that typically would be excluded from research and development (in accordance with FASB Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 2 “Accounting for Research and Development Costs” https://fasb.org/page/document?pdf=aop_fas2.pdf&title=FAS%202%20(AS%20AMENDED ):

Engineering follow-through in an early phase of commercial production.
Quality control during commercial production including routine testing of products.
Trouble-shooting in connection with break-downs during commercial production.
Routine, ongoing efforts to refine, enrich, or otherwise improve upon the qualities of an existing product.
Adaptation of an existing capability to a particular requirement or customer's need as part of a continuing commercial activity.
Seasonal or other periodic design changes to existing products.
Routine design of tools, jigs, molds, and dies.
Activity, including design and construction engineering, related to the construction, relocation, rearrangement, or start-up of facilities or equipment other than (1) pilot plants and (2) facilities or equipment whose sole use is for a particular research and development project.

Does R&D include development of software and Internet applications?

Research and development activity in software and Internet applications refers only to activities with an element of uncertainty and that are intended to close knowledge gaps and meet scientific and technological needs…. regardless of the eventual user (internal or external).

R&D activity in software INCLUDES the following:

Software development or improvement activities that expand scientific or technological knowledge
Construction of new theories and algorithms in the field of computer science

R&D activity in software EXCLUDES the following:

Software development that does not depend on a scientific or technological advance, such as the following:
supporting or adapting existing systems
adding functionality to existing application programs, and
routine debugging of existing systems and software
Creation of new software based on known methods and applications
Conversion or translation of existing software and software languages
Adaptation of a product to a specific client, unless knowledge that significantly improved the base program was added in that process

NCSES BERD survey questionnaires. Available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyberd/ .

Annual Business Survey (R&D for Microbusinesses module)

The Annual Business Survey (ABS) is the primary source of information on R&D for nonfarm, for-profit businesses operating in the United States with one to nine employees. For businesses with one or more employees, ABS also collects data on innovation, technology, intellectual property, business owner characteristics, and additional content that changes annually. The ABS is conducted by the Census Bureau in partnership with NCSES within NSF.

ABS Microbusinesses module: For businesses with one to nine employees, the survey collects the following information:

R&D performance
Total and R&D employment
Sources of R&D funding
Type of R&D work (basic research, applied research, and development)
Type of R&D cost (e.g., salaries and fringe benefits)

Research and development (R&D) comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge and to devise new applications of available knowledge.

R&D activity in software EXCLUDES:

Type of R&D

Basic research–activities aimed at acquiring new knowledge or understanding without specific immediate commercial applications or uses.
Applied research–activities aimed at solving a specific problem or meeting a specific commercial objective.
Experimental development–systematic work, drawing on research and practical experience and resulting in additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.

NCSES ABS description and questionnaires. Available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyabs/ .

III. Federal and State Government R&D

A. office of management and budget circular a-11.

The OMB prescribes budget regulations for federal agencies. Part II of Circular A-11 covers development of the president’s budget and provides guidance on agency submissions to OMB. Section 84 of the circular defines budget authority, outlays, and offsetting receipts for the conduct of R&D, construction and rehabilitation of R&D facilities, and R&D equipment.

Conduct of research and development (R&D): Research and experimental development activities are defined as creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of people, culture, and society—and to devise new applications using available knowledge.

Administrative expenses for R&D, such as the operating costs of research facilities and equipment and other overhead costs.
Investments in physical assets such as major equipment and facilities that support R&D programs. These investments should generally be reported under physical assets.
Routine product testing, quality control, collection of general-purpose statistics, routine monitoring, and evaluation of an operational program (when that program is not R&D). Spending of this type should generally be reported as non-investment activities.
Training of scientific and technical personnel should be reported as conduct of education and training. However, if an activity includes a mixture of R&D objectives as well as the education of graduate students, agencies should report under the lowest relevant line item.

Basic research is defined as experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts. Basic research may include activities with broad or general applications in mind, such as the study of how plant genomes change, but should exclude research directed towards a specific application or requirement include, such as the optimization of the genome of a specific crop species.

Applied research is defined as original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. Applied research is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective.

Experimental development is defined as creative and systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience, which is directed at producing new products or processes or improving existing products or processes. Like research, experimental development will result in gaining additional knowledge.

For reporting experimental development activities, include the following:

The production of materials, devices, and systems or methods, including the design, construction and testing of experimental prototypes.
Technology demonstrations, in cases where a system or component is being demonstrated at scale for the first time, and it is realistic to expect additional refinements to the design (feedback R&D) following the demonstration. However, not all activities that are identified as “technology demonstrations” are R&D.
User demonstrations where the cost and benefit of a system are being validated for a specific use case. This includes low-rate initial production activities.
Pre-production development, which is defined as non-experimental work on a product or system before it goes into full production, including activities such as tooling, and development of production facilities. For example, exclude activities and programs that are categorized as “Operational Systems Development” in the Department of Defense’s budget activity structure. Activities and programs of this type should generally be reported as investments in other major equipment.

Physical assets are land, structures, equipment, and intellectual property (e.g., software or applications) that have an estimated useful life of two years or more; or commodity inventories. This character class code is used to enter amounts for the purchase, construction, manufacture, rehabilitation, or major improvement of physical assets regardless of whether the assets are owned or operated by the Federal Government, States, municipalities, or private individuals. The cost of the asset includes both its purchase price and all other costs incurred to bring it to a form and location suitable for its use. Within this character class code, agencies are also required to identify spending for R&D facilities and major equipment.

For reporting construction of R&D facilities, include the following:

Construction of facilities that are necessary for the execution of an R&D program. This may include land, major fixed equipment, and supporting infrastructure such as a sewer line, or housing at a remote location. Many laboratory buildings will include a mixture of R&D facilities and office space. The fraction of the building directly related to the conduct R&D may be calculated based on the percentage of the square footage.
Construction of other facilities, such as office space (which should be reported in the other construction and rehabilitation category on line 1313 or 1314).
Major movable R&D equipment.

For reporting Major equipment R&D (lines 1321 and 1322), include the following:

Acquisition, design, or production of major movable equipment, such as mass spectrometers, research vessels, DNA sequencers, and other movable major instruments for use in R&D activities.
Programs of $1 million or more that are devoted to the purchase or construction of R&D major equipment (see section 84.3(a)).
Minor equipment purchases, such as personal computers, standard microscopes, and simple spectrometers.

OMB Circular A-11. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars/.

B. Federal Acquisitions Regulations

The Federal Acquisitions Regulations (FAR) were established to codify uniform policies for the acquisition of supplies and services by executive agencies. Basic research is defined in FAR Part 2–Definitions of Words and Terms, subpart 2.101 “Definitions.” Applied research and development are defined in FAR Part 35–Research and Development Contracting, subpart 35.001 “Definitions.” Full text of FAR Parts is available at https://www.acquisition.gov/?q=browsefar.

Basic research means that research directed toward increasing knowledge in science. The primary aim of basic research is a fuller knowledge or understanding of the subject under study, rather than any practical application of that knowledge.

Applied research means the effort that (a) normally follows basic research, but may not be severable from the related basic research; (b) attempts to determine and exploit the potential of scientific discoveries or improvements in technology materials, processes, methods, devices, or techniques; and (c) attempts to advance the state of the art. When being used by contractors in cost principle applications, this term does not include efforts whose principal aim is the design, development, or testing of specific items or services to be considered for sale; these efforts are within the definition of "development," given below.

Development, as used in this part, means the systematic use of scientific and technical knowledge in the design, development, testing, or evaluation of a potential new product or service (or of an improvement in an existing product or service) to meet specific performance requirements or objectives. It includes the functions of design engineering, prototyping, and engineering testing; it excludes subcontracted technical effort that is for the sole purpose of developing an additional source for an existing product.

The Federal Acquisitions Regulations (FAR). Available at https://www.acquisition.gov/?q=browsefar.

C. Department of Defense Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation Budget Activities

The Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) budget activities are broad categories reflecting different types of DOD science and technology activities. These definitions guide internal budget documents and submissions of data to other government agencies. The following is drawn from DOD’s Financial Management Regulation (DOD 7000.14-R), Volume 2B, Chapter 5 (Research, Development and Evaluation Appropriations). (As a historical artifact from previous DOD budget authority terminology, funds for RDT&E budget activity categories 1 through 7 are sometimes referred to as 6.1 through 6.7.) The full text of Chapter 5 is available at http://comptroller.defense.gov/FMR/vol2b_chapters.aspx .

Budget Activity 1, Basic Research. Basic research is systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards processes or products in mind. It includes all scientific study and experimentation directed toward increasing fundamental knowledge and understanding in those fields of the physical, engineering, environmental, and life sciences related to long-term national security needs. It is farsighted high payoff research that provides the basis for technological progress. Basic research may lead to: (a) subsequent applied research and advanced technology developments in Defense-related technologies, and (b) new and improved military functional capabilities in areas such as communications, detection, tracking, surveillance, propulsion, mobility, guidance and control, navigation, energy conversion, materials and structures, and personnel support. Program elements in this category involve pre-Milestone A efforts.

Budget Activity 2, Applied Research. Applied research is systematic study to understand the means to meet a recognized and specific need. It is a systematic expansion and application of knowledge to develop useful materials, devices, and systems or methods. It may be oriented, ultimately, toward the design, development, and improvement of prototypes and new processes to meet general mission area requirements. Applied research may translate promising basic research into solutions for broadly defined military needs, short of system development. This type of effort may vary from systematic mission-directed research beyond that in Budget Activity 1 to sophisticated breadboard hardware, study, programming and planning efforts that establish the initial feasibility and practicality of proposed solutions to technological challenges. It includes studies, investigations, and non-system specific technology efforts. The dominant characteristic is that applied research is directed toward general military needs with a view toward developing and evaluating the feasibility and practicality of proposed solutions and determining their parameters. Applied Research precedes system specific technology investigations or development. Program control of the Applied Research program element is normally exercised by general level of effort. Program elements in this category involve pre-Milestone B efforts, also known as Concept and Technology Development phase tasks, such as concept exploration efforts and paper studies of alternative concepts for meeting a mission need.

Budget Activity 3, Advanced Technology Development (ATD). This budget activity includes development of subsystems and components and efforts to integrate subsystems and components into system prototypes for field experiments and/or tests in a simulated environment. Budget Activity 3 includes concept and technology demonstrations of components and subsystems or system models. The models may be form, fit, and function prototypes or scaled models that serve the same demonstration purpose. The results of this type of effort are proof of technological feasibility and assessment of subsystem and component operability and producibility rather than the development of hardware for service use. Projects in this category have a direct relevance to identified military needs. Advanced Technology Development demonstrates the general military utility or cost reduction potential of technology when applied to different types of military equipment or techniques. Program elements in this category involve pre-Milestone B efforts, such as system concept demonstration, joint and Service-specific experiments or Technology Demonstrations and generally have Technology Readiness Levels of 4, 5, or 6. (For further discussion on Technology Readiness Levels, see the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering’s Technology Readiness Assessment (TRA) Guidance.) Projects in this category do not necessarily lead to subsequent development or procurement phases, but should have the goal of moving out of Science and Technology (S&T) and into the acquisition process within the Future Years Defense Program (FYDP). Upon successful completion of projects that have military utility, the technology should be available for transition.

Budget Activity 4, Advanced Component Development and Prototypes (ACD&P). Efforts necessary to evaluate integrated technologies, representative modes or prototype systems in a high fidelity and realistic operating environment are funded in this budget activity. The ACD&P phase includes system specific efforts that help expedite technology transition from the laboratory to operational use. Emphasis is on proving component and subsystem maturity prior to integration in major and complex systems and may involve risk reduction initiatives. Program elements in this category involve efforts prior to Milestone B and are referred to as advanced component development activities and include technology demonstrations. Completion of Technology Readiness Levels 6 and 7 should be achieved for major programs. Program control is exercised at the program and project level. A logical progression of program phases and development and/or production funding must be evident in the FYDP.

Budget Activity 5, System Development and Demonstration (SDD). SDD programs have passed Milestone B approval and are conducting engineering and manufacturing development tasks aimed at meeting validated requirements prior to full-rate production. This budget activity is characterized by major line item projects and program control is exercised by review of individual programs and projects. Prototype performance is near or at planned operational system levels. Characteristics of this budget activity involve mature system development, integration and demonstration to support Milestone C decisions, and conducting live fire test and evaluation and initial operational test and evaluation of production representative articles. A logical progression of program phases and development and production funding must be evident in the FYDP consistent with the Department’s full funding policy.

Budget Activity 6, RDT&E Management Support. This budget activity includes management and support for research, development, test and evaluation efforts and funds to sustain and/or modernize the installations or operations required for general research, development, test and evaluation. Test ranges, military construction, maintenance support of laboratories, operation and maintenance of test aircraft and ships, and studies and analyses in support of the RDT&E program are funded in this budget activity. Costs of laboratory personnel, either in-house or contractor operated, would be assigned to appropriate projects or as a line item in the Basic Research, Applied Research, or ATD program areas, as appropriate. Military construction costs directly related to major development programs are included in this budget activity.

Budget Activity 7, Operational System Development. This budget activity includes development efforts to upgrade systems that have been fielded or have received approval for full rate production and anticipate production funding in the current or subsequent fiscal year. All items are major line item projects that appear as RDT&E Costs of Weapon System Elements in other programs. Program control is exercised by review of individual projects. Programs in this category involve systems that have received approval for Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP). A logical progression of program phases and development and production funding must be evident in the FYDP, consistent with the Department’s full funding policy.

DOD, Financial Management Regulation (DOD 7000.14-R), Volume 2B, Chapter 5. Available at http://comptroller.defense.gov/FMR/vol2b_chapters.aspx .

D. NCSES Surveys on Federal R&D Funding

Survey of federal funds for research and development, survey of federal science and engineering support to universities, colleges, and nonprofit institutions, ffrdc research and development survey.

The Survey of Federal Funds for Research and Development is the primary source of information about federal funding for R&D in the United States. The survey is an annual census completed by the federal agencies that conduct R&D programs. For general information about this survey, please see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyfedfunds/.

R&D: Research and experimental development (R&D) activities are defined as creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of people, culture, and society—and to devise new applications using available knowledge.

For reporting R&D activities, include the following:

Investments in physical assets such as major equipment and facilities that support R&D programs. These investments should generally be reported under R&D Plant (see Tables 1, 1B, 2, 9, and 13 in the 2020 survey questionnaire available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyfedfunds/#qs ).
Routine product testing, quality control, collection of general-purpose statistics, routine monitoring, and evaluation of an operational program (when that program is not R&D).
Training of scientific and technical personnel should be reported as conduct of education and training.

RDT&E (for DOD only): The Department of Defense’s Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) can be both (1) activities for the development of a new system, or to expand the performance of fielded systems, and (2) an appropriation. The RDT&E budget activities are broad categories reflecting different types of RDT&E efforts, which include Basic Research (BA 1); Applied Research (BA 2); Advanced Technology Development (ATD) (BA 3); Major Systems Development, which includes Advanced Component Development and Prototypes (ACD&P) (BA 4), System Development and Demonstration (SDD) (BA 5), and RDT&E Management Support (BA 6); and Operational Systems Development (BA 7). The definitions of these categories are established by Department of Defense Instruction 5000.02, “Operation of the Defense Acquisition System.” For more information, see Budget Activities 1 through 7 in the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5, pages 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6 at http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/documents/fmr/Volume_02b.pdf .

R&D plant: R&D plant is defined as spending on both R&D facilities and major equipment as defined in Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-11 Section 84 (Schedule C) and includes physical assets, such as land, structures, equipment, and intellectual property (e.g., software or applications) that have an estimated useful life of two years or more. Reporting for R&D plant includes the purchase, construction, manufacture, rehabilitation, or major improvement of physical assets regardless of whether the assets are owned or operated by the Federal Government, States, municipalities, or private individuals. The cost of the asset includes both its purchase price and all other costs incurred to bring it to a form and location suitable for use.

For reporting construction of R&D facilities and major moveable R&D equipment, include the following:

Construction of facilities that are necessary for the execution of an R&D program. This may include land, major fixed equipment, and supporting infrastructure such as a sewer line, or housing at a remote location. Many laboratory buildings will include a mixture of R&D facilities and office space. The fraction of the building that is considered to be R&D may be calculated based on the percentage of square footage that is used for R&D.
Acquisition, design, or production of major moveable equipment, such as mass spectrometers, research vessels, DNA sequencers, and other moveable major instrumentation for use in R&D activities.
Programs of $1 million or more that are devoted to the purchase or construction of R&D major equipment.

Exclude the following:

Construction of other non-R&D facilities
Minor equipment purchases, such as personal computers, standard microscopes, and simple spectrometers (report these costs under total R&D, not R&D Plant)

Obligations for foreign R&D plant are limited to federal funds for facilities that are located abroad and used in support of foreign R&D.

Type of R&D: Type of R&D has three components for non-DOD respondents: basic research, applied research, and development.

Basic research: Basic research is defined as experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts. Basic research may include activities with broad or general applications in mind, such as the study of how plant genomes change, but should exclude research directed towards a specific application or requirement, such as the optimization of the genome of a specific crop species. Basic research represents Department of Defense Budget Activity 1.

Applied research: Applied research is defined as original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. Applied research is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective. Applied research represents Department of Defense Budget Activity 2.

Experimental development: Experimental development is defined as creative and systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience, which is directed at producing new products or processes or improving existing products or processes. Like research, experimental development will result in gaining additional knowledge.

The production of materials, devices, and systems or methods, including the design, construction, and testing of experimental prototypes.

For DOD Agencies, development itself is divided into three categories: advanced technology development, major systems development, and operational systems development.

Advanced technology development: This category is used for activities in DOD’s Budget Activity 3. For more information, see Budget Activity 3 on pages 5-4 and 5-5 of the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5, at http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/documents/fmr/Volume_02b.pdf.
Major systems development: This category is used for activities in DOD’s Budget Activities 4 through 6. For more information, see Budget Activities 4 through 6 on page 5-5 of the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5 at http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/documents/fmr/Volume_02b.pdf .
NOTE: As of the FY 2016 data collection, major systems development no longer includes Budget Activity 7.
Operational systems development: This category is used for activities in DOD’s Budget Activity 7. For more information, see Budget Activity 7 on page 5–6 of the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5 at http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/documents/fmr/Volume_02b.pdf.

NCSES, Survey of Federal Funds for R&D forms, available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyfedfunds/#qs .

This NCSES survey is congressionally mandated and is the only source of comprehensive data on federal science and engineering funding to individual academic and nonprofit institutions. For general information see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyfedsupport/ .

Research and development (R&D) activities are defined as creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of people, culture, and society—and to devise new applications using available knowledge.

Investments in physical assets such as major equipment and facilities that support R&D programs. These investments should generally be reported under physical assets, discussed under R&D plant.

Advanced technology development (DOD only) is one of the two categories the Department of Defense uses for development (the “D” in R&D). The category advanced technology development is used for the activities in DOD’s Budget Activity 3, Advanced Technology Development (ATD). For more information, see Budget Activity 3 on pages 5-4 to 5-5 of the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5, at http://comptroller.defense.gov/portals/45/documents/fmr/current/02b/02b_05.pdf.

Major systems development (DOD only) is the second of the two categories the Department of Defense uses for development. The category major systems development is used for activities in DOD’s Budget Activities 4 through 6. For more information, see Budget Activities 4 through 6 (Advanced Component Development and Prototypes [ACD&P], System Development and Demonstration [SDD], and RDT&E Management Support) on page 5-5 of the DOD Financial Management Regulation (FMR), Volume 2B, Chapter 5 at http://comptroller.defense.gov/portals/45/documents/fmr/current/02b/02b_05.pdf.

NOTE: As of FY 2016 data collection, major systems development no longer includes Budget Activity 7.

R&D plant is defined as R&D facilities, intellectual property (e.g., software or applications); major fixed equipment, such as reactors, wind tunnels, and particle accelerators; and major moveable equipment, such as mass spectrometers, research vessels, DNA sequencers, and other major moveable instruments for use in R&D activities. Amounts include acquisition of, construction of, major repairs to, or alterations in structures, works, equipment, facilities, or land for use in R&D activities at federal or nonfederal installations. Excluded from the R&D plant category are costs of expendable or movable equipment (e.g., simple spectrometers, standard microscopes), personal computers, and office furniture and equipment. Also excluded are the costs of predesign studies (e.g., those undertaken before commitment to a specific facility).

These excluded costs are reported under “total conduct of research and development.”

If the R&D facilities are a larger facility devoted to other purposes as well, the funds should be distributed among the categories of support involved as appropriate. In general, another category that would be involved is facilities and equipment for instruction in S&E.

NCSES, Survey of Federal Science and Engineering Support to Universities, Colleges, and Nonprofit Institutions, available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyfedsupport/#qs .

The FFRDC Research and Development Survey is the primary source of information on separately budgeted R&D expenditures at federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) in the United States. Conducted annually for university-administered FFRDCs since FY 1953 and all FFRDCs since FY 2001, the survey collects information on R&D expenditures by source of funds and types of research and expenses. The survey is an annual census of the full population of eligible FFRDCs. See https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyffrdc/ for more on this survey https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/ for the Master List of FFRDCs maintained by NCSES.

Research and Development (R&D)

R&D is creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge— including knowledge of humankind, culture, and society—and to devise new applications of available knowledge. R&D covers three activities defined below—basic research, applied research, and experimental development.

Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view.
Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective.
Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.

NCSES, FFRDC R&D Survey forms, available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyffrdc/ .

E. State Government R&D

Survey of state government r&d.

This NCSES survey is the only source for comprehensive, uniform statistics regarding the extent of R&D activity performed and funded by departments and agencies in each of the nation’s 50 state governments, the government of the District of Columbia, and the government of Puerto Rico. For general information, see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvystaterd/.

R&D comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of humankind, culture, and society—and to devise new applications of available knowledge.

R&D is aimed at new findings (novel)
It has not been done before
It may produce findings that could be published in academic journals
It includes ideas that could be patented
R&D focuses on original concepts or ideas (creative)
Increases our knowledge of the subject
Helps create new products or applications
R&D outcomes are uncertain (because it’s never been done before)
Solutions are not always obvious or expected
Uncertain about, cost, time, or ability to achieve results
R&D is planned and budgeted (systematic)
Projects processes and outcomes are documented
Projects are planned and managed
R&D results in solutions that others may find useful (transferable)
Findings can be generalized to other situations and locations
Findings are reproducible

What is NOT R&D?

Construction and acquisition of land and facilities used primarily for R&D (reported separately in this survey)
Fixed equipment used primarily for R&D (reported separately in this survey)
Program planning and evaluation
Business development services for new companies
Commercialization (includes promoting/producing the products/services from R&D projects)
Economic/policy/feasibility studies
General patient services
Information systems
Management studies
Marketing of products/services
Market research or analysis
Routine data collection/dissemination
Routine monitoring/testing
Strategic planning
Technology transfer

NCSES, Survey of State Government R&D forms. Available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvystaterd/#qs .

IV. U.S. Higher Education R&D and R&D by Nonprofit Organizations

A. guidance from the office of management and budget.

OMB issued the Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards, Title 2 Part 200 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in December 2013. This guidance supersedes and streamlines requirements from the following OMB Circulars: A-21, A-50, A-87, A-89, A-102, A-110, A-122, and A-133. The full text of 2 CFR Part 200 is available at http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?ID=68fca03721b9c921be5236306ae7a5fa&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title02/2chapterII.tpl .

Previous definitions for R&D reporting relevant to educational institutions, hospitals and nonprofit organizations, state and local governments, and nonprofit organizations were addressed in OMB Circulars A-21, A-110, and A-133. Although these circulars are still available ( https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/circulars_default ) they are, with limited exceptions, no longer applied to assistance awards issued after the implementation date of 26 December 2014.

Research and Development (R&D) means all research activities, both basic and applied, and all development activities that are performed by non-federal entities. The term research also includes activities involving the training of individuals in research techniques where such activities utilize the same facilities as other research and development activities and where such activities are not included in the instruction function.

“Research” is defined as a systematic study directed toward fuller scientific knowledge or understanding of the subject studied. “Development” is the systematic use of knowledge and understanding gained from research directed toward the production of useful materials, devices, systems, or methods, including design and development of prototypes and processes.

2 CFR 200.87. Available at http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title02/2cfr200_main_02.tpl .

B. Higher Education R&D

Higher education research and development (herd) survey.

This NCSES survey is the primary source of information on R&D expenditures at U.S. colleges and universities and is the successor to the Survey of Research and Development Expenditures at Universities and Colleges. The HERD Survey collects information on R&D expenditures by field of research and source of funds and also gathers information on types of research and expenses and headcounts of R&D personnel. The survey is an annual census of institutions that expended at least $150,000 in separately budgeted R&D in the fiscal year. For general information about this survey, please see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyherd/.

R&D is creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of humankind, culture, and society—and to devise new applications of available knowledge. R&D covers three activities defined below—basic research, applied research, and experimental development.

NCSES, Higher Education Research and Development Survey forms. Available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyherd/.

C. R&D by Nonprofit Organizations

Nonprofit research activities survey.

The Nonprofit Research Activities (NPRA) Survey measures research and experimental development (R&D) performance and funding at U.S. 501(c) nonprofit organizations. It is currently collected as a separate module of the ABS data collection.

Type of R&D work (basic research, applied research, and experimental development)
R&D field

For the purposes of this survey, research includes research and experimental development. Research and experimental development comprise creative and systematic work to

Increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humankind, culture, and society OR
Devise new applications of available knowledge, including materials, products, devices, processes, systems, or services

Research activities must be

Novel: projects that advance current knowledge or create new knowledge
Creative: projects focused on original concepts and hypotheses
Uncertain: project outcomes are unable to be completely determined at the outset
Systematic: projects are planned and budgeted
Transferable/Reproducible: project methodology and results are transferable/reproducible to other situations and locations

May meet the criteria for research

Laboratory or animal studies
Clinical trials
Prototype development
Outcomes research
Development/measurement of new methods to deliver/measure social service outcomes
Policy research
Humanities research
Research traineeships
Other experimental studies

Most likely do not meet the criteria for research

Internal program monitoring or evaluation
Public service grants or outreach programs
Education or training programs
Quality control testing
Management studies/efficiency surveys
Feasibility studies, unless included as part of an overall research project

Type of R&D Work

Basic research: Experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view.
Applied research: Original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective.
Experimental development: Systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.

NCSES ABS Nonprofit Module questionnaire. Available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvynpra/ .

V. R&D in National Accounts and Globalization Manuals

A. r&d in the system of national accounts (sna).

The System of National Accounts, 2008 (2008 SNA) is a statistical framework that provides a comprehensive set of macroeconomic accounts for policy and research purposes. The 2008 SNA recognized R&D as investment or produced asset in an economy (SNA 6.230, 10.98). R&D is defined in paragraph 10.103 (Chapter 10: The capital account, Section B: Gross capital formation).

10.103 Intellectual property products include the results of research and development (R&D). Research and [experimental] development consists of the value of expenditures on creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.

United Nations (UN) Statistical Division—2008 System of National Accounts.

B. Measuring R&D in global economic activities

Guidance for official statistics on trade, investment, and international production—called global value chains (GVCs) in recent economics and policy research literature—explicitly cover R&D and related intangible assets under the heading of “intellectual property products” (IPP). (In addition to R&D, IPPs include software and databases, entertainment, literary or artistic originals, and the results from mineral exploration.) The information below briefly covers selected international statistical manuals.

OECD Handbook on Deriving Capital Measures of Intellectual Property Products, 2010

This handbook uses the SNA 2008 R&D definition (10.103) and describes domestic R&D output for purposes of national and international economic accounts in terms of three components consistent with both the SNA and Frascati: own account R&D (R&D conducted and used internally regardless of funding source); custom R&D (R&D conducted for, and funded by, another unit); and speculative or non-customized R&D.

Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual, 6th ed., 2009 (BPM6)

The manual covers accounting and statistical standards to compile the balance of payments (BOP), a statement that summarizes economic transactions—including R&D and other IPP— between residents and nonresidents (BPM6 2.2(b)). BPM6 incorporated R&D as an intellectual property product within the balance of payments (see BPM6 Table 10.4 and related text).

OECD Benchmark Definition of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 4th ed., 2008

This guidance describes definitions and measurement procedures for FDI flows and stocks consistent with the Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual. It also covers definitions of activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) (AMNE for short) including sales, value added, employment, R&D, and international trade. For related definitions, see Statistics on the Activities of Multinational Enterprises, Chapter 12 in U.S. International Economic Accounts: Concepts & Methods, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2014.

Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services (MSITS), 2010

This manual covers statistics on international supply of services, including R&D services as defined in MSITS paragraph 3.234.

3.234. Research and development services covers those services that are associated with basic research, applied research and experimental development of new products and processes and covers activities in the physical sciences, the social sciences and the humanities.

Guide to Measuring Global Production, 2015

This manual further elaborates on measurement issues from GVCs and related global manufacturing arrangements and transactions, including exchanges of R&D and other intangibles or intellectual property products. See especially chapter 4 (Ownership of intellectual property products inside global production).

OCED, Frascati Manual , 7th ed, “Measurement of R&D Globalisation,” chapter 11. Available at http://oe.cd/frascati .

International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2009. Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual , 6th ed. (BPM6). Washington, D.C. Available at https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/bop/2007/pdf/BPM6.pdf.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 2015. Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development , 7th ed. Paris, France. Available at http://oe.cd/frascati and https://www.oecd.org/publications/frascati-manual-2015-9789264239012-en.htm .

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 2010. Handbook on Deriving Capital Measures of Intellectual Property Products (IPP Handbook). Paris, France. Available at http://www.oecd.org/std/na/44312350.pdf .

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 2008. OECD Benchmark Definition of Foreign Direct Investment, 4th ed. Paris, France. Available at https://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investmentstatisticsandanalysis/40193734.pdf.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (UNECE/OECD). 2015. Guide to Measuring Global Production . Geneva, Switzerland. Available at http://www.unece.org/info/media/news/statistics/2016/unece-provides-practical-guidance-on- measuring-global-production/doc.html .

European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations, and World Bank. 2009. System of National Accounts 2008 (SNA). New York, NY. Available at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/nationalaccount/sna2008.asp .

United Nations, Eurostat, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization 2011. Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services 2010 (MSITS). Geneva, Switzerland. Available at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/tradeserv/TFSITS/manual.htm .

Report Authors

Francisco Moris Senior Analyst Research and Development Statistics Program, NCSES Tel: (703) 292-4678 E-mail: [email protected]

Christopher Pece Survey Manager Research and Development Statistics Program, NCSES Tel: (703) 292-7788 E-mail: [email protected]

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences National Science Foundation 2415 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite W14200 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: (703) 292-8780 FIRS: (800) 877-8339 TDD: (800) 281-8749 E-mail: [email protected]

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http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8708-9324 Krystel Aouad 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8428-6354 Maarten de Wit 2 ,
Muriel Elhai 3 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9119-5330 Diego Benavent 4 ,
Heidi Bertheussen 5 ,
Condruta Zabalan 6 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1049-4150 Jette Primdahl 7 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8895-6941 Paul Studenic 8 , 9 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4528-310X Laure Gossec 10 , 11
1 Rheumatology Division, Saint George University of Beirut , Saint George Hospital University Medical Center , Beirut , Lebanon
2 EULAR Study Group for collaborative research , Patient Research Partner , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
3 Rheumatology Department, University of Zurich , University Hospital Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
4 Rheumatology Department , Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge , Barcelona , Spain
5 Patient Research Partner , Oslo , Norway
6 Patient Research Partner , Bucharest , Romania
7 Danish Hospital for Rheumatic Diseases , University Hospital of Southern Denmark , Sønderborg , Denmark
8 Rheumatology Division, Department of Medicine(Solna) , Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
9 Rheumatology Division, Internal Medicine Department , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
10 Rheumatology Department , University Hospital Pitié Salpêtrière , Paris , France
11 INSERM, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique , Sorbonne Université , Paris , France
Correspondence to Dr Krystel Aouad, Rheumatology Department, Saint George University of Beirut, Saint George Hospital University Medical Center, PO box 166378, Beirut, Lebanon; krystel.aouad{at}hotmail.com

Background Patient research partners (PRPs) are people with a disease who collaborate in a research team as partners. The aim of this systematic literature review (SLR) was to assess barriers and facilitators to PRP involvement in rheumatology research.

Methods The SLR was conducted in PubMed/Medline for articles on PRP involvement in rheumatology research, published between 2017 and 2023; websites were also searched in rheumatology and other specialties. Data were extracted regarding the definition of PRPs, their role and added value, as well as barriers and facilitators to PRP involvement. The quality of the articles was assessed. Quantitative data were analysed descriptively, and principles of thematic content analysis was applied to qualitative data.

Results Of 1016 publications, 53 articles were included; the majority of these studies were qualitative studies (26%), opinion articles (21%), meeting reports (17%) and mixed-methods studies (11%). Roles of PRPs ranged from research partners to patient advocates, advisors and patient reviewers. PRPs were reported/advised to be involved early in the project (32% of articles) and in all research phases (30%), from the conception stage to the implementation of research findings. The main barriers were challenges in communication and support for both PRPs and researchers. Facilitators of PRP involvement included more than one PRP per project, training of PRPs and researchers, a supportive environment for PRPs (including adequate communication, acknowledgement and compensation of PRPs) and the presence of a PRP coordinator.

Conclusion This SLR identified barriers and facilitators to PRP involvement, and was key to updating the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology recommendations for PRP–researcher collaboration based on scientific evidence.

Health services research
Health-Related Quality Of Life
Outcome and Process Assessment, Health Care
Quality Indicators, Health Care

Data availability statement

Data are available upon reasonable request. All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplemental information. Additional data are available on reasonable request.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

https://doi.org/10.1136/ard-2024-225567

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

Patient research partners (PRPs) are increasingly integrated into medical research, particularly in rheumatology.

Major global health organisations recognise the central role of PRPs’ involvement in research.

Previous recommendations have guided researchers and PRPs to build collaborative relations but lack a strong evidence base.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

This systematic literature review provides for the first time a comprehensive overview of the emerging role of PRPs in rheumatology research, emphasising their expanding roles, contributions and the value they bring to the research process.

The review identified key barriers to PRP involvement, ranging from personal factors to challenges in training, communication and collaboration, and also identified strategies to enhance PRP involvement.

Early and sustained involvement of PRPs, as well as a supportive environment and effective communication, were found to be essential to enhance the relevance and impact of PRP contribution to research.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

Recognising and addressing the barriers to PRP involvement can lead to better support for PRPs, enhancing their involvement in research.

Some facilitators identified include involvement of PRPs since the early stages of research, a supportive environment for PRPs and encouraging researchers to adopt more flexible strategies and behaviours to maximise the benefit of PRP involvement.

This literature review informed European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology recommendations, highlighting the importance of active collaboration, training, mutual respect, and transparent communication between PRPs and researchers.

Introduction

Patient research partners (PRPs) are described as individuals living with a health condition who ‘provide input to research, through active collaboration as equal partners with researchers’. 1 Their involvement is essential to make research more patient centred, for instance, by capturing outcomes that matter to patients. Over the past two decades, the magnitude of PRP involvement and their roles in research has grown substantially. 2–8 Patients have transitioned from passive subjects to active collaborators and equal partners, bringing their unique perspectives and valuable insights to the forefront of medical research. 5 This change has not only profoundly modified research practices but has also underscored the integral role PRPs play in shaping the future of medical practice. 9 The importance of PRP involvement in research has become widely recognised as an essential component of high-quality patient care, highlighted by organisations such as the WHO 4 and European Medicine Agency (EMA), 10 and is acknowledged across various medical specialties. 11–13

In rheumatology, this paradigm shift has been significant. In 2011, the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) developed recommendations for the involvement of patient representatives in scientific projects based on expert opinion. 14 These recommendations marked a pivotal step, setting the stage for the involvement of PRPs in research projects. Since then, these EULAR recommendations have guided other organisations such as Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT), Group for Research and Assessment of Psoriasis and Psoriatic Arthritis (GRAPPA) and the Foundation for Research in Rheumatology (FOREUM), to recognise the important role of PRPs or to develop their own guidelines for collaborative research. 15–18

As the landscape of patient involvement in research evolves, the literature has witnessed a great surge in data and studies concerning PRP involvement. 2 4 5 15 19–25 These studies not only shed light on the benefits of PRP participation but also highlighted the challenges encountered in this collaborative effort and solutions proposed to overcome barriers. 21 22 25–29

In 2022, EULAR decided to update the 2011 recommendations for PRP involvement in research, focusing specifically on PRPs in the context of chronic conditions. 14 In accordance with the EULAR standardised operational procedures (SOPs) supporting this update, we conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) to inform the EULAR taskforce.

To support the update of the EULAR recommendations, we conducted in 2023 an SLR that encompassed both qualitative and semiquantitative analyses of recent publications in rheumatology, with the goal of identifying factors that affect PRP involvement, including barriers and facilitators.

Literature search

The SLR aimed to identify publications reporting PRP involvement in rheumatology research published between 1 January 2017 and 1 January 2023. We searched the electronic database PubMed MEDLINE using the terms “patient research partner”, “patient expert”, “patient and public involvement (PPI)”, their synonyms and related concepts. Details of the search terms and search strategy can be found in online supplemental table 1 . Two authors (KA, LG) independently assessed the title, abstract and keywords of every publication identified. In the event of disagreement between the reviewers, disparities were discussed and resolved. Additionally, we performed a scoping review of databases to assess PRP involvement and explored six websites from rheumatology: OMERACT, GRAPPA, American College of Rheumatology, EULAR, FOREUM and Osteoarthritis Research Society International. We also searched 2 regulator websites: Food and Drug Administration and EMA, and 10 websites of three selected specialties recognised for significant PRP involvement: cardiology, oncology, endocrinology (diabetes) ( online supplemental table 2 ). A specific search was done in two websites focusing on patient and public involvement: INVOLVE UK by the National Institute for Health Research and Education that empowers (European Patients’ Academy on Therapeutic Innovation), and in orphan diseases to answer specific research questions about training, involvement in grant applications and remuneration of PRPs ( online supplemental table 3 ).

Supplemental material

The scope of the literature search was defined by the EULAR taskforce steering group, 1 and addressed 11 specific research questions ( Box 1 ).

Research topics included in the systematic literature review

1. Definition of patient research partners (PRPs)

How to define a PRP? Is the current definition of PRPs still adequate?

2. Roles and activities undertaken by PRPs

What are the roles and activities of PRPs in rheumatic musculoskeletal disease research?

3. Benefits and added value of PRP involvement for PRPs themselves, researchers, the research itself

What is the added value of PRPs in different types of research and groups?

4. Types of scientific projects that involved PRPs and the stages of the projects in which they participated

What types of projects are (or should) PRPs (be) involved in?

What phases of a project are (or should) PRPs (be) involved in?

5. Selection and recruitment processes for PRPs

How are (or should) PRPs (be) recruited and selected?

How many PRPs are (or should be) involved in the research?

6. Insights into the experiences and feedback provided by PRPs

What are the PRP feedback and experiences, in terms of facilitators and barriers to PRP involvement?

How can we improve the PRP experience and involvement overall?

7. Roles of a coordinator for PRPs in research

Are PRP facilitators involved, if so how, and is it useful?

Is a facilitator/PRP coordinator recommended?

What is the reported usefulness of a facilitator ?

8. Training provided to PRPs or researchers

Do the PRPs involved have a specific training (previously/during the study)?

How should researchers be educated, trained, supported to enhance PRP involvement?

9. Evaluation and monitoring related to PRP involvement

How should PRP involvement be monitored or evaluated? At which time points and by whom?

How should PRP involvement evaluation/monitoring be reported?

10. Recognition, compensation and acknowledgement of PRPs during their involvement in a scientific project

How should PRP involvement be recognised and acknowledged?

Is (should) compensation (be) proposed?

11. Barriers encountered and proposed solutions to enhance PRP involvement

What are the barriers encountered during PRP involvement?

Which strategies and contextual factors enable optimal engagement of PRPs?

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

We included all types of articles reporting PRP involvement in all types of research, including trials and observational studies, qualitative studies, mixed-methods studies and reports of meetings, opinion papers and reviews. We did not exclude published articles from any country, aiming to enhance the generalisability of our findings. Recommendations and guidelines on PRPs were also analysed and were used as supportive information. Articles not focused on rheumatology research or not bringing any information on PRPs (ie, not answering one or more research questions), as well as not in English, were excluded. Articles only mentioning PRPs or their involvement, without providing any details (eg, on their roles, contributions or barriers/facilitators), were excluded as well. Articles with duplicate information (ie, multiple publications reporting on a single study) were excluded if they did not provide additional information relevant to our research questions.

We also identified relevant articles by hand search of the references cited in the included studies, extending the inclusion period to the date of publication of the previous recommendations (2011–2023).

Data extraction

Data collection encompassed both quantitative and qualitative data, addressing various aspects of PRP involvement and providing answers to our research questions ( Box 1 ). Data were extracted and checked independently by two authors (KA and MdW). Discrepancies were resolved by discussion among the core team (KA, MdW, PS, LG).

Quality assessment

Papers were assessed for quality only if they reported original data. Review papers, recommendation papers, opinion papers, case studies, study protocols, report papers and qualitative studies not primarily focused on PRPs were excluded from quality assessment. Given the diversity of study types, we used the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist for qualitative studies, literature reviews and cross-sectional studies as described in the EULAR SOP. 30 31 This tool, originally developed for qualitative studies, assesses elements such as the clarity of research aims, appropriateness of methodology, suitability of the research design, adequacy of data collection and clarity in reporting outcomes. For mixed-methods studies, we used the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT, a critical appraisal tool that is designed for the appraisal stage of systematic mixed-studies reviews, that is, reviews that include qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods studies 32 (see online supplemental tables 4 and 5 for quality assessment). To facilitate interpretation, an overall quality assessment for the level of evidence (LoE) was conducted by evaluating the number of items on the score checklist and on the key items. Subsequently, the authors reached a consensus on classification of the articles’ quality as high, medium or low quality.

This SLR was not considered appropriate by PROSPERO for registration due to the mixed-methods study analyses involved.

Patient and public involvement

This SLR study is the result of a co-production of three PRPs (MdW, CZ, HB) and five researchers, all being members of the EULAR steering committee responsible for updating the EULAR recommendations on PRP involvement. 1 The three PRPs actively contributed to all meetings and discussions within the steering committee. They were involved at the early stage of formulating the research questions until reviewing and agreeing on the final manuscript. They were also actively engaged in planning dissemination and implementation of the study findings within the wider community and patient associations. The recruitment of the PRPs was coordinated by one of the PRPs (MdW), the convenor of the project.

For quantitative data, a descriptive analysis of findings is reported, including characteristics of studies (study design, population, country, study objectives), characteristics of PRPs, selection process of PRPs, type of involvement, phases of the research where their involvement occurred, with numbers and percentages using frequency tables and charts.

The number of PRPs involved in the studies was quantified using two distinct methods: first, coauthorship count: direct examination of the research articles’ authorship lists. PRPs were identified based on explicit mentioning of their role as ‘PRP’ or other specific identification. Second, participation count: this approach assessed the number of broader involvements of PRPs in activities of the research project. For instance, in a GRAPPA meeting report, the number of PRPs who actively participated was counted. 8

Qualitative data were analysed according to the principles of thematic content analysis (more details in online supplemental table 6 ). 33 The results were discussed within the EULAR taskforce, 1 and any disagreements on the interpretation of the findings were resolved by a consensus of the core group (MdW, LG, PS, KA).

Search strategy

The SLR yielded a total of 1016 records of which 941 (92.6%) were excluded based on titles and abstracts. We conducted a full-text screening of 75 papers and 46 (61.3%) were included. The main reasons for exclusion were papers not related to rheumatology, lacking reports of PRP involvement in research, being irrelevant to our research questions, or being duplicates or conference abstracts ( figure 1 ). Additionally, 7 papers were identified by hand search, resulting in a total number of 53 included articles.

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Flow chart of selected article search on PRP involvement in rheumatology research. PRP, patient research partner.

Quality assessment (LoE) of the papers

Nineteen articles were assessed for quality using the predefined scores according to the study type. Overall, 79% (15 of 19) were classified as high quality, 11% (2 of 19) as medium quality and 11% as low quality ( online supplemental table 4 ).

Study characteristics

The included studies were qualitative studies (14 of 53, 26%), opinion articles (11 of 53, 21%), meeting reports (9 of 53, 17%), mixed-methods studies (6 of 53, 11%), recommendation articles (4 of 53, 8%), reviews (SLR or scoping review; 3 of 53, 6%), cross-sectional (2 of 53, 4%), case studies (2 of 53, 4%), observational (1 of 53, 2%) and study protocol (1 of 53, 2%) ( online supplemental tables 4 and 5 ).

Overall, 62% were published in rheumatology journals. Geographically, most of the studies were from Europe (50%), followed by North America (31%).

Identification of barriers encountered and proposed solutions to enhance PRP involvement

Barriers to PRP involvement ( table 1 and online supplemental table 7 ) included emotional and personal factors, communication and relationship challenges, inadequate training and support, difficulties in the research process and pace, as well as collaboration and engagement issues. 2–4 21 22 24–27 34–42 Effective strategies to enhance PRP involvement ( table 1 ) included early involvement, a supportive environment, effective communication and trust, and providing support and training for PRPs and researchers. 7 21 22 26 29 38 40 43 44

View inline

Barriers and strategies to enhance PRP involvement in rheumatology research

Definitions of PRP

Among the 53 included papers, 62% provided a definition of PRP. Importantly, a significant portion (30%) of these papers 4 6 15 26 27 34–36 45 46 adopted the 2011 EULAR definition of PRP as ‘persons with a relevant disease who operate as active research team members on an equal basis with professional researchers, adding the benefit of their experiential knowledge to any phase of the project’. 14 These papers consistently emphasised the importance of active involvement and fostering equal partnerships between PRP and researchers.

Additionally, seven papers (13%) expanded upon this definition by incorporating informal caregivers into the PRP definition, 20 28 37 38 47–49 known as persons, usually family members, who provide unpaid care to someone with whom they share a personal relationship.

The roles and activities of PRPs

The roles and activities of PRPs covered a wide spectrum, extending from research partners to patient advocates, advisory roles and participation as patient reviewers (as detailed in table 2 and online supplemental table 8 ). Their contributions encompassed a diverse range of activities, including providing input in guideline development, shaping research agendas, and actively advocating in scientific and clinical committees.

Activities and roles of PRPs

The added value of PRP involvement

The literature reported that PRPs added significant value across various aspects of research ( table 3 ). Specifically, 53% of the articles indicated that PRP involvement brought benefits for the PRP themselves, that is, better understanding of their medical condition, acquisition of practical skills, improved comprehension of the research process and increased self-confidence. 2 21 25 36 39 Furthermore, 26% of the articles highlighted advantages for the research process, that is, heightened relevance of the research, enhancement of its overall impact and enrichment of the results by adding experiential knowledge. 2 7 21 25 29 36 38 39 45 The positive impact on researchers, reported in 15% of the articles, encompassed deeper insights into research priorities, increased motivation, innovative ideas, awareness of the impact of their work, a comprehensive approach to addressing patients’ needs and improved communication in lay language ( table 3 ). 2 21 25 34 36 38 40 The added value of PRP involvement was also reported as advantageous for the wider community by enhancing the acceptance of research that prioritises community benefits. 2 21 25 36

Articles reporting on added value of PRP involvement in research for PRPs, for researchers and for the research

Types of research that involved PRPs

PRPs were actively involved in a wide range of scientific projects, including basic, translational and clinical research. 50 Although the benefits of PRP involvement were less apparent in basic and translational research, some researchers and PRPs recognised the substantial advantages of collaborative partnerships in this area. 3 25 34 A scoping review highlighted the benefits of PRP engagement in preclinical research, including enhanced understanding of basic science research for PRPs, broadened perspectives for researchers, and positive influence on study questions and methods, along with fostering mutual learning, new collaborations, and improved research quality and efficiency. 40 One study reported that researchers were committed to finding more meaningful ways to integrate PRPs into basic scientific research and dissemination of the project results. 3 Strategies to enhance PRP involvement (ie, training, support, PRP-focused tasks) were also reported. 3

Research phases in which PRP participated

Early involvement of PRPs in the research was reported or recommended in 32% of the included articles, emphasising engaging PRPs from the inception of a research project. 2 19–22 27–29 34 36–38 43 45 47 51 This early engagement was reported to enable PRPs to actively shape research questions and methodologies in line with their priorities. Additionally, 30% of the articles stressed the importance of PRPs’ continuous participation throughout all research stages ( table 4 ). 4 15 21 22 26 35 43 52–54

Articles reporting or recommending PRP involvement in different phases of the research project

Number of PRPs

The number of PRPs involved in research is shown in online supplemental figure 1 . When considering the coauthorship lists, the majority of articles clearly specified the name and identity of PRPs; subsequently, the number of PRPs involved in the writing and reviewing of the article could be easily deducted. Yet, in 19% of cases, the identification of a coauthor as a PRP was unclear. In cases where PRP involvement was explicitly highlighted by coauthorship, 34% of the articles included one or two PRPs per project, 17% of articles included three or four PRPs, and 25% of articles involved more than five PRPs. Notably, single-centre studies commonly involved one or two PRPs as coauthors. One study, which engaged four PRPs, found this number to be beneficial due to the diverse perspectives they brought. 45 Larger-scale international consortia projects recruited a higher number of PRPs, with around six PRPs being identified as an effective group size for facilitating participation and decision-making. 2

On the other hand, when reporting all PRP involvement and activities in a research project, 36% of the articles reported a number of PRP higher than nine ( online supplemental figure 1 ). Therefore, the number of PRPs involved in research can be higher than the number of PRPs mentioned as coauthors.

Selection and recruitment processes for PRPs

The selection process of PRPs was reported in 34% of articles ( figure 2 ). PRP selection criteria were mainly language proficiency (11%), research knowledge (6%), disease diagnosis (9%), communication skills and constructive assertiveness (9%), motivation (8%), educational background (6%), experiential knowledge and expertise (6%) as well as travel capability (4%). 2 3 15 19 21 23 24 27 34 35 55–58 Recruitment methods for PRPs were diverse, relying on patient organisations, marketing companies, rheumatology associations, social media, community outreach, clinic visits, personal connections with patients or researchers, word-of-mouth referrals and volunteering. 2 21 34 38 41 44 53 59 Furthermore, 28% of studies emphasised the importance of clarifying patient roles through clear goal-setting and exchanging mutual expectations early in the project initiation phase. 15 19–21 27 29 36 42 45 47 Additionally, 28% of studies highlighted the need for inclusivity and diverse representation in PRP recruitment. 2 4 15 35 41 42 52

The selection criteria of PRPs reported in the studies. PRP, patient research partner.

Creating a supportive environment for PRPs

A supportive environment for PRPs was reported to depend on several key principles ( table 1 ) 4 19 20 25 36 42 52 53 60 : ensuring a balanced and manageable workload that respects PRP abilities, providing adequate resources and time for PRP involvement, offering support to overcome language barriers, promoting flexibility and offering accessible accommodation to participate in meetings and scientific conferences. 7 21 38 40 43 44 Equal relationships and co-leadership between PRPs and researchers were cited in several papers as crucial, emphasising mutual respect, trust, and open, transparent communication. 7 15 19 Building strong team communication, and establishing informal personal relationships between PRPs and researchers were also found to be important factors to enhance collaboration. 20 38 47 Regular feedback and discussions about the quality of collaboration, combined with ongoing adjustments to meet the needs and preferences of PRPs, were proposed in two papers. 34 45

Roles of a PRP coordinator

A PRP ‘coordinator’ was defined in some papers, as an individual or a role within a research team responsible for facilitating and supporting the collaboration between researchers and PRPs. 2 20 25 47 61 The presence of a PRP coordinator was reported or advised in 29% of the included articles. 2 3 19 28 34 35 40 42 44 48 61 PRP coordinators were reported to be helpful in facilitating effective communication among PRPs, researchers and stakeholders, aligning expectations, organising logistics, moderating group discussions, providing ongoing education and support, and assisting in the recruitment and selection of PRPs in projects ( table 5 ). 2 20 25 35 36 42 47 This role was reported to be taken by a member of the research team, a PRP or a designated person within a patient organisation or academic institution. 2 38

Potential roles of a PRP coordinator

Training of researchers

We found that 34% of the included articles included in the SLR reported or advised training or education of researchers. 4 7 19 21 25 28 29 38–40 44 Researchers could receive training concerning various aspects of working with PRPs ( table 6 ).

Reported training content for researchers and PRPs

Training of PRPs

Educating and training PRPs was proposed in many papers to enhance the quality of their collaboration with researchers. Notably, nearly half of the publications emphasised the importance of training, with 21% recommending it and 25% providing it. 25 28 29 35 37 45 51 62–64 PRP training and support included various aspects ( table 6 ). Training of PRPs was reported to foster well-prepared and empowered PRPs ready to engage effectively in research collaborations. 22 26 29

Evaluation and monitoring related to PRP involvement

Around 21% of the included publications recommended or reported some form of evaluation, 3 4 15 19–21 25 34 35 with 28% collecting feedback from PRPs on their involvement. Regular discussions and evaluations of the quality and impact of PRPs’ collaboration and contributions were reported to enhance understanding, satisfaction and impact, allowing for adjustments and improvements as needed. 4 5 37 60 Some tools were reported for monitoring such as the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute conceptual framework, an evaluative framework for research engagement, 19 surveys to evaluate the impact of PRPs in the project, 3 26 the Public Involvement Impact Assessment Framework Guidance, 53 and the Guidance for Reporting Involvement of Patients and the Public. 25 34

Recognition, compensation and acknowledgement of PRPs

Recognising, compensating and acknowledging the contributions of PRPs during their involvement in a scientific project were reported to be essential components of equal and meaningful partnerships. 27

In the context of recognition, coauthorship was cited as proof of PRP involvement and equality in research collaborations. 5 39 The SLR revealed a growing trend in recognising PRPs through coauthorship in 68% of articles, 2–6 8 15 19–21 23–26 28 29 34 36–40 42 43 45 47–50 52 54 56 58 60 63 65 and acknowledgement in 45% of articles. 3 6 7 25 27 28 34 37 43–45 48 51 53 56–61 63 65–67

Compensation refers to the payment of salary, wages, honorarium, fees or allowances for the time commitment and expertise of PRPs; this is different from reimbursing PRPs for expenses (eg, travel expenses and accommodation). 49 Non-compensation for PRPs was reported as a limitation and challenge for their effective involvement. 4 While PRPs can opt out of payment, several papers reported that researchers should consider compensation in their budget planning. 2 39 49 Some articles advised that institutions should simplify processes for fair PRP payment, and funders should enable researchers to allocate resources for PRP involvement. 5

The role of PRPs in rheumatology research has significantly expanded over recent years. The findings of this SLR underscore the important roles and contributions of PRPs in research projects, and the added value of PRP involvement, not only in clinical research, but also in basic, translational, registry and longitudinal observational studies. This review also highlighted current challenges and barriers, and pulled together proposals of strategies to overcome them.

The exact definition and roles of PRPs remain unclear for some researchers. A wide proportion of the reviewed studies had adopted the 2011 EULAR definition of PRP which reflects the global acknowledgement of the importance of PRP involvement in rheumatology research and the need for specific recommendations. 14 PRPs hold a crucial position in recognising and actively integrating the patient perspective, their voice and needs into research decision-making processes. Diverse roles and activities were undertaken by PRPs in this SLR, from research partners to patient advocates, reflecting the many ways PRPs can contribute. Their involvement, as evident in recent papers shaping research priorities, guideline development, and scientific and clinical committees, suggests a trend towards more inclusive and patient-centred research practices.

Our review revealed specific barriers and challenges in communication, training, research processes and collaboration. These challenges highlight difficulties in communication and relationship dynamics during research, the necessity for training and support for both PRPs and researchers, concerns about the research process and its pace, and obstacles in PRP collaboration, including issues of recognition and diversity. Inclusivity and diversity are important topics for future research. To address these challenges effectively, targeted strategies such as fostering open communication, creating a supportive environment, ensuring early and sustained involvement, using a PRP coordinator and providing appropriate training and support for PRPs and researchers are crucial. These findings underscore the ongoing need for refining and implementing these strategies to enhance PRP involvement more efficiently. 26

A key observation from the SLR is the importance of early and sustained PRP involvement in research projects. Engaging PRPs from the research project’s inception ensures that research questions and methodologies are aligned with patients’ priorities and perspectives right from the start. Sustained involvement further reinforces the trust and collaboration between PRPs and researchers, leading to research outcomes that are more relevant and impactful. The OMERACT recommendations proposed that the level and timing of PRP involvement should vary based on the scope and type of project, emphasising adaptability as a key factor for successful involvement. 15

Evaluation and monitoring are also integral aspects of PRP involvement. This ongoing reflection and feedback process is vital for fostering effective and meaningful PRP involvement in research. Recognition, compensation and acknowledgement of PRPs stand as key elements for fostering a meaningful partnership. Coauthorship serves not only to document the PRP’s contribution but also reinforces the idea of collaborative research. Of note, we observed disparity between the involvement of PRPs in research activities versus their acknowledgement as coauthors. This disparity may arise from some PRPs not prioritising or desiring coauthorship, or being unable to participate in producing and writing a research paper due to health-related challenges such as disease flare-ups or fatigue. In ensuring equitable recognition, a collective effort is essential to guarantee that PRPs receive due acknowledgement and compensation for their valuable contributions to scientific research.

Our study has strengths and weaknesses. One important strength of this SLR is that the findings will equip researchers, healthcare professionals and other stakeholders with evidence-based solutions to improve PRP involvement in medical research. To this end, the findings have supported the process of updating the EULAR recommendations for PRP involvement and made them more evidence based. 1 Another strength is the obtention of a more nuanced understanding of the challenges and complexities surrounding PRP involvement in rheumatology research. Furthermore, our study stands out for its comprehensive approach, analysing a broad spectrum of study types, including quantitative and qualitative studies, reviews, opinion pieces and information from websites. The inclusion of various rheumatic musculoskeletal disease conditions, encompassing both paediatric and adult populations, enhances the robustness of our findings. Another notable strength lies in the co-production of this work by three PRPs. The project was initiated and led by a PRP (MdW) who gave the work direction, participated in article screening, article analysis, overall interpretation and manuscript writing. The two other PRPs brought important insights into PRP roles, facilitators and barriers.

A limitation of the study might be the heterogeneity of the included papers. Because of the expected limited reporting of PRP involvement in rheumatology research, we decided to include a diversity of papers in the SLR, varying from qualitative studies, case studies and original research papers to conference reports and opinion articles. This heterogeneity did not allow for any form of meta-analysis, nor for identifying themes that would benefit individual groups of PRPs such as people with rare diseases, children or young adults, or people with different cultural or ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, quality assessments could not be uniformly applied across all study types. It is important to note that the traditional evidence hierarchy may not be applicable to this SLR, given the expected absence of randomised controlled studies. Despite this, certain papers were assessed to be of high quality of evidence within their respective study types. While the systematic approach ensured a comprehensive gathering of data, there might be relevant grey literature or non-English-language publications that were not included. Another limitation might be the time period of the last 6 years, including data from articles published between January 2017 and January 2023. This time frame was chosen to reflect studies performed after the 2011 EULAR recommendations were published, taking into account the implementation time gap. 14 Furthermore, the chosen time span resulted in 53 articles which was deemed sufficient for gathering relevant data related to our research questions.

In conclusion, this SLR identified numerous publications reporting on PRP involvement in rheumatology research. Most authors reported that PRP involvement not only enriches the research process but also ensures that research outcomes are more relevant, meaningful and patient centred. However, for this involvement to be genuinely effective, it is essential to address the barriers and challenges that PRPs and researchers are facing. By updating the EULAR 2011 recommendations, based on the findings of this SLR, we can look forward to a future where research is more inclusive, collaborative, and aligned with patient needs and perspectives.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

Data supplement 1
Data supplement 2

Handling editor Kimme L Hyrich

X @krystelaouad, @Stiddyo, @LGossec

Contributors All authors have contributed to this work and approved the final version. KA, MDW and LG accept full responsibility for the work and/or the conduct of thestudy, had access to the data and controlled the decision to publish.

Funding Funded by EULAR grant RES005.

Competing interests KA—research grant (EULAR grant RES005); over the last 3 years, research grants from UCB; consulting fees from Novartis. MdW—over the last 3 years, Stichting Tools has received fees for lectures or consultancy provided by MdW from UCB. ME—congress travel support from Janssen and AstraZeneca outside of the submitted work. DB—research grants from Novartis; speakers bureau from AbbVie, BMS, Galapagos, Janssen and Lilly; consulting fees from Pfizer, Sandoz and UCB. PS—speakers bureau from AstraZeneca; consulting fees from AbbVie; travel support from Janssen and Galapagos. LG—research grants from AbbVie, Biogen, Lilly, Novartis and UCB; consulting fees from AbbVie, Amgen, BMS, Celltrion, Galapagos, Janssen, Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, Sandoz and UCB.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Refer to the Methods section for further details.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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Research Project – Definition, Writing Guide and Ideas

Research Project

Types of Research Project

Basic Research

Applied Research

Action Research

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Mixed Methods Research

Longitudinal Research

Case Study Research

Participatory Research

Research Project Methodology

Define the Research Question

Develop a Research Plan

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Interpret and Report Findings

Research Project Writing Guide

Examples of Research Projects

Characteristics of Research Project

Importance of Research Project

Research Project Ideas

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Muhammad Hassan

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The What: Defining a research project

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