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Student Case Study

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Delving into student case studies offers invaluable insights into educational methodologies and student behaviors. This guide, complete with detailed case study examples , is designed to help educators, researchers, and students understand the nuances of creating and analyzing case studies in an educational context. By exploring various case study examples, you will gain the tools and knowledge necessary to effectively interpret and apply these studies, enhancing both teaching and learning experiences in diverse academic settings.

What is a Student Case Study? – Meaning A student case study is an in-depth analysis of a student or a group of students to understand various educational, psychological, or social aspects. It involves collecting detailed information through observations, interviews, and reviewing records, to form a comprehensive picture. The goal of a case study analysis is to unravel the complexities of real-life situations that students encounter, making it a valuable tool in educational research. In a case study summary, key findings are presented, often leading to actionable insights. Educators and researchers use these studies to develop strategies for improving learning environments. Additionally, a case study essay allows students to demonstrate their understanding by discussing the analysis and implications of the case study, fostering critical thinking and analytical skills.

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Schools especially those that offers degree in medicine, law, public policy and public health teaches students to learn how to conduct a case study. Some students say they love case studies . For what reason? Case studies offer real world challenges. They help in preparing the students how to deal with their future careers. They are considered to be the vehicle for theories and concepts that enables you to be good at giving detailed discussions and even debates. Case studies are useful not just in the field of education, but also in adhering to the arising issues in business, politics and other organizations.

Student Case Study Format

Case Study Title : Clear and descriptive title reflecting the focus of the case study. Student’s Name : Name of the student the case study is about. Prepared by : Name of the person or group preparing the case study. School Name : Name of the school or educational institution. Date : Date of completion or submission.

Introduction

Background Information : Briefly describe the student’s background, including age, grade level, and relevant personal or academic history. Purpose of the Case Study : State the reason for conducting this case study, such as understanding a particular behavior, learning difficulty, or achievement.

Case Description

Situation or Challenge : Detail the specific situation, challenge, or condition that the student is facing. Observations and Evidence : Include observations from teachers, parents, or the students themselves, along with any relevant academic or behavioral records.

Problem Analysis : Analyze the situation or challenge, identifying potential causes or contributing factors. Impact on Learning : Discuss how the situation affects the student’s learning or behavior in school.

Intervention Strategies

Action Taken : Describe any interventions or strategies implemented to address the situation. This could include educational plans, counseling, or specific teaching strategies. Results of Intervention : Detail the outcome of these interventions, including any changes in the student’s behavior or academic performance.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary of Findings : Summarize the key insights gained from the case study. Recommendations : Offer suggestions for future actions or strategies to further support the student. This might include recommendations for teachers, parents, or the student themselves.

Best Example of Student Case Study

Overcoming Reading Challenges: A Case Study of Emily Clark, Grade 3 Prepared by: Laura Simmons, Special Education Teacher Sunset Elementary School Date: May 12, 2024   Emily Clark, an 8-year-old student in the third grade at Sunset Elementary School, has been facing significant challenges with reading and comprehension since the first grade. Known for her enthusiasm and creativity, Emily’s struggles with reading tasks have been persistent and noticeable. The primary purpose of this case study is to analyze Emily’s reading difficulties, implement targeted interventions, and assess their effectiveness.   Emily exhibits difficulty in decoding words, reading fluently, and understanding text, as observed by her teachers since first grade. Her reluctance to read aloud and frustration with reading tasks have been consistently noted. Assessments indicate that her reading level is significantly below the expected standard for her grade. Parental feedback has also highlighted Emily’s struggles with reading-related homework.   Analysis of Emily’s situation suggests a potential learning disability in reading, possibly dyslexia. This is evidenced by her consistent difficulty with word recognition and comprehension. These challenges have impacted not only her reading skills but also her confidence and participation in class activities, especially those involving reading.   To address these challenges, an individualized education plan (IEP) was developed. This included specialized reading instruction focusing on phonemic awareness and decoding skills, multisensory learning approaches, and regular sessions with a reading specialist. Over a period of six months, Emily demonstrated significant improvements. She engaged more confidently in reading activities, and her reading assessment scores showed notable progress.   In conclusion, the intervention strategies implemented for Emily have been effective. Her case highlights the importance of early identification and the implementation of tailored educational strategies for students with similar challenges. It is recommended that Emily continues to receive specialized instruction and regular monitoring. Adjustments to her IEP should be made as necessary to ensure ongoing progress. Additionally, fostering a positive reading environment at home is also recommended.

18+ Student Case Study Examples

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Case Study Definition

A case study is defined as a research methodology that allows you to conduct an intensive study about a particular person, group of people, community, or some unit in which the researcher could provide an in-depth data in relation to the variables. Case studies can examine a phenomena in the natural setting. This increases your ability to understand why the subjects act such. You may be able to describe how this method allows every researcher to take a specific topic to narrow it down making it into a manageable research question. The researcher gain an in-depth understanding about the subject matter through collecting qualitative research and quantitative research datasets about the phenomenon.

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

If a researcher is interested to study about a phenomenon, he or she will be assigned to a single-case study that will allow him or her to gain an understanding about the phenomenon. Multiple-case study would allow a researcher to understand the case as a group through comparing them based on the embedded similarities and differences. However, the volume of data in case studies will be difficult to organize and the process of analysis and strategies needs to be carefully decided upon. Reporting of findings could also be challenging at times especially when you are ought to follow for word limits.

Example of Case Study

Nurses’ pediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ pediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about pediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analyzed separately and then compared and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

How do you Write a Case Study for Students?

1. choose an interesting and relevant topic:.

Select a topic that is relevant to your course and interesting to your audience. It should be specific and focused, allowing for in-depth analysis.

2. Conduct Thorough Research :

Gather information from reputable sources such as books, scholarly articles, interviews, and reliable websites. Ensure you have a good understanding of the topic before proceeding.

3. Identify the Problem or Research Question:

Clearly define the problem or research question your case study aims to address. Be specific about the issues you want to explore and analyze.

4. Introduce the Case:

Provide background information about the subject, including relevant historical, social, or organizational context. Explain why the case is important and what makes it unique.

5. Describe the Methods Used:

Explain the methods you used to collect data. This could include interviews, surveys, observations, or analysis of existing documents. Justify your choice of methods.

6. Present the Findings:

Present the data and findings in a clear and organized manner. Use charts, graphs, and tables if applicable. Include direct quotes from interviews or other sources to support your points.

7. Analytical Interpretation:

Analyze the data and discuss the patterns, trends, or relationships you observed. Relate your findings back to the research question. Use relevant theories or concepts to support your analysis.

8. Discuss Limitations:

Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or research methods. Addressing limitations shows a critical awareness of your study’s scope.

9. Propose Solutions or Recommendations:

If your case study revolves around a problem, propose practical solutions or recommendations based on your analysis. Support your suggestions with evidence from your findings.

10. Write a Conclusion:

Summarize the key points of your case study. Restate the importance of the topic and your findings. Discuss the implications of your study for the broader field.

What are the objectives of a Student Case Study?

1. learning and understanding:.

• To deepen students’ understanding of a particular concept, theory, or topic within their field of study.
• To provide real-world context and practical applications for theoretical knowledge.

2. Problem-Solving Skills:

• To enhance students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities by analyzing complex issues or scenarios.
• To encourage students to apply their knowledge to real-life situations and develop solutions.

3. Research and Analysis:

• To develop research skills, including data collection, data analysis , and the ability to draw meaningful conclusions from information.
• To improve analytical skills in interpreting data and making evidence-based decisions.

4. Communication Skills:

• To improve written and oral communication skills by requiring students to present their findings in a clear, organized, and coherent manner.
• To enhance the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively to both academic and non-academic audiences.

5. Ethical Considerations:

To promote awareness of ethical issues related to research and decision-making, such as participant rights, privacy, and responsible conduct.

6. Interdisciplinary Learning:

To encourage cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary thinking, allowing students to apply knowledge from multiple areas to address a problem or issue.

7. Professional Development:

• To prepare students for future careers by exposing them to real-world situations and challenges they may encounter in their chosen profession.
• To develop professional skills, such as teamwork, time management, and project management.

8. Reflection and Self-Assessment:

• To prompt students to reflect on their learning and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in research and analysis.
• To foster self-assessment and a commitment to ongoing improvement.

9. Promoting Innovation:

• To inspire creativity and innovation in finding solutions to complex problems or challenges.
• To encourage students to think outside the box and explore new approaches.

10. Building a Portfolio:

To provide students with tangible evidence of their academic and problem-solving abilities that can be included in their academic or professional portfolios.

What are the Elements of a Case Study?

A case study typically includes an introduction, background information, presentation of the main issue or problem, analysis, solutions or interventions, and a conclusion. It often incorporates supporting data and references.

How Long is a Case Study?

The length of a case study can vary, but it generally ranges from 500 to 1500 words. This length allows for a detailed examination of the subject while maintaining conciseness and focus.

How Big Should a Case Study Be?

The size of a case study should be sufficient to comprehensively cover the topic, typically around 2 to 5 pages. This size allows for depth in analysis while remaining concise and readable.

What Makes a Good Case Study?

A good case study is clear, concise, and well-structured, focusing on a relevant and interesting issue. It should offer insightful analysis, practical solutions, and demonstrate real-world applications or implications.

Case studies bring people into the real world to allow themselves engage in different fields such as in business examples, politics, health related aspect where each individuals could find an avenue to make difficult decisions. It serves to provide framework for analysis and evaluation of the different societal issues. This is one of the best way to focus on what really matters, to discuss about issues and to know what can we do about it.

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Education Case Study Examples for Students

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

Do Your Students Know How to Analyze a Case—Really?

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• Case Teaching
• Student Engagement

J ust as actors, athletes, and musicians spend thousands of hours practicing their craft, business students benefit from practicing their critical-thinking and decision-making skills. Students, however, often have limited exposure to real-world problem-solving scenarios; they need more opportunities to practice tackling tough business problems and deciding on—and executing—the best solutions.

To ensure students have ample opportunity to develop these critical-thinking and decision-making skills, we believe business faculty should shift from teaching mostly principles and ideas to mostly applications and practices. And in doing so, they should emphasize the case method, which simulates real-world management challenges and opportunities for students.

To help educators facilitate this shift and help students get the most out of case-based learning, we have developed a framework for analyzing cases. We call it PACADI (Problem, Alternatives, Criteria, Analysis, Decision, Implementation); it can improve learning outcomes by helping students better solve and analyze business problems, make decisions, and develop and implement strategy. Here, we’ll explain why we developed this framework, how it works, and what makes it an effective learning tool.

The Case for Cases: Helping Students Think Critically

Business students must develop critical-thinking and analytical skills, which are essential to their ability to make good decisions in functional areas such as marketing, finance, operations, and information technology, as well as to understand the relationships among these functions. For example, the decisions a marketing manager must make include strategic planning (segments, products, and channels); execution (digital messaging, media, branding, budgets, and pricing); and operations (integrated communications and technologies), as well as how to implement decisions across functional areas.

Faculty can use many types of cases to help students develop these skills. These include the prototypical “paper cases”; live cases , which feature guest lecturers such as entrepreneurs or corporate leaders and on-site visits; and multimedia cases , which immerse students into real situations. Most cases feature an explicit or implicit decision that a protagonist—whether it is an individual, a group, or an organization—must make.

For students new to learning by the case method—and even for those with case experience—some common issues can emerge; these issues can sometimes be a barrier for educators looking to ensure the best possible outcomes in their case classrooms. Unsure of how to dig into case analysis on their own, students may turn to the internet or rely on former students for “answers” to assigned cases. Or, when assigned to provide answers to assignment questions in teams, students might take a divide-and-conquer approach but not take the time to regroup and provide answers that are consistent with one other.

To help address these issues, which we commonly experienced in our classes, we wanted to provide our students with a more structured approach for how they analyze cases—and to really think about making decisions from the protagonists’ point of view. We developed the PACADI framework to address this need.

PACADI: A Six-Step Decision-Making Approach

The PACADI framework is a six-step decision-making approach that can be used in lieu of traditional end-of-case questions. It offers a structured, integrated, and iterative process that requires students to analyze case information, apply business concepts to derive valuable insights, and develop recommendations based on these insights.

Prior to beginning a PACADI assessment, which we’ll outline here, students should first prepare a two-paragraph summary—a situation analysis—that highlights the key case facts. Then, we task students with providing a five-page PACADI case analysis (excluding appendices) based on the following six steps.

Step 1: Problem definition. What is the major challenge, problem, opportunity, or decision that has to be made? If there is more than one problem, choose the most important one. Often when solving the key problem, other issues will surface and be addressed. The problem statement may be framed as a question; for example, How can brand X improve market share among millennials in Canada? Usually the problem statement has to be re-written several times during the analysis of a case as students peel back the layers of symptoms or causation.

Step 2: Alternatives. Identify in detail the strategic alternatives to address the problem; three to five options generally work best. Alternatives should be mutually exclusive, realistic, creative, and feasible given the constraints of the situation. Doing nothing or delaying the decision to a later date are not considered acceptable alternatives.

Step 3: Criteria. What are the key decision criteria that will guide decision-making? In a marketing course, for example, these may include relevant marketing criteria such as segmentation, positioning, advertising and sales, distribution, and pricing. Financial criteria useful in evaluating the alternatives should be included—for example, income statement variables, customer lifetime value, payback, etc. Students must discuss their rationale for selecting the decision criteria and the weights and importance for each factor.

Step 4: Analysis. Provide an in-depth analysis of each alternative based on the criteria chosen in step three. Decision tables using criteria as columns and alternatives as rows can be helpful. The pros and cons of the various choices as well as the short- and long-term implications of each may be evaluated. Best, worst, and most likely scenarios can also be insightful.

Step 5: Decision. Students propose their solution to the problem. This decision is justified based on an in-depth analysis. Explain why the recommendation made is the best fit for the criteria.

Step 6: Implementation plan. Sound business decisions may fail due to poor execution. To enhance the likeliness of a successful project outcome, students describe the key steps (activities) to implement the recommendation, timetable, projected costs, expected competitive reaction, success metrics, and risks in the plan.

“Students note that using the PACADI framework yields ‘aha moments’—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.”

PACADI’s Benefits: Meaningfully and Thoughtfully Applying Business Concepts

The PACADI framework covers all of the major elements of business decision-making, including implementation, which is often overlooked. By stepping through the whole framework, students apply relevant business concepts and solve management problems via a systematic, comprehensive approach; they’re far less likely to surface piecemeal responses.

As students explore each part of the framework, they may realize that they need to make changes to a previous step. For instance, when working on implementation, students may realize that the alternative they selected cannot be executed or will not be profitable, and thus need to rethink their decision. Or, they may discover that the criteria need to be revised since the list of decision factors they identified is incomplete (for example, the factors may explain key marketing concerns but fail to address relevant financial considerations) or is unrealistic (for example, they suggest a 25 percent increase in revenues without proposing an increased promotional budget).

In addition, the PACADI framework can be used alongside quantitative assignments, in-class exercises, and business and management simulations. The structured, multi-step decision framework encourages careful and sequential analysis to solve business problems. Incorporating PACADI as an overarching decision-making method across different projects will ultimately help students achieve desired learning outcomes. As a practical “beyond-the-classroom” tool, the PACADI framework is not a contrived course assignment; it reflects the decision-making approach that managers, executives, and entrepreneurs exercise daily. Case analysis introduces students to the real-world process of making business decisions quickly and correctly, often with limited information. This framework supplies an organized and disciplined process that students can readily defend in writing and in class discussions.

PACADI in Action: An Example

Here’s an example of how students used the PACADI framework for a recent case analysis on CVS, a large North American drugstore chain.

The CVS Prescription for Customer Value*

PACADI Stage

Summary Response

How should CVS Health evolve from the “drugstore of your neighborhood” to the “drugstore of your future”?

Alternatives

A1. Kaizen (continuous improvement)

A2. Product development

A3. Market development

A4. Personalization (micro-targeting)

Criteria (include weights)

C1. Customer value: service, quality, image, and price (40%)

C2. Customer obsession (20%)

C3. Growth through related businesses (20%)

C4. Customer retention and customer lifetime value (20%)

Each alternative was analyzed by each criterion using a Customer Value Assessment Tool

Alternative 4 (A4): Personalization was selected. This is operationalized via: segmentation—move toward segment-of-1 marketing; geodemographics and lifestyle emphasis; predictive data analysis; relationship marketing; people, principles, and supply chain management; and exceptional customer service.

Implementation

Partner with leading medical school

Curbside pick-up

Pet pharmacy

E-newsletter for customers and employees

Employee incentive program

CVS beauty days

Expand to Latin America and Caribbean

Healthier/happier corner

Holiday toy drives/community outreach

*Source: A. Weinstein, Y. Rodriguez, K. Sims, R. Vergara, “The CVS Prescription for Superior Customer Value—A Case Study,” Back to the Future: Revisiting the Foundations of Marketing from Society for Marketing Advances, West Palm Beach, FL (November 2, 2018).

Results of Using the PACADI Framework

When faculty members at our respective institutions at Nova Southeastern University (NSU) and the University of North Carolina Wilmington have used the PACADI framework, our classes have been more structured and engaging. Students vigorously debate each element of their decision and note that this framework yields an “aha moment”—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.

These lively discussions enhance individual and collective learning. As one external metric of this improvement, we have observed a 2.5 percent increase in student case grade performance at NSU since this framework was introduced.

Tips to Get Started

The PACADI approach works well in in-person, online, and hybrid courses. This is particularly important as more universities have moved to remote learning options. Because students have varied educational and cultural backgrounds, work experience, and familiarity with case analysis, we recommend that faculty members have students work on their first case using this new framework in small teams (two or three students). Additional analyses should then be solo efforts.

To use PACADI effectively in your classroom, we suggest the following:

Advise your students that your course will stress critical thinking and decision-making skills, not just course concepts and theory.

Use a varied mix of case studies. As marketing professors, we often address consumer and business markets; goods, services, and digital commerce; domestic and global business; and small and large companies in a single MBA course.

As a starting point, provide a short explanation (about 20 to 30 minutes) of the PACADI framework with a focus on the conceptual elements. You can deliver this face to face or through videoconferencing.

Give students an opportunity to practice the case analysis methodology via an ungraded sample case study. Designate groups of five to seven students to discuss the case and the six steps in breakout sessions (in class or via Zoom).

Ensure case analyses are weighted heavily as a grading component. We suggest 30–50 percent of the overall course grade.

Once cases are graded, debrief with the class on what they did right and areas needing improvement (30- to 40-minute in-person or Zoom session).

Encourage faculty teams that teach common courses to build appropriate instructional materials, grading rubrics, videos, sample cases, and teaching notes.

When selecting case studies, we have found that the best ones for PACADI analyses are about 15 pages long and revolve around a focal management decision. This length provides adequate depth yet is not protracted. Some of our tested and favorite marketing cases include Brand W , Hubspot , Kraft Foods Canada , TRSB(A) , and Whiskey & Cheddar .

Art Weinstein , Ph.D., is a professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He has published more than 80 scholarly articles and papers and eight books on customer-focused marketing strategy. His latest book is Superior Customer Value—Finding and Keeping Customers in the Now Economy . Dr. Weinstein has consulted for many leading technology and service companies.

Herbert V. Brotspies , D.B.A., is an adjunct professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University. He has over 30 years’ experience as a vice president in marketing, strategic planning, and acquisitions for Fortune 50 consumer products companies working in the United States and internationally. His research interests include return on marketing investment, consumer behavior, business-to-business strategy, and strategic planning.

John T. Gironda , Ph.D., is an assistant professor of marketing at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. His research has been published in Industrial Marketing Management, Psychology & Marketing , and Journal of Marketing Management . He has also presented at major marketing conferences including the American Marketing Association, Academy of Marketing Science, and Society for Marketing Advances.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/cases/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the University of Buffalo.

Dunne, D. and Brooks, K. (2004) Teaching with Cases (Halifax, NS: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education), ISBN 0-7703-8924-4 (Can be ordered at http://www.bookstore.uwo.ca/ at a cost of $15.00)

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains †

Associated data.

• Appendix 1: Example assessment questions used to assess the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning
• Appendix 2: Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool

Following years of widespread use in business and medical education, the case study teaching method is becoming an increasingly common teaching strategy in science education. However, the current body of research provides limited evidence that the use of published case studies effectively promotes the fulfillment of specific learning objectives integral to many biology courses. This study tested the hypothesis that case studies are more effective than classroom discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning of key biological concepts, development of written and oral communication skills, and comprehension of the relevance of biological concepts to everyday life. This study also tested the hypothesis that case studies produced by the instructor of a course are more effective at promoting learning than those produced by unaffiliated instructors. Additionally, performance on quantitative learning assessments and student perceptions of learning gains were analyzed to determine whether reported perceptions of learning gains accurately reflect academic performance. The results reported here suggest that case studies, regardless of the source, are significantly more effective than other methods of content delivery at increasing performance on examination questions related to chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. This finding was positively correlated to increased student perceptions of learning gains associated with oral and written communication skills and the ability to recognize connections between biological concepts and other aspects of life. Based on these findings, case studies should be considered as a preferred method for teaching about a variety of concepts in science courses.

INTRODUCTION

The case study teaching method is a highly adaptable style of teaching that involves problem-based learning and promotes the development of analytical skills ( 8 ). By presenting content in the format of a narrative accompanied by questions and activities that promote group discussion and solving of complex problems, case studies facilitate development of the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning; moving beyond recall of knowledge to analysis, evaluation, and application ( 1 , 9 ). Similarly, case studies facilitate interdisciplinary learning and can be used to highlight connections between specific academic topics and real-world societal issues and applications ( 3 , 9 ). This has been reported to increase student motivation to participate in class activities, which promotes learning and increases performance on assessments ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 23 ). For these reasons, case-based teaching has been widely used in business and medical education for many years ( 4 , 11 , 12 , 14 ). Although case studies were considered a novel method of science education just 20 years ago, the case study teaching method has gained popularity in recent years among an array of scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, nursing, and psychology ( 5 – 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 15 – 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 ).

Although there is now a substantive and growing body of literature describing how to develop and use case studies in science teaching, current research on the effectiveness of case study teaching at meeting specific learning objectives is of limited scope and depth. Studies have shown that working in groups during completion of case studies significantly improves student perceptions of learning and may increase performance on assessment questions, and that the use of clickers can increase student engagement in case study activities, particularly among non-science majors, women, and freshmen ( 7 , 21 , 22 ). Case study teaching has been shown to improve exam performance in an anatomy and physiology course, increasing the mean score across all exams given in a two-semester sequence from 66% to 73% ( 5 ). Use of case studies was also shown to improve students’ ability to synthesize complex analytical questions about the real-world issues associated with a scientific topic ( 6 ). In a high school chemistry course, it was demonstrated that the case study teaching method produces significant increases in self-reported control of learning, task value, and self-efficacy for learning and performance ( 24 ). This effect on student motivation is important because enhanced motivation for learning activities has been shown to promote student engagement and academic performance ( 19 , 24 ). Additionally, faculty from a number of institutions have reported that using case studies promotes critical thinking, learning, and participation among students, especially in terms of the ability to view an issue from multiple perspectives and to grasp the practical application of core course concepts ( 23 ).

Despite what is known about the effectiveness of case studies in science education, questions remain about the functionality of the case study teaching method at promoting specific learning objectives that are important to many undergraduate biology courses. A recent survey of teachers who use case studies found that the topics most often covered in general biology courses included genetics and heredity, cell structure, cells and energy, chemistry of life, and cell cycle and cancer, suggesting that these topics should be of particular interest in studies that examine the effectiveness of the case study teaching method ( 8 ). However, the existing body of literature lacks direct evidence that the case study method is an effective tool for teaching about this collection of important topics in biology courses. Further, the extent to which case study teaching promotes development of science communication skills and the ability to understand the connections between biological concepts and everyday life has not been examined, yet these are core learning objectives shared by a variety of science courses. Although many instructors have produced case studies for use in their own classrooms, the production of novel case studies is time-consuming and requires skills that not all instructors have perfected. It is therefore important to determine whether case studies published by instructors who are unaffiliated with a particular course can be used effectively and obviate the need for each instructor to develop new case studies for their own courses. The results reported herein indicate that teaching with case studies results in significantly higher performance on examination questions about chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication than that achieved by class discussions and textbook reading for topics of similar complexity. Case studies also increased overall student perceptions of learning gains and perceptions of learning gains specifically related to written and oral communication skills and the ability to grasp connections between scientific topics and their real-world applications. The effectiveness of the case study teaching method at increasing academic performance was not correlated to whether the case study used was authored by the instructor of the course or by an unaffiliated instructor. These findings support increased use of published case studies in the teaching of a variety of biological concepts and learning objectives.

Student population

This study was conducted at Kingsborough Community College, which is part of the City University of New York system, located in Brooklyn, New York. Kingsborough Community College has a diverse population of approximately 19,000 undergraduate students. The student population included in this study was enrolled in the first semester of a two-semester sequence of general (introductory) biology for biology majors during the spring, winter, or summer semester of 2014. A total of 63 students completed the course during this time period; 56 students consented to the inclusion of their data in the study. Of the students included in the study, 23 (41%) were male and 33 (59%) were female; 40 (71%) were registered as college freshmen and 16 (29%) were registered as college sophomores. To normalize participant groups, the same student population pooled from three classes taught by the same instructor was used to assess both experimental and control teaching methods.

Course material

The four biological concepts assessed during this study (chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication) were selected as topics for studying the effectiveness of case study teaching because they were the key concepts addressed by this particular course that were most likely to be taught in a number of other courses, including biology courses for both majors and nonmajors at outside institutions. At the start of this study, relevant existing case studies were freely available from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) to address mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication, but published case studies that appropriately addressed chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion were not available. Therefore, original case studies that addressed the latter two topics were produced as part of this study, and case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors and published by the NCCSTS were used to address the former two topics. By the conclusion of this study, all four case studies had been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ). Four of the remaining core topics covered in this course (macromolecules, photosynthesis, genetic inheritance, and translation) were selected as control lessons to provide control assessment data.

To minimize extraneous variation, control topics and assessments were carefully matched in complexity, format, and number with case studies, and an equal amount of class time was allocated for each case study and the corresponding control lesson. Instruction related to control lessons was delivered using minimal slide-based lectures, with emphasis on textbook reading assignments accompanied by worksheets completed by students in and out of the classroom, and small and large group discussion of key points. Completion of activities and discussion related to all case studies and control topics that were analyzed was conducted in the classroom, with the exception of the take-home portion of the osmosis and diffusion case study.

Data collection and analysis

This study was performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Kingsborough Community College Human Research Protection Program and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the City University of New York (CUNY IRB reference 539938-1; KCC IRB application #: KCC 13-12-126-0138). Assessment scores were collected from regularly scheduled course examinations. For each case study, control questions were included on the same examination that were similar in number, format, point value, and difficulty level, but related to a different topic covered in the course that was of similar complexity. Complexity and difficulty of both case study and control questions were evaluated using experiential data from previous iterations of the course; the Bloom’s taxonomy designation and amount of material covered by each question, as well as the average score on similar questions achieved by students in previous iterations of the course was considered in determining appropriate controls. All assessment questions were scored using a standardized, pre-determined rubric. Student perceptions of learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the Student Assessment of Learning Gains (SALG) course evaluation tool ( http://www.salgsite.org ), distributed in hardcopy and completed anonymously during the last week of the course. Students were presented with a consent form to opt-in to having their data included in the data analysis. After the course had concluded and final course grades had been posted, data from consenting students were pooled in a database and identifying information was removed prior to analysis. Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and calculation of the R 2 coefficient of determination.

Teaching with case studies improves performance on learning assessments, independent of case study origin

To evaluate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method at promoting learning, student performance on examination questions related to material covered by case studies was compared with performance on questions that covered material addressed through classroom discussions and textbook reading. The latter questions served as control items; assessment items for each case study were compared with control items that were of similar format, difficulty, and point value ( Appendix 1 ). Each of the four case studies resulted in an increase in examination performance compared with control questions that was statistically significant, with an average difference of 18% ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score on case study-related questions was 73% for the chemical bonds case study, 79% for osmosis and diffusion, 76% for mitosis and meiosis, and 70% for DNA structure and replication ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score for non-case study-related control questions was 60%, 54%, 60%, and 52%, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). In terms of examination performance, no significant difference between case studies produced by the instructor of the course (chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion) and those produced by unaffiliated instructors (mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication) was indicated by the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. However, the 25% difference between the mean score on questions related to the osmosis and diffusion case study and the mean score on the paired control questions was notably higher than the 13–18% differences observed for the other case studies ( Fig. 1 ).

Case study teaching method increases student performance on examination questions. Mean score on a set of examination questions related to lessons covered by case studies (black bars) and paired control questions of similar format and difficulty about an unrelated topic (white bars). Chemical bonds, n = 54; Osmosis and diffusion, n = 54; Mitosis and meiosis, n = 51; DNA structure and replication, n = 50. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean (SEM). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

Case study teaching increases student perception of learning gains related to core course objectives

Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool ( Appendix 2 ). To determine whether completing case studies was more effective at increasing student perceptions of learning gains than completing textbook readings or participating in class discussions, perceptions of student learning gains for each were compared. In response to the question “Overall, how much did each of the following aspects of the class help your learning?” 82% of students responded that case studies helped a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for participating in class discussions and 58% for completing textbook reading; only 4% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 2% for class discussions and 22% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). The differences in reported learning gains derived from the use of case studies compared with class discussion and textbook readings were statistically significant, while the difference in learning gains associated with class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant by a narrow margin ( p = 0.051).

The case study teaching method increases student perceptions of learning gains. Student perceptions of learning gains are indicated by plotting responses to the question “How much did each of the following activities: (A) Help your learning overall? (B) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts in writing? (C) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts orally? (D) Help you understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life?” Reponses are represented as follows: Helped a great amount (black bars); Helped a good amount (dark gray bars); Helped a moderate amount (medium gray bars); Helped a small amount (light gray bars); Provided no help (white bars). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

To elucidate the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains related to specific course learning objectives compared with class discussions and textbook reading, students were asked how much each of these methods of content delivery specifically helped improve skills that were integral to fulfilling three main course objectives. When students were asked how much each of the methods helped “improve your ability to communicate knowledge of scientific concepts in writing,” 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 63% for class discussions and 59% for textbook reading; only 6% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 8% for class discussions and 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2B ). When the same question was posed about the ability to communicate orally, 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 68% for class discussions and 50% for textbook reading, while the respective response rates for helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” were 4%, 6%, and 25% ( Fig. 2C ). The differences in learning gains associated with both written and oral communication were statistically significant when completion of case studies was compared with either participation in class discussion or completion of textbook readings. Compared with textbook reading, class discussions led to a statistically significant increase in oral but not written communication skills.

Students were then asked how much each of the methods helped them “understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life.” A total of 79% of respondents declared that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for class discussions and 57% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Only 4% stated that case studies and class discussions helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Similar to overall learning gains, the use of case studies significantly increased the ability to understand the relevance of science to everyday life compared with class discussion and textbook readings, while the difference in learning gains associated with participation in class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant ( p = 0.054).

Student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching are positively correlated to increased performance on examinations, but independent of case study author

To test the hypothesis that case studies produced specifically for this course by the instructor were more effective at promoting learning gains than topically relevant case studies published by authors not associated with this course, perceptions of learning gains were compared for each of the case studies. For both of the case studies produced by the instructor of the course, 87% of students indicated that the case study provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 2% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). In comparison, an average of 85% of students indicated that the case studies produced by an unaffiliated instructor provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 4% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). The instructor-produced case studies yielded both the highest and lowest percentage of students reporting the highest level of learning gains (a “great” amount), while case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors yielded intermediate values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains is not significantly affected by whether or not the course instructor authored the case study.

Case studies positively affect student perceptions of learning gains about various biological topics.

Finally, to determine whether performance on examination questions accurately predicts student perceptions of learning gains, mean scores on examination questions related to case studies were compared with reported perceptions of learning gains for those case studies ( Fig. 3 ). The coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was 0.81, indicating a strong, but not definitive, positive correlation between perceptions of learning gains and performance on examinations, suggesting that student perception of learning gains is a valid tool for assessing the effectiveness of case studies ( Fig. 3 ). This correlation was independent of case study author.

Perception of learning gains but not author of case study is positively correlated to score on related examination questions. Percentage of students reporting that each specific case study provided “a great amount of help” to their learning was plotted against the point difference between mean score on examination questions related to that case study and mean score on paired control questions. Positive point differences indicate how much higher the mean scores on case study-related questions were than the mean scores on paired control questions. Black squares represent case studies produced by the instructor of the course; white squares represent case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. R 2 value indicates the coefficient of determination.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that teaching with case studies produced by the instructor of a course is more effective at promoting learning gains than using case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. This study also tested the hypothesis that the case study teaching method is more effective than class discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning gains associated with four of the most commonly taught topics in undergraduate general biology courses: chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. In addition to assessing content-based learning gains, development of written and oral communication skills and the ability to connect scientific topics with real-world applications was also assessed, because these skills were overarching learning objectives of this course, and classroom activities related to both case studies and control lessons were designed to provide opportunities for students to develop these skills. Finally, data were analyzed to determine whether performance on examination questions is positively correlated to student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching.

Compared with equivalent control questions about topics of similar complexity taught using class discussions and textbook readings, all four case studies produced statistically significant increases in the mean score on examination questions ( Fig. 1 ). This indicates that case studies are more effective than more commonly used, traditional methods of content delivery at promoting learning of a variety of core concepts covered in general biology courses. The average increase in score on each test item was equivalent to nearly two letter grades, which is substantial enough to elevate the average student performance on test items from the unsatisfactory/failing range to the satisfactory/passing range. The finding that there was no statistical difference between case studies in terms of performance on examination questions suggests that case studies are equally effective at promoting learning of disparate topics in biology. The observations that students did not perform significantly less well on the first case study presented (chemical bonds) compared with the other case studies and that performance on examination questions did not progressively increase with each successive case study suggests that the effectiveness of case studies is not directly related to the amount of experience students have using case studies. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence from previous semesters of this course suggests that, of the four topics addressed by cases in this study, DNA structure and function and osmosis and diffusion are the first and second most difficult for students to grasp. The lack of a statistical difference between case studies therefore suggests that the effectiveness of a case study at promoting learning gains is not directly proportional to the difficulty of the concept covered. However, the finding that use of the osmosis and diffusion case study resulted in the greatest increase in examination performance compared with control questions and also produced the highest student perceptions of learning gains is noteworthy and could be attributed to the fact that it was the only case study evaluated that included a hands-on experiment. Because the inclusion of a hands-on kinetic activity may synergistically enhance student engagement and learning and result in an even greater increase in learning gains than case studies that lack this type of activity, it is recommended that case studies that incorporate this type of activity be preferentially utilized.

Student perceptions of learning gains are strongly motivating factors for engagement in the classroom and academic performance, so it is important to assess the effect of any teaching method in this context ( 19 , 24 ). A modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool was used to assess student perceptions of learning gains because it has been previously validated as an efficacious tool ( Appendix 2 ) ( 20 ). Using the SALG tool, case study teaching was demonstrated to significantly increase student perceptions of overall learning gains compared with class discussions and textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). Case studies were shown to be particularly useful for promoting perceived development of written and oral communication skills and for demonstrating connections between scientific topics and real-world issues and applications ( Figs. 2B–2D ). Further, student perceptions of “great” learning gains positively correlated with increased performance on examination questions, indicating that assessment of learning gains using the SALG tool is both valid and useful in this course setting ( Fig. 3 ). These findings also suggest that case study teaching could be used to increase student motivation and engagement in classroom activities and thus promote learning and performance on assessments. The finding that textbook reading yielded the lowest student perceptions of learning gains was not unexpected, since reading facilitates passive learning while the class discussions and case studies were both designed to promote active learning.

Importantly, there was no statistical difference in student performance on examinations attributed to the two case studies produced by the instructor of the course compared with the two case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. The average difference between the two instructor-produced case studies and the two case studies published by unaffiliated instructors was only 3% in terms of both the average score on examination questions (76% compared with 73%) and the average increase in score compared with paired control items (14% compared with 17%) ( Fig. 1 ). Even when considering the inherent qualitative differences of course grades, these differences are negligible. Similarly, the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains was not significantly affected by the origin of the case study, as evidenced by similar percentages of students reporting “good” and “great” learning gains regardless of whether the case study was produced by the course instructor or an unaffiliated instructor ( Table 1 ).

The observation that case studies published by unaffiliated instructors are just as effective as those produced by the instructor of a course suggests that instructors can reasonably rely on the use of pre-published case studies relevant to their class rather than investing the considerable time and effort required to produce a novel case study. Case studies covering a wide range of topics in the sciences are available from a number of sources, and many of them are free access. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) database ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ) contains over 500 case studies that are freely available to instructors, and are accompanied by teaching notes that provide logistical advice and additional resources for implementing the case study, as well as a set of assessment questions with a password-protected answer key. Case study repositories are also maintained by BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium ( http://www.bioquest.org/icbl/cases.php ) and the Science Case Network ( http://sciencecasenet.org ); both are available for use by instructors from outside institutions.

It should be noted that all case studies used in this study were rigorously peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS prior to the completion of this study ( 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 ); the conclusions of this study may not apply to case studies that were not developed in accordance with similar standards. Because case study teaching involves skills such as creative writing and management of dynamic group discussion in a way that is not commonly integrated into many other teaching methods, it is recommended that novice case study teachers seek training or guidance before writing their first case study or implementing the method. The lack of a difference observed in the use of case studies from different sources should be interpreted with some degree of caution since only two sources were represented in this study, and each by only two cases. Furthermore, in an educational setting, quantitative differences in test scores might produce meaningful qualitative differences in course grades even in the absence of a p value that is statistically significant. For example, there is a meaningful qualitative difference between test scores that result in an average grade of C− and test scores that result in an average grade of C+, even if there is no statistically significant difference between the two sets of scores.

In the future, it could be informative to confirm these findings using a larger cohort, by repeating the study at different institutions with different instructors, by evaluating different case studies, and by directly comparing the effectiveness of the case studying teaching method with additional forms of instruction, such as traditional chalkboard and slide-based lecturing, and laboratory-based activities. It may also be informative to examine whether demographic factors such as student age and gender modulate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method, and whether case studies work equally well for non-science majors taking a science course compared with those majoring in the subject. Since the topical material used in this study is often included in other classes in both high school and undergraduate education, such as cell biology, genetics, and chemistry, the conclusions of this study are directly applicable to a broad range of courses. Presently, it is recommended that the use of case studies in teaching undergraduate general biology and other science courses be expanded, especially for the teaching of capacious issues with real-world applications and in classes where development of written and oral communication skills are key objectives. The use of case studies that involve hands-on activities should be emphasized to maximize the benefit of this teaching method. Importantly, instructors can be confident in the use of pre-published case studies to promote learning, as there is no indication that the effectiveness of the case study teaching method is reliant on the production of novel, customized case studies for each course.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

Acknowledgments.

This article benefitted from a President’s Faculty Innovation Grant, Kingsborough Community College. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

† Supplemental materials available at http://jmbe.asm.org

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Case-based learning.

Case-based learning (CBL) is an established approach used across disciplines where students apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios, promoting higher levels of cognition (see Bloom’s Taxonomy ). In CBL classrooms, students typically work in groups on case studies, stories involving one or more characters and/or scenarios.  The cases present a disciplinary problem or problems for which students devise solutions under the guidance of the instructor. CBL has a strong history of successful implementation in medical, law, and business schools, and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly within pre-professional majors and the sciences (Herreid, 1994). This method involves guided inquiry and is grounded in constructivism whereby students form new meanings by interacting with their knowledge and the environment (Lee, 2012).

There are a number of benefits to using CBL in the classroom. In a review of the literature, Williams (2005) describes how CBL: utilizes collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports the development of a variety of learning skills.

CBL has several defining characteristics, including versatility, storytelling power, and efficient self-guided learning.  In a systematic analysis of 104 articles in health professions education, CBL was found to be utilized in courses with less than 50 to over 1000 students (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012). In these classrooms, group sizes ranged from 1 to 30, with most consisting of 2 to 15 students.  Instructors varied in the proportion of time they implemented CBL in the classroom, ranging from one case spanning two hours of classroom time, to year-long case-based courses. These findings demonstrate that instructors use CBL in a variety of ways in their classrooms.

The stories that comprise the framework of case studies are also a key component to CBL’s effectiveness. Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano (2002, p.66) describe how storytelling:

Is a method of negotiating and renegotiating meanings that allows us to enter into other’s realms of meaning through messages they utter in their stories,

Helps us find our place in a culture,

Allows us to explicate and to interpret, and

Facilitates the attainment of vicarious experience by helping us to distinguish the positive models to emulate from the negative model.

Neurochemically, listening to stories can activate oxytocin, a hormone that increases one’s sensitivity to social cues, resulting in more empathy, generosity, compassion and trustworthiness (Zak, 2013; Kosfeld et al., 2005). The stories within case studies serve as a means by which learners form new understandings through characters and/or scenarios.

CBL is often described in conjunction or in comparison with problem-based learning (PBL). While the lines are often confusingly blurred within the literature, in the most conservative of definitions, the features distinguishing the two approaches include that PBL involves open rather than guided inquiry, is less structured, and the instructor plays a more passive role. In PBL multiple solutions to the problem may exit, but the problem is often initially not well-defined. PBL also has a stronger emphasis on developing self-directed learning. The choice between implementing CBL versus PBL is highly dependent on the goals and context of the instruction.  For example, in a comparison of PBL and CBL approaches during a curricular shift at two medical schools, students and faculty preferred CBL to PBL (Srinivasan et al., 2007). Students perceived CBL to be a more efficient process and more clinically applicable. However, in another context, PBL might be the favored approach.

In a review of the effectiveness of CBL in health profession education, Thistlethwaite et al. (2012), found several benefits:

Students enjoyed the method and thought it enhanced their learning,

Instructors liked how CBL engaged students in learning,

CBL seemed to facilitate small group learning, but the authors could not distinguish between whether it was the case itself or the small group learning that occurred as facilitated by the case.

Other studies have also reported on the effectiveness of CBL in achieving learning outcomes (Bonney, 2015; Breslin, 2008; Herreid, 2013; Krain, 2016). These findings suggest that CBL is a vehicle of engagement for instruction, and facilitates an environment whereby students can construct knowledge.

Science – Students are given a scenario to which they apply their basic science knowledge and problem-solving skills to help them solve the case. One example within the biological sciences is two brothers who have a family history of a genetic illness. They each have mutations within a particular sequence in their DNA. Students work through the case and draw conclusions about the biological impacts of these mutations using basic science. Sample cases: You are Not the Mother of Your Children ; Organic Chemisty and Your Cellphone: Organic Light-Emitting Diodes ;   A Light on Physics: F-Number and Exposure Time

Medicine – Medical or pre-health students read about a patient presenting with specific symptoms. Students decide which questions are important to ask the patient in their medical history, how long they have experienced such symptoms, etc. The case unfolds and students use clinical reasoning, propose relevant tests, develop a differential diagnoses and a plan of treatment. Sample cases: The Case of the Crying Baby: Surgical vs. Medical Management ; The Plan: Ethics and Physician Assisted Suicide ; The Haemophilus Vaccine: A Victory for Immunologic Engineering

Public Health – A case study describes a pandemic of a deadly infectious disease. Students work through the case to identify Patient Zero, the person who was the first to spread the disease, and how that individual became infected.  Sample cases: The Protective Parent ; The Elusive Tuberculosis Case: The CDC and Andrew Speaker ; Credible Voice: WHO-Beijing and the SARS Crisis

Law – A case study presents a legal dilemma for which students use problem solving to decide the best way to advise and defend a client. Students are presented information that changes during the case.  Sample cases: Mortgage Crisis Call (abstract) ; The Case of the Unpaid Interns (abstract) ; Police-Community Dialogue (abstract)

Business – Students work on a case study that presents the history of a business success or failure. They apply business principles learned in the classroom and assess why the venture was successful or not. Sample cases: SELCO-Determining a path forward ; Project Masiluleke: Texting and Testing to Fight HIV/AIDS in South Africa ; Mayo Clinic: Design Thinking in Healthcare

Humanities - Students consider a case that presents a theater facing financial and management difficulties. They apply business and theater principles learned in the classroom to the case, working together to create solutions for the theater. Sample cases: David Geffen School of Drama

Recommendations

Finding and Writing Cases

Consider utilizing or adapting open access cases - The availability of open resources and databases containing cases that instructors can download makes this approach even more accessible in the classroom. Two examples of open databases are the Case Center on Public Leadership and Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Case Program , which focus on government, leadership and public policy case studies.

• Consider writing original cases - In the event that an instructor is unable to find open access cases relevant to their course learning objectives, they may choose to write their own. See the following resources on case writing: Cooking with Betty Crocker: A Recipe for Case Writing ; The Way of Flesch: The Art of Writing Readable Cases ;   Twixt Fact and Fiction: A Case Writer’s Dilemma ; And All That Jazz: An Essay Extolling the Virtues of Writing Case Teaching Notes .

Implementing Cases

Take baby steps if new to CBL - While entire courses and curricula may involve case-based learning, instructors who desire to implement on a smaller-scale can integrate a single case into their class, and increase the number of cases utilized over time as desired.

Use cases in classes that are small, medium or large - Cases can be scaled to any course size. In large classes with stadium seating, students can work with peers nearby, while in small classes with more flexible seating arrangements, teams can move their chairs closer together. CBL can introduce more noise (and energy) in the classroom to which an instructor often quickly becomes accustomed. Further, students can be asked to work on cases outside of class, and wrap up discussion during the next class meeting.

Encourage collaborative work - Cases present an opportunity for students to work together to solve cases which the historical literature supports as beneficial to student learning (Bruffee, 1993). Allow students to work in groups to answer case questions.

Form diverse teams as feasible - When students work within diverse teams they can be exposed to a variety of perspectives that can help them solve the case. Depending on the context of the course, priorities, and the background information gathered about the students enrolled in the class, instructors may choose to organize student groups to allow for diversity in factors such as current course grades, gender, race/ethnicity, personality, among other items.  

Use stable teams as appropriate - If CBL is a large component of the course, a research-supported practice is to keep teams together long enough to go through the stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965).

Walk around to guide groups - In CBL instructors serve as facilitators of student learning. Walking around allows the instructor to monitor student progress as well as identify and support any groups that may be struggling. Teaching assistants can also play a valuable role in supporting groups.

Interrupt strategically - Only every so often, for conversation in large group discussion of the case, especially when students appear confused on key concepts. An effective practice to help students meet case learning goals is to guide them as a whole group when the class is ready. This may include selecting a few student groups to present answers to discussion questions to the entire class, asking the class a question relevant to the case using polling software, and/or performing a mini-lesson on an area that appears to be confusing among students.  

Assess student learning in multiple ways - Students can be assessed informally by asking groups to report back answers to various case questions. This practice also helps students stay on task, and keeps them accountable. Cases can also be included on exams using related scenarios where students are asked to apply their knowledge.

Barrows HS. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12.  

Bonney KM. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 16(1): 21-28.

Breslin M, Buchanan, R. (2008) On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in Design.  Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40.

Bruffee KS. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and authority of knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Herreid CF. (2013). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science, edited by Clyde Freeman Herreid. Originally published in 2006 by the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA); reprinted by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) in 2013.

Herreid CH. (1994). Case studies in science: A novel method of science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(4), 221–229.

Jonassen DH and Hernandez-Serrano J. (2002). Case-based reasoning and instructional design: Using stories to support problem solving. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50(2), 65-77.  

Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676.

Krain M. (2016) Putting the learning in case learning? The effects of case-based approaches on student knowledge, attitudes, and engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 27(2), 131-153.

Lee V. (2012). What is Inquiry-Guided Learning?  New Directions for Learning, 129:5-14.

Nkhoma M, Sriratanaviriyakul N. (2017). Using case method to enrich students’ learning outcomes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1):37-50.

Srinivasan et al. (2007). Comparing problem-based learning with case-based learning: Effects of a major curricular shift at two institutions. Academic Medicine, 82(1): 74-82.

Thistlethwaite JE et al. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education. A BEME systematic review: BEME Guide No. 23.  Medical Teacher, 34, e421-e444.

Tuckman B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384-99.

Williams B. (2005). Case-based learning - a review of the literature: is there scope for this educational paradigm in prehospital education? Emerg Med, 22, 577-581.

Zak, PJ (2013). How Stories Change the Brain. Retrieved from: https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_stories_change_brain

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Case Study-Based Learning

Enhancing learning through immediate application.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

If you've ever tried to learn a new concept, you probably appreciate that "knowing" is different from "doing." When you have an opportunity to apply your knowledge, the lesson typically becomes much more real.

Adults often learn differently from children, and we have different motivations for learning. Typically, we learn new skills because we want to. We recognize the need to learn and grow, and we usually need – or want – to apply our newfound knowledge soon after we've learned it.

A popular theory of adult learning is andragogy (the art and science of leading man, or adults), as opposed to the better-known pedagogy (the art and science of leading children). Malcolm Knowles , a professor of adult education, was considered the father of andragogy, which is based on four key observations of adult learners:

• Adults learn best if they know why they're learning something.
• Adults often learn best through experience.
• Adults tend to view learning as an opportunity to solve problems.
• Adults learn best when the topic is relevant to them and immediately applicable.

This means that you'll get the best results with adults when they're fully involved in the learning experience. Give an adult an opportunity to practice and work with a new skill, and you have a solid foundation for high-quality learning that the person will likely retain over time.

So, how can you best use these adult learning principles in your training and development efforts? Case studies provide an excellent way of practicing and applying new concepts. As such, they're very useful tools in adult learning, and it's important to understand how to get the maximum value from them.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time.

The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context. The key players are introduced. Objectives and challenges are outlined. This is followed by specific examples and data, which the learner then uses to analyze the situation, determine what happened, and make recommendations.

The depth of a case depends on the lesson being taught. A case study can be two pages, 20 pages, or more. A good case study makes the reader think critically about the information presented, and then develop a thorough assessment of the situation, leading to a well-thought-out solution or recommendation.

Why Use a Case Study?

Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experience, because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills.

They differ from lectures or assigned readings because they require participation and deliberate application of a broad range of skills. For example, if you study financial analysis through straightforward learning methods, you may have to calculate and understand a long list of financial ratios (don't worry if you don't know what these are). Likewise, you may be given a set of financial statements to complete a ratio analysis. But until you put the exercise into context, you may not really know why you're doing the analysis.

With a case study, however, you might explore whether a bank should provide financing to a borrower, or whether a company is about to make a good acquisition. Suddenly, the act of calculating ratios becomes secondary – it's more important to understand what the ratios tell you. This is how case studies can make the difference between knowing what to do, and knowing how, when, and why to do it.

Then, what really separates case studies from other practical forms of learning – like scenarios and simulations – is the ability to compare the learner's recommendations with what actually happened. When you know what really happened, it's much easier to evaluate the "correctness" of the answers given.

When to Use a Case Study

As you can see, case studies are powerful and effective training tools. They also work best with practical, applied training, so make sure you use them appropriately.

Remember these tips:

• Case studies tend to focus on why and how to apply a skill or concept, not on remembering facts and details. Use case studies when understanding the concept is more important than memorizing correct responses.
• Case studies are great team-building opportunities. When a team gets together to solve a case, they'll have to work through different opinions, methods, and perspectives.
• Use case studies to build problem-solving skills, particularly those that are valuable when applied, but are likely to be used infrequently. This helps people get practice with these skills that they might not otherwise get.
• Case studies can be used to evaluate past problem solving. People can be asked what they'd do in that situation, and think about what could have been done differently.

Ensuring Maximum Value From Case Studies

The first thing to remember is that you already need to have enough theoretical knowledge to handle the questions and challenges in the case study. Otherwise, it can be like trying to solve a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.

Here are some additional tips for how to approach a case study. Depending on the exact nature of the case, some tips will be more relevant than others.

• Read the case at least three times before you start any analysis. Case studies usually have lots of details, and it's easy to miss something in your first, or even second, reading.
• Once you're thoroughly familiar with the case, note the facts. Identify which are relevant to the tasks you've been assigned. In a good case study, there are often many more facts than you need for your analysis.
• If the case contains large amounts of data, analyze this data for relevant trends. For example, have sales dropped steadily, or was there an unexpected high or low point?
• If the case involves a description of a company's history, find the key events, and consider how they may have impacted the current situation.
• Consider using techniques like SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces Analysis to understand the organization's strategic position.
• Stay with the facts when you draw conclusions. These include facts given in the case as well as established facts about the environmental context. Don't rely on personal opinions when you put together your answers.

Writing a Case Study

You may have to write a case study yourself. These are complex documents that take a while to research and compile. The quality of the case study influences the quality of the analysis. Here are some tips if you want to write your own:

• Write your case study as a structured story. The goal is to capture an interesting situation or challenge and then bring it to life with words and information. You want the reader to feel a part of what's happening.
• Present information so that a "right" answer isn't obvious. The goal is to develop the learner's ability to analyze and assess, not necessarily to make the same decision as the people in the actual case.
• Do background research to fully understand what happened and why. You may need to talk to key stakeholders to get their perspectives as well.
• Determine the key challenge. What needs to be resolved? The case study should focus on one main question or issue.
• Define the context. Talk about significant events leading up to the situation. What organizational factors are important for understanding the problem and assessing what should be done? Include cultural factors where possible.
• Identify key decision makers and stakeholders. Describe their roles and perspectives, as well as their motivations and interests.
• Make sure that you provide the right data to allow people to reach appropriate conclusions.
• Make sure that you have permission to use any information you include.

A typical case study structure includes these elements:

• Executive summary. Define the objective, and state the key challenge.
• Opening paragraph. Capture the reader's interest.
• Scope. Describe the background, context, approach, and issues involved.
• Presentation of facts. Develop an objective picture of what's happening.
• Description of key issues. Present viewpoints, decisions, and interests of key parties.

Because case studies have proved to be such effective teaching tools, many are already written. Some excellent sources of free cases are The Times 100 , CasePlace.org , and Schroeder & Schroeder Inc . You can often search for cases by topic or industry. These cases are expertly prepared, based mostly on real situations, and used extensively in business schools to teach management concepts.

Case studies are a great way to improve learning and training. They provide learners with an opportunity to solve a problem by applying what they know.

There are no unpleasant consequences for getting it "wrong," and cases give learners a much better understanding of what they really know and what they need to practice.

Case studies can be used in many ways, as team-building tools, and for skill development. You can write your own case study, but a large number are already prepared. Given the enormous benefits of practical learning applications like this, case studies are definitely something to consider adding to your next training session.

Knowles, M. (1973). 'The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species [online].' Available here .

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Case studies.

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Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

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• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
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• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

And the Top 40 cases studies of 2021 are:

1.   Hertz Global Holdings (A): Uses of Debt and Equity

2.   Coffee 2016

3.   Hertz Global Holdings (B): Uses of Debt and Equity 2020

4.   Glory, Glory Man United!

5.   Search Fund Company Boards: How CEOs Can Build Boards to Help Them Thrive

6.   The Future of Malls: Was Decline Inevitable?

7.   Strategy for Norway's Pension Fund Global

8.   Prodigy Finance

9.   Design at Mayo

10. Cadbury

11. City Hospital Emergency Room

13. Volkswagen

14. Marina Bay Sands

15. Shake Shack IPO

16. Mastercard

17. Netflix

18. Ant Financial

19. AXA: Creating the New CR Metrics

20. IBM Corporate Service Corps

21. Business Leadership in South Africa's 1994 Reforms

22. Alternative Meat Industry

23. Children's Premier

24. Khalil Tawil and Umi (A)

25. Palm Oil 2016

26. Teach For All: Designing a Global Network

27. What's Next? Search Fund Entrepreneurs Reflect on Life After Exit

28. Searching for a Search Fund Structure: A Student Takes a Tour of Various Options

30. Project Sammaan

31. Commonfund ESG

32. Polaroid

33. Connecticut Green Bank 2018: After the Raid

34. FieldFresh Foods

35. The Alibaba Group

36. 360 State Street: Real Options

37. Herman Miller

38. AgBiome

39. Nathan Cummings Foundation

40. Toyota 2010

All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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Case Study At-A-Glance

A case study is a way to let students interact with material in an open-ended manner. the goal is not to find solutions, but to explore possibilities and options of a real-life scenario..

Want examples of a Case-Study?  Check out the ABLConnect Activity Database Want to read research supporting the Case-Study method? Click here

Why should you facilitate a Case Study?

Want to facilitate a case-study in your class .

How-To Run a Case-Study

• Before class pick the case study topic/scenario. You can either generate a fictional situation or can use a real-world example.
• Clearly let students know how they should prepare. Will the information be given to them in class or do they need to do readings/research before coming to class?
• Have a list of questions prepared to help guide discussion (see below)
• Sessions work best when the group size is between 5-20 people so that everyone has an opportunity to participate. You may choose to have one large whole-class discussion or break into sub-groups and have smaller discussions. If you break into groups, make sure to leave extra time at the end to bring the whole class back together to discuss the key points from each group and to highlight any differences.
• What is the problem?
• What is the cause of the problem?
• Who are the key players in the situation? What is their position?
• What are the relevant data?
• What are possible solutions – both short-term and long-term?
• What are alternate solutions? – Play (or have the students play) Devil’s Advocate and consider alternate view points
• What are potential outcomes of each solution?
• What other information do you want to see?
• What can we learn from the scenario?
• Be flexible. While you may have a set of questions prepared, don’t be afraid to go where the discussion naturally takes you. However, be conscious of time and re-focus the group if key points are being missed
• Role-playing can be an effective strategy to showcase alternate viewpoints and resolve any conflicts
• Involve as many students as possible. Teamwork and communication are key aspects of this exercise. If needed, call on students who haven’t spoken yet or instigate another rule to encourage participation.
• Write out key facts on the board for reference. It is also helpful to write out possible solutions and list the pros/cons discussed.
• Having the information written out makes it easier for students to reference during the discussion and helps maintain everyone on the same page.
• Keep an eye on the clock and make sure students are moving through the scenario at a reasonable pace. If needed, prompt students with guided questions to help them move faster.  
• Either give or have the students give a concluding statement that highlights the goals and key points from the discussion. Make sure to compare and contrast alternate viewpoints that came up during the discussion and emphasize the take-home messages that can be applied to future situations.
• Inform students (either individually or the group) how they did during the case study. What worked? What didn’t work? Did everyone participate equally?
• Taking time to reflect on the process is just as important to emphasize and help students learn the importance of teamwork and communication.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

People also read

A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Template

Marketing Case Study Example

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our online essay service can craft an amazing case study within 24 hours! 

So why delay? Let us help you shine in the eyes of your instructor!

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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• Published: 05 June 2024

Classroom communications post pandemic: a case study

• Marwa Abdelmonem 1 &
• Sherin Karawia 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  728 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This cross-sectional case study ( n  = 20) took place in Qatar over a 3-month period spanning from September until the end of November in 2021. It examined the impacts of a post-COVID classroom arrangement that incorporated preventive measures like social distancing and the use of face coverings. Using the case study methodology, we employed two qualitative research methods, namely non-participant observation and semi-structured interviews, to gather primary data. We also conducted an extensive literature review to identify the key themes for investigation in the field. The primary focus of our study was on proxemics (personal space and crowding), technology (Zoom), non-verbal communication, and ergonomics (lighting and acoustics). Our study uncovered new areas for future research, particularly in how proxemics change in socially distanced classrooms, affecting personal space and perceptions of crowding. Additionally, it highlighted themes in post-pandemic classroom design, emphasizing the impact of factors like seating arrangements and available amenities (e.g., pinup walls) on student engagement, especially in design-studio classrooms. The study also revealed unexpected challenges, such as issues with microphone usage due to users’ lack of familiarity with their operation. In summary, the research underscores the ongoing importance of adaptable learning methods and communication strategies, particularly in response to preventive measures like social distancing and face-covering, which have reshaped our concept of personal space and emphasized the crucial role of telecommunication in crisis resilience for communities and organizations.

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Introduction.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) due to its rapid spread to multiple countries ( WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020 , 2020 ). It is important to note that COVID-19 is not an isolated event in history, as previous pandemics like the 1918 American Polio epidemic, the 1918 Spanish flu, the 1957 Asian flu, the 1981 AIDS pandemic, the 2009 H1N1 Swine flu, the 2014 West African Ebola, and the 2014 Zika Virus epidemic have occurred (Cennimo, 2020 ; Jarus, 2023 ). COVID-19 can have severe health consequences, particularly for the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions (World Health Organization, n.d. ) .

Preventing the transmission of COVID-19 involves a combination of physical and medical interventions. The WHO recommends physical measures such as handwashing, social distancing, and wearing face coverings (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d. ). Medical interventions include vaccines, although their long-term effectiveness is still being studied (Frequently Asked Questions about COVID-19 Vaccination, 2023 ). Vaccines have proven effective in reducing hospitalization rates by 92–96% (Robson, 2021 ), but ongoing research is examining their long-term impacts.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to significant changes in the operations of various institutions, including educational establishments. Measures like remote work and restricted access to buildings were implemented, and as vaccines were developed, some restrictions were lifted. In Qatar, strict COVID-19 measures included travel bans and public place closures, and the use of the Ehteraz app for exposure alerts (Al Khal et al., 2020 ). Mandatory face masks, protective equipment distribution, and clear public communication highlighted preventive measures, linking access to public facilities with a healthy Ehteraz status during the lockdown (Al Khal et al., 2020 ). The gradual reopening and removal of restrictions occurred in four phases, commencing on May 21, 2021 (Government Communications Office, 2020 ). Our study coincided with the second phase, marked by the partial lifting of restrictions, enabling a return to campus within designated daily hours and specific building capacities that varied across different structures.

The transition back to in-person learning has brought challenges in ensuring safety in alignment with WHO guidelines, including social distancing measures within classrooms. Given the mixed sentiments surrounding the reopening, communication within the classroom under setups adhering to WHO guidelines was unforeseen and unfamiliar to everyone. With varied opinions on the reopening, communication within classrooms following WHO guidelines was unexpected. Hence, our research study aimed to explore classroom communication post-online learning during the pandemic, as there is limited existing research on the effects of preventive measures on this aspect.

Student engagement is related to academic performance, and a conducive learning environment plays a crucial role in fostering effective communication and learning (Shernoff et al., 2016 , as cited in Kelly, 2008; Kopec, 2012 ). Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of preventive measures like face-covering and social distancing on classroom communication in a post-pandemic, socially-distanced classroom setting. In essence, our study seeks to answer the research question: “What impact do preventive measures have on classroom communication within a post-pandemic classroom environment?” This study was conducted on two interconnected classrooms, which were intentionally furnished to comply with social distancing requirements and create a cohesive socially distanced learning environment, prompting further exploration of this phenomenon.

Literature review

To investigate how preventive measures might impact classroom communication dynamics, our study conducted a review of the literature to identify and extract certain themes from this body of work. These predetermined themes were integral to addressing the aforementioned research question. Out of more than 50 studies examined, only 29 were selected to form the basis of the literature review for this study. Additional sources were incorporated for specific definitions and concepts. The literature selection criteria included original works in environmental design pertaining to proxemics, exploration of blended learning and technology use, considerations in classroom design, and aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication in classrooms.

Personal space

Due to the physical nature of the social distancing measure, literature on personal space was reviewed to better understand the impact of the changing proxemics. The first scholar to introduce the concept of personal space was Edward Hall in 1959 (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 794). Hall defined personal space as “an invisible three-dimensional zone surrounding a person, which allows that person to regulate his interactions with the outside world” (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 294). Research shows that “the idea of personal space is actually an interpersonal phenomenon” (Kopec, 2012 ). In other words, it requires the existence of others in order to occur. This was the definition pertaining to the psychological nature of this entity. However, it is also defined based on its physical characteristics as the variable and subjective distance at which one person feels comfortable talking to another ( Dictionary.com | Meanings & Definitions of English Words , 2021 ).

According to Hall ( 1990 ), the hidden boundaries of personal space are not fixed and can vary from one culture to another, as culture plays an important role in defining personal space. Nevertheless, in a socially distanced classroom, personal space that was long referred to as an invisible bubble has become well-identified with its visible physical boundaries after the COVID-19 pandemic. Spacing mechanisms used in design, in general, and in a socially distanced classroom, in particular, serve to maintain one’s perception of their personal space (Kopec, 2012 ).

The importance of the concept of personal space lies in regulating communication and human interaction. Research shows that “the concept of personal space is viewed as variable and permeable in different settings” (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 297). According to Hall ( 1990 ), interpersonal distance zones, which govern our interactions, can be categorized into four zones. The first category is the intimate, which ranges from 0 to 18”, typically reserved for individuals with close relationships, such as family members or individuals in deeply connected interpersonal bonds (Kopec, 2012 ). The second interpersonal zone is the personal which can range from 18” up to 4’ (Kopec, 2012 , p. 78). This zone is usually used in casual interactions between friends and acquaintances (Kopec, 2012 ). The third level is social , which is usually maintained in business relations between coworkers (Beaulieu, 2004 ) and ranges from 4’ to 12’ (Kopec, 2012 , p. 78). Lastly, the public zone which is usually used by people in public places where they find themselves surrounded by a number of strangers (Kopec, 2012 ). This zone varies from 12’ to 25’ (Kopec, 2012 . p. 78). In a recent study, Mehta ( 2020 ) investigated Hall’s proxemics in urban settings, focusing on changes in street and public space dynamics in residential areas during COVID-19. The research highlighted how residents in mid- to low-density areas repurpose spaces, fostering sociability despite social distancing measures.

In our study, we chose to explore the personal space perceived by participants in an attempt to analyze the various elements that define this concept within the new classroom setup. Our study was mostly exploratory and was not focused on a certain type of interpersonal distance.

Crowding concept

We also explored another concept in environmental psychology that is closely related to personal space, which is Crowding. In normal situations, the occupant load, which is “the number of people that a building code assumes will occupy a given building or a portion of a building”, is based on the building classification (Ballast, 2013 ). The number, placement, and capacity of exits are based on more than just occupant load. The type of occupancy and use, travel distance and remoteness or separation of exits are examples of other factors typically considered when designing a building.

As Kopec ( 2012 , p. 77) indicated, “spacing mechanisms used in design serve to help maintain an individual’s sense of personal space”. To put it differently, the use of physical boundaries such as partitions, furniture and layout allows the individual to identify their own personal space. Crowding, on the other hand, is defined as the “psychological tension produced in environments of high population density, especially when individuals feel that the amount of space available to them is insufficient for their needs” (American Psychological Association, n.d. ). In that sense, it can be argued that implementing social distancing in a classroom can potentially eliminate any sensation of crowding. However, our study examines this concept further, as the perception of crowding can be subjective in nature.

Some researchers such as Evans and Wener ( 2007 ) analyzed the concept of personal space and crowding in trains. According to their review of the literature, incursions into personal space by unfamiliar individuals lead to greater stress compared to those committed by individuals with positive interpersonal relationships. Evans and Wener ( 2007 ) suggested that crowding occurs when the regulation of social interaction fails, leading to a higher level of social interaction than desired. Worchel and Teddie ( 1976 ) also asserted that a feeling of overcrowding is associated with violations of personal space. Crowding can have negative impacts on mental health, causing decreased performance on complex tasks, stress aftermaths, and increased physiological stress (American Psychological Association, n.d. ). The lack of control over social interaction (i.e. privacy) and the decline of socially supportive relationships are considered to be two key mechanisms that contribute to crowding (American Psychological Association, n.d. ).

Upon reviewing the existing literature, specific inquiries emerge concerning the concept of crowding. Our principal emphasis lies in examining how the notion of crowding, closely intertwined with the concept of personal space, has evolved within a socially distanced classroom environment.

Communication

According to Wahyuni ( 2018 ), teachers are required to excel in specific nonverbal communication skills, which encompass body language, the utilization of eye contact, maintaining appropriate distance from students, and the use of touch. Wahyuni ( 2018 ), who further cited Darn (Darn, n.d. ), noted that nearly 75% of classroom management relies on nonverbal communication. In this research, our objective was to investigate the alterations in both verbal and nonverbal communication within the new setup. This change was prompted by the introduction of social distancing measures through the rearrangement of furniture and the adoption of Zoom as an auxiliary tool to facilitate communication between two interconnected classrooms.

Non-verbal communication

It is evident that nonverbal communication plays an important role in classroom interaction (Hall et al., 1977 ). French ( 1977 ) described the non-verbal experience as a multi-dimensional, multi-sensory experience. In his study, French ( 1977 ) emphasized the need for incorporating the non-verbal experience into curriculum development. “The non-verbal experience focused both on self and others”, which requires “an active engagement rather than a passive one” (French, 1977 , p. 176). French’s ( 1977 ) findings resonate well with Astin’s ( 1984 ) regarding the degree of student involvement. Astin ( 1984 ) defines student involvement as the extent of physical and psychological energy invested in the college experience, including academic absorption, extracurricular participation, and interaction with faculty. Education literature distinguishes between student engagement and involvement. Engagement , according to Campus Intelligence (Gay, 2019 ), entails dedicating time and effort to educationally purposeful activities, surpassing mere involvement. Engaged students actively pursue endeavors that contribute to their educational goals, going beyond classroom actions like note-taking and questioning. In their recent research, Walker and Koralesky ( 2021 ) employed the definition of student engagement found in various scholarly reviews, indicating that student engagement is a multi-dimensional construct with three interconnected dimensions: affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement (Walker and Koralesky, 2021 ; as cited in Chapman, 2002; Fredricks et al., 2004 ; Mandernach, 2015 ; Trowler, 2010 ). Our comprehension of the distinction between these two terms aided us in pinpointing the themes of observation. This is because engagement, in this context, is not the behavior we are focusing on; instead, we are interested in examining classroom dynamics and communication.

Hall et al. ( 1977 ) indicated that non-verbal communication involves a sender and a recipient. Hall et al. ( 1977 ) highlighted that there are some variables that make this sending-receiving type of interaction more effective. Among those variables that Hall et al. ( 1977 ) listed is the “climate”, which refers to how friendly the teacher is in interacting with students. Students are encouraged to actively participate in class discussions if they receive these cues about friendliness and positivity through the sender’s facial expressions and voice tone (Hall et al., 1977 ). This coincides with Zeki’s ( 2009 ) findings that the teacher’s non-verbal communication creates a comfortable and relaxing climate, which consequently enables the students to effectively and confidently engage in class discussions.

In the literature, we discovered another element that affects the student’s engagement in class, which is the locus of control (Astin, 1984 ; Richmond and McCroskey, 2012 , p. 13). According to Astin ( 1984 ), “students’ degree of involvement in learning tasks can be influenced by whether they believe that their behavior is controlled by internal or by external factors.” This is related to belief systems, which are often rooted in one’s locus of control (Kopec, 2012 ). Those who have “a strong external locus of control believe that they are controlled by external forces” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 98). On the other hand, people who have an “internal locus of control believe that their actions, choices, and pursuits control their destiny” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 98). This can be an indicative measure of the student’s level of motivation (Zeki, 2009 ). A number of studies (Zeki, 2009 ; Kopec, 2012 ; Hall, 1959 ) stated that the components of non-verbal communication include, but are not limited to; facial expressions (i.e. mimics), eye contact, angulation, and gestures (i.e. body language). The amount of information one receives from their surroundings comes from all senses but mainly from the eyes and ears (Zeki, 2009 ). This highlights the importance of visual and auditory environmental cues in a classroom.

Verbal communication

Additionally, we sought to comprehend the influence of the new environment on verbal communication. Consequently, we delved into the literature pertaining to physical ergonomics, such as classroom layout, acoustics, and lighting within the field of environmental design.

Classroom layout

Through an examination of early literature centered on the physical ergonomics of classroom configurations, we came across a notable study conducted by Sommer ( 1977 ) that underscored the significance of classroom layout as a means of non-verbal communication. Sommer emphasized that a classroom should not be viewed as a single homogeneous space but rather as a collection of interconnected micro-environments. Elements such as windows, lighting, heating vents, blackboards, and display equipment were identified as factors influencing interactions within the classroom. Additionally, the arrangement of classroom furniture was found to impact body angulation, which in turn affects nonverbal communication (Kopec, 2012 ).

In the realm of classroom design, the establishment of structures known as “affordances” gives rise to opportunities for engagement or limitations in that regard (Metzger and Langley, 2020 ). Affordances pertain to both the perceived and tangible characteristics of objects or surroundings, influencing how they can be employed (Metzger and Langley, 2020 , as cited in Gibson, 1979). In other words, these affordances represent resources within an environment for those who perceive and interact with them. In the context of our study, affordances are represented by movable chairs, movable tables, Zoom technology, and microphones. These affordances are meant to enhance communication while also imposing limitations on social proximity.

Verbal communication in a classroom involves the teacher conveying speech to students through a combination of direct and reflected sound (Berg et al., 1996 ). Effective acoustics are achieved when the reflected sound enhances the quality of the direct sound (Berg et al., 1996 ). Sound within the classroom space exhibits three behaviors: reflection off obstacles, diffraction around obstacles, and transmission into obstacles or new media (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). Reflected sound can lead to two issues: echoes or reverberation (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). An echo occurs when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 s after the original sound wave was heard (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). On the other hand, reverberation is the prolongation of sound as it repeatedly bounces off hard surfaces (Ballast, 2013 ). Reverberation is generally preferred in classroom acoustics as it enhances speech intelligibility in the interior environment (Ballast, 2013 ). To achieve good acoustics in a classroom, a well-designed space includes an appropriate combination of absorbent, reflective, and diffusive materials (Berg et al., 1996 ).

Classroom acoustics can be affected by sound transmission through barriers, such as HVAC systems and external noise from corridors or streets (Ballast, 2013 ). Research efforts have been directed towards exploring issues such as listening problems among special students, student disengagement, the teacher’s voice, and teacher fatigue (Berg et al., 1996 ). This information is relevant to our study as it pertains to the investigation of a socially distanced classroom setup. We also aimed to investigate acoustics because of its significant impact on both verbal and nonverbal communication, especially when considering the use of face coverings.

Daytime light exposure, particularly from sunlight, full-spectrum LEDs, and digital screens, is significant for learning as it affects both vision and a non-visual system tied to sleep-wake cycles and cognitive performance. Blue light has the most powerful impact on alertness and reduced sleepiness compared to other wavelengths, influencing hormonal secretion in the non-visual system (Uncapher, 2016 ).

In their case study, Tureková et al. ( 2018 ) aimed to show how the school environment significantly affects students’ academic performance. They found that factors like accurate lighting influence visual comfort and fatigue during visual tasks. Assessing the daylight factor in a university classroom revealed insufficient values, prompting the design of a potential software-based alternative to improve visual comfort. They also highlighted that natural light’s impact goes beyond academics, influencing physiological, psychological, and behavioral aspects of both students and workers (Tureková et al., 2018 ).

Al-Sallal ( 2010 ) studied daylighting in UAE classrooms, analyzing visual performance and quality. His research involved data collection from architectural drawings, compliance documents, site visits, and photography. Crucial design issues affecting visual quality, such as space size, depth-to-height ratio, window orientation, lighting direction, and desk position, were investigated through simulation. The study revealed design issues impacting daylighting and visual quality, including depth, glazing area, orientation, and daylighting direction. Visual discomfort was found due to contrasting luminance, high window brightness, and uneven daylight distribution. Mitigation strategies discussed focused on solar shading, glare protection, and daylight redirection, considering UAE climate design requirements. This study holds great relevance to our research because Qatar and the UAE share a similar climate. Our objective was to investigate whether there are any unexpected issues related to lighting in the new setup.

Joia and Lorenzo ( 2021 ) investigated the effectiveness of using Zoom, a popular choice for virtual communication during the pandemic (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ). The study’s findings emphasize the importance of a teacher’s digital proficiency on the platform and the availability of metacognitive support within the digital environment as key factors in achieving successful pedagogical objectives. Additionally, the research highlights that disciplines involving hard skills are more prone to not meeting their educational goals when transitioning to technology-mediated environments compared to soft skill disciplines undergoing a similar transition (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ).

Another study highlighted the benefits of video communication platforms, including expanding educational reach and enabling multimedia-based pedagogy (Earon, n.d. ). Online learning via Zoom showed satisfactory student levels in a study conducted in Pakistan (Minhas et al., 2021 ), but some students reported dissatisfaction due to technical issues (Kim, 2020 ). While online learning cannot replace face-to-face instruction (Ramadani and Xhaferi, 2020 ; Alawamleh et al., 2020 ), instructors’ digital competence and metacognitive support on Zoom can enhance the online experience (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ). The potential of using Zoom in a socially distanced classroom requires further exploration, given the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact and new social distancing measures. In our study, we aim to explore the use of Zoom as a supplementary communication medium in socially distanced classrooms.

To bridge the research gap on socially distanced classrooms that are specific to the context of Qatar, we embraced the philosophy of Epistemic Contextualism, asserting that knowledge attribution varies based on context (Rysiew, 2021 ). Following Morgan et al.’s ( 2016 ) recommendation, we adopted the case study methodology, drawing inspiration from the Case Study Observational Research (CSOR) approach. This approach entails conducting observations before interviews to delve deeper into aspects within the contextual framework. Our choice of a case study methodology aligns with qualitative research principles, suitable for exploring new fields or theorizing important issues (Jamshed, 2014 ). Consequently, we employed two data collection methods: observations followed by semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews, rooted in the belief in socially constructed reality, offer flexibility for cross-verification within and between interviews (Azungah, 2018 ). The main objective was to investigate the impact of socially distanced classrooms on student engagement and classroom communication. This cross-sectional study was conducted within a three-month timeframe. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis (Lawless and Chen, 2018 ) for both the observation and interviews. The study was conducted in a unique setting. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the classroom was designed as a studio for a single group, separated into two interconnected classrooms, illustrated in Fig. 1 as Classroom A and Classroom B. Additionally, two vestibules were designated as break areas for students. Classroom A had a dual function, serving as both a studio space and a location where students assembled their tables in the center for lectures. However, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing measures were implemented, mandating that each student remain in their assigned seat even during lectures. In other words, students were assigned to design-studio classrooms A and B. The instructor’s workstation, which contained all the necessary equipment, was located in classroom A. As a result, Classroom A was equipped with a TV screen for presentations, while Classroom B was equipped with a projector. Both the screen and the projector were connected to the audio/speakers’ area that was located next to the instructor’s workstation in Classroom A (see Fig. 2 ).

This figure demonstrates Pre- and Post-COVID layouts showcasing a floor plan of the two design-studio classrooms (A and B) interconnected by two vestibules, forming a unified socially distanced classroom. It also illustrates the locations of screens and instructor’s workstation in both classrooms.

A floor plan depicting the layout of design-studio classrooms A and B , along with four perspectives from both classrooms viewed from various camera angles (angles A , B , C , and D ).

Non-participant observations

Observational documentation spanned three months, from September to November, commencing at the start of the semester before obtaining Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for interviews, as no direct participant contact was required. Field notes encompassed written observations, hand sketches, and circulation maps, providing visual representations of classroom communications. The observer, the second researcher, attended the bi-weekly class sessions for approximately 60 min, ensuring comprehensive consideration of any potential confounding variables. The observation method was guided by findings from the literature review, shaping the framework for the study.

The observations involved observing students without actively participating, providing an overview of the setting and narrowing focus to specific elements of interest (Non-participant Observation, n.d. ). Students were closely monitored in their natural environments, with observations aligned with several themes derived from the literature review mentioned earlier. Field notes were recorded, specifically focusing on non-verbal communication aspects like angulation, body language, and gestures. Additionally, the observer examined any unanticipated data that had not been emphasized in the literature review. The aim of this method was to examine our predetermined themes extracted from the literature review and explore the emerging themes resulting from the new setup. Data were collected through field notes, sketches, and movement mapping over a period of three months.

Access to the classrooms was granted by both the Interim Chair of the Department and the Research Department. The first author served as the instructor for a lecture-based course during the research period, while the second author conducted the non-participant observations and subsequent semi-structured interviews. To maintain confidentiality, only data that had been de-identified and coded were provided to the first author for the purpose of data analysis.

It’s important to mention that we initially piloted a participant-observation method at the start of the semester, involving observations from both researchers. However, this proved impractical as the first researcher was also the course instructor, heavily engaged in fulfilling teaching obligations. Consequently, we opted for a non-participant observation approach, allowing one researcher to fully immerse in observing and documenting the identified variables from the literature review. Generally, “observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research” (Jamshed, 2014 , p. 88). Essentially, the use of observational data is intended to confirm the applicability of the predetermined themes identified in our literature review and to identify any unforeseen themes.

Semi-structured interviews

The second method utilized involved the conducting of face-to-face semi-structured interviews with college students who were pursuing a major in interior design. This was carried out following the approval granted by a national Institutional Review Board. Data was collected from a group of students ( n  = 20) aged between 18 and 20 years old. Ultimately, a total of 17 interviews were conducted, with three participants choosing to withdraw due to scheduling conflicts that arose during the final weeks of the semester. The inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found below in Table 1 .

Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim, with each session lasting approximately 30 min (Jamshed, 2014 ). The interview questions, derived from the literature review and observations, were intentionally designed as semi-structured to provide participants with the opportunity to elaborate on their responses. The inquiries primarily consisted of open-ended questions, aiming to delve into participants’ authentic feelings and attitudes regarding the new setup. However, close-ended questions were also incorporated to ensure clarity and consistency in responses.

The interviewing process employed a funnel approach, focusing on building trust and rapport and presenting questions in an unbiased manner to minimize biases from both the interviewer and interviewee (Azungah, 2018 ).

Data analysis

We adopted the inductive/deductive hybrid thematic analysis approach. According to Proudfoot ( 2022 ), thematic analysis that combines elements of both inductive and deductive approaches presents promising prospects for researchers. We initiated the coding process with a deductive approach, employing pre-established themes crafted before engaging with the collected data. These themes were formulated based on the literature review findings, detailed in Tables 2 and 3 . As we analyzed the interview data, we identified new themes that emerged from the study. Consequently, we adopted an inductive coding approach to highlight these additional insights.

Observations

During a 3-month period, the various movements of communication behaviors were captured with sketches. Video or audio recordings were not viable options due to cultural considerations. The outcomes of the non-participant observations align with the previously identified findings from literature review as shown below in Table 2 .

Based on our field observations, the instructor’s position within the room has a significant impact on student engagement. When the instructor is physically present in the room, it positively influences student-instructor interaction. Some students actively participate in class discussions and take notes only when the instructor is within their line of sight. However, there are other students who seem eager to participate regardless of the instructor’s location. While this observation might seem apparent, it proved valuable as it allowed us to connect it to the concept of locus of control. We were particularly interested in exploring whether student engagement stemmed from an internal or external source. Although this observation didn’t offer in-depth information, it provided an insight into how some students might possess an internal locus of control, motivating them to participate actively in class discussions regardless of classroom conditions or arrangements.

Additionally, our observations highlight that establishing eye contact plays a significant role in enhancing verbal communication and increasing student engagement. It is quite normal to see students eagerly joining classroom discussions by raising their hands, especially when they are in a position where the instructor can easily see them. In instances where students cannot recall technical terms for architectural concepts (e.g., forms, shapes, etc.), they resort to using hand gestures to convey their ideas. However, this might pose a challenge for those participating in the class discussion through Zoom from the adjacent room (classroom A or B), as they may not be able to see or interpret these hand gestures effectively. Body language encompasses a broad spectrum of non-verbal cues involving different parts of the body. Emphasizing the significance of hands in particular, they play a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of verbal communication. Our observations also reveal that students commonly adjust their body position, specifically their angulation, to enhance their ability to actively engage in classroom discussions. This adjustment often involves orienting themselves towards key focal points within the classroom, which typically include the instructor’s position or the screen/display, particularly in lecture-style classes. This angulation adjustment may have potential musculoskeletal consequences, which is an aspect we aimed to explore further during the interviews.

This setup is relatively novel and has yet to receive attention in the existing literature. Our field observations underscore the significance of technology utilization in a socially distanced classroom setting. It notably reduces the time spent on communication between two separate rooms. Without the aid of microphones and speakers, instructors are required to repeat discussions for both rooms, effectively duplicating their verbal communication efforts. This duplication of effort can lead to fatigue, occasionally diminishing the instructor’s overall productivity in a socially distanced classroom. Conversely, the positioning of the microphone held significant importance for student engagement. Students seated in closer proximity to the microphone or those with unobstructed access to it demonstrated higher levels of participation in class activities and discussions as illustrated in the mapping diagram (Fig. 3 ).

A mapping diagram that layers the instructor’s movement and students’ movement in the classrooms. In this diagram, the instructor’s movement frequency is highlighted with purple hexagons, while student movements are depicted with green hexagons.The dark microphone symbol denotes the primary location of the microphone, while the gray microphone symbol indicates changes in its position based on student movement.

Personal space and crowding

We also aimed to investigate the concept of crowding concerning personal space within the socially distanced setup. Most responses indicated that this feeling was barely experienced within the new arrangement. It appears that some students confused the psychological meaning of crowding with the physical aspects of overcrowding, and a follow-up question might have been helpful to clarify the investigation’s focus. Nonetheless, we suggest that the absence of the feeling of crowding could be attributed to individual personality traits, particularly whether one is a screener or non-screener (Kopec, 2012 ). Screeners are skilled at filtering out irrelevant stimuli and are less easily distracted or upset (“The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine,” 2006 ), while non-screeners have difficulty shifting attention and tend to experience higher levels of anxiety and empathy ( Nonscreener , n.d. ). Participant 4 exhibited a generally calm demeanor and a resilience to the influence of environmental factors. This disposition may shed light on the coping strategy that was observed, which includes either texting or stepping outside the classroom as a response to feeling overwhelmed. This coping strategy was also highlighted by participant 17.

Participant 17: “I actually try to take a break and try to go to the toilet or get a coffee, just a five-minute break, try to look to my phone to distract myself” .

Regarding the concept of personal space, the majority of participants perceived it positively in the socially distanced classroom. They appreciated the spaciousness of the setup and the generous size of their workspace, aligning with existing literature findings related to the concept of personal space as indicated below in Table 3 .

Furniture arrangement was generally perceived positively by 11 out of 20 participants, who appreciated the spacious personal space it provided in studio classes. However, some participants found the layout inconvenient, especially during lecture classes. The availability of a personal pin-up wall was appreciated by some students, but those sitting in the middle of the classroom, such as participant 13, felt disadvantaged due to the lack of this feature. Socially distanced classrooms were better tolerated in studio classes than in lecture classes, with students enjoying the increased personal space regardless of their location in the classroom.

Participant 13: “It is good, but at the same time I feel I don’t like it. I need a corner to sit in, in my area I sit in the middle, so I don’t have a pin up wall. Like in the Junior studio, I feel it is better because they have more corners, their tables are arranged in a U-shape, so most of them have corners and the area in the middle is empty. Having our tables in the middle, ok it is good for me to concentrate during the lecture classes, but in the studio classes it is uncomfortable” .

One drawback of this layout was the limited number of electrical outlets, which could become crowded when students needed to charge their laptops simultaneously. Another concern raised was the L-shaped table setup, which provided more space but required students to frequently turn their bodies and necks to view the screen during lectures, leading to potential musculoskeletal problems as emphasized by participant 14.

Participant 14: “The L-shape table setup is nice, because it gives us more space. However, the layout is not good, because we are not facing the screen, so we have to turn our bodies and neck in order to see the screen, which is very tiring. To open the laptop, take notes, following the lectures on the big screen with a layout that is not comfortable makes me lose focus” .

Instructors moving between the two rooms during class meetings to ensure equal engagement posed a distraction for some participants. They described maintaining two classrooms simultaneously as overwhelming for the instructor. Furthermore, some students found communication with instructors more convenient through Zoom compared to the socially distanced setup.

Nonverbal communication

Body language significantly influences a student’s attentiveness, as highlighted by 16 participants who emphasized that they are more focused when the instructor is physically present in the same classroom. Participant 14 expressed that seeing the instructor’s body language and personality creates a more engaging experience compared to feeling like they are listening to a machine, which helps them concentrate better. The term “focus” was used by those 16 participants to describe their level of engagement in class. Regardless of whether the interactions are one-way or two-way conversations, most students indicated that body language plays a vital role in keeping them attentive during class. However, it is essential to note that in-class participation does not always imply complete engagement with the class content. Rather, it is a term we used to assess the effectiveness of communication within this setting.

Participant 14: “Because focusing makes me understand the class materials, for example, if he or she (referring to the instructor) is here, I will be able to focus and understand, however, if they are in the other room, I try to listen to them but I cannot focus much “ .

Participant 13 emphasized the significance of body language, especially eye contact, in enhancing vocal communication. She mentioned that being able to see the instructor in front of her helps her understand the class materials better compared to when the instructor is in another room, and she struggles to maintain focus. This aligns with the observation that students tend to be more engaged when the instructor is within their line of sight.

Non-verbal communication or body language encompasses various aspects such as eye contact, gestures, voice, facial expressions, touch, space, and body movement/posture (Segal et al., 2023 ). Among these elements, the eyes and ears are the most utilized in any form of vocal communication, whether in one-way or two-way conversations. Hall’s ( 1966 ) findings indicate that the unaided ear’s effective coverage is limited, making visual cues crucial for effective communication.

Participant 14 mentioned relying more on visual cues than auditory ones, suggesting that visual learners may find it challenging to adapt to socially distanced classroom environments, especially when they cannot consistently see the speaker. This lack of human connection, as described by Participant 16, can hinder effective communication between the speaker and the audience.

Participant 10 emphasized the significance of visual access provided by Zoom in a socially distanced classroom. She expressed that when the instructor makes eye contact with the camera, it creates a sense of direct connection and engagement. To her, establishing eye contact is essential for comprehending lessons and establishing a connection with the instructor. She also noted that recalling the instructor’s body language while reviewing PowerPoint slides after class enhances information retention compared to audio-only classes, where relying on notes is necessary.

Additionally, Participant 10 highlighted the importance of eye contact, even in virtual settings, through the Zoom camera. When the instructor looks directly at the camera, it gives the remote audience the impression of maintained eye contact. This effort allows visually inaccessible students to stay involved and potentially engaged with the class content. Furthermore, the participant mentioned that body language helps in mentally noting information for better retention.

Participant 10: “somehow it does work, especially if the instructor is making eye contact with the camera or something. It makes me feel she is directed towards the students and she is looking at us. And for me eye contact is very important in communication, especially when it comes to understanding a lesson. Also, it is like having a relationship with the instructor, it is not just audio, but it is visual as well. Sometimes, when I go over the PowerPoint slides again after class to study, I sort of remember the instructor’s body language and it is like remembering the information that was said during the class. I feel I retain the information better, however, if it was only audio, I feel I will need to go back to my notes to remember and to refresh my memories.”

Participant 1 mentioned the advantage of immediate interaction in studio or graphics classes, where movement and questions are encouraged. However, there was confusion between audience etiquette and lack of participation, as remaining silent during a lecture is expected to avoid distractions. Questions were facilitated through raised hands, achieved by sharing screens via Zoom to connect both rooms. The perception of student engagement may have been skewed because of the room’s dual function (serving as both a studio and a lecture room), potentially causing some misinterpretation.

Three participants mentioned that the socially distanced setup facilitated effective communication with their classmates within the same classroom more than with those in other classrooms. Participant 6 expressed developing stronger relationships and feeling comfortable talking to nearby classmates, whereas communication with students in the other room was less frequent. This sentiment was shared by other participants, highlighting that student-to-student communication was confined within microenvironments, typically within a 1-m radius.

The type of course, whether studio-based or lecture-based, played a significant role in defining student-to-student communication. Studio classes held in those classrooms allowed for more walking around and talking, leading to increased interactions among students. On the other hand, lecture courses tended to limit communication to those sitting nearby or using microphones for questions.

Participant 10 acknowledged the ease of communication within their class but found it challenging to interact with students in the other room. However, efforts were made to maintain personal connections and engage in group discussions, even with students in the adjacent room. Similar experiences were shared by other participants, who expressed greater communication with those sitting closer to them, particularly in lecture classes.

Student location

The quality of a student’s learning experience is correlated with their location in the classroom, as indicated by several responses. Participants mentioned that being closer to the instructor’s position resulted in a better learning experience, allowing for comfortable, conversational distance and improved concentration.

Apart from proximity to the instructor, students also considered other factors when choosing their seats, such as adequate daylighting. Some preferred corner spots for privacy, storage space, and access to pinup walls, while middle spots were perceived as lacking privacy due to the absence of vertical partitions. However, certain desk locations led to musculoskeletal issues for students as they tried to adjust their positions to see the screen or instructor clearly. Participants 5 and 17 pointed out that poor ergonomics could result in disengagement from class activities.

Participant 17: “As a social distance I have no issues. But after the midterms I changed my location because I got neck issues. My table was facing the wall, so I had to twist my whole body to follow the lecture on the screen and that was very tiring”. She added, “…. and after the midterms, I did not like my grades, they were average but I did not like them. So, I felt I had to change, I had to be more comfortable, so I can focus more. Then I found another available place” .

Participant 6 indicated that the instructors’ movement between classrooms was influenced by the layout, with the primary workstation attracting them to stay longer in that room. This affected student engagement and communication with the instructor during class.

Participant 6 said, “Now that I think about it, I mainly talk with people sitting closer to me. However, my location is near the junior partition, which is annoying because I can hear everything through a little crack in the partition—their lectures, jokes, fights, everything.” The external noise from adjacent rooms with similar setups poses additional distractions, especially for students sitting on the wall-side. Despite having absorptive materials (fabric) on the pinup walls, the doors in between the classrooms require further treatment to address noise issues, considering the use of microphones and speakers as part of the socially distanced setup. Acoustics are significantly impacted by the flooring in the classroom, and footsteps and flooring noises can also contribute to distractions.

Circulation

Some participants described the circulation as tight, with Participant 1 stating, “I think the circulation is a bit tight, but overall it is good.” This perception may be attributed to the limited pathways intentionally designed to restrict each student’s space and minimize potential areas of congregation. On the other hand, other participants found the circulation to be convenient for their work and overall smooth. Participant 5 expressed appreciation for the circulation, particularly the provision of two desks for each student, which was beneficial for their work and required ample space. They also found the circulation easy to navigate, with no challenges in moving around the classroom.

Upon analyzing the layout and comparing the seating positions of Participant 1 and Participant 5, we observed that both locations were unobstructed and conveniently accessible from the classroom entrance. Both participants were equidistant from the instructor’s position and the TV screen. However, it is worth mentioning that while Participant 5 was seated near a window, Participant 1 occupied a seat in the middle of classroom A. Despite this difference, they were still relatively close to each other. This variation in seating may have influenced their perceptions of the room’s overall circulation, with the window-side location potentially contributing to a greater sense of spaciousness.

Participant 1 expressed a preference for dimmer environments during lecture courses, stating, “Sometimes when I see it is dark there, I wish I was in the other room. My side has too much light.” This suggests that there is a variation in lighting preferences among students in a classroom setting. The proximity to windows is considered a privilege by some students, providing them with a view and the ability to control daylight, as described by Participant 1. Participant 14, on the other hand, mentioned being situated far from the window and lacking direct sunlight. Additionally, she found the artificial lighting in her class to be either excessively bright or too dim. As someone who enjoys natural light, she expressed a desire for more sunlight in her space. The quality of light, whether natural or artificial, significantly impacts students’ perceptions of the environment. For instance, Participant 14 attributed feelings of lethargy and tiredness during afternoon classes to the absence of sunlight. She believed that more windows would increase her energy and alertness. Participant 5 indicated that having her desk somehow close to the window and receiving sunlight in the morning helps awaken her, suggesting a positive association between productivity and good daylighting. However, Participant 12 pointed out that sitting near windows could be overwhelming in hot weather, expressing a preference for blinds to regulate natural light and maintain a comfortable temperature. Surprisingly, glare was not as problematic as initially thought, as students found ways to adjust their seating to avoid it, utilizing the spacious workspaces provided. In fact, several participants, including Participant 1, stated they had no glare issues due to the L-shaped tables, which allowed them to adjust their laptops accordingly.

While many participants appreciated the adequate amount of daylight in their classroom, they felt that the artificial lighting was inadequate and, to some extent, contributed to feelings of drowsiness. For instance, Participant 16 mentioned that the artificial light in her class (referring to classroom B) was low and dull. Furthermore, Participant 6, who occupies a seat in classroom B, found screen light during presentations or lectures to be bothersome for her eyes despite not receiving direct sunlight due to her window being closed. The room’s darkness and strong light from the screen caused discomfort and eye irritation for her.

The placement of microphones and their limited number discouraged several students from actively participating in class discussions during lecture-based courses. Participant 14 expressed frustration, describing walking to the fixed microphone location as a “nightmare.” A significant issue, pointed out by 12 participants, is the challenging distance between their desks and the microphone, which hinders their ability to engage in class discussions effectively. Participants used terms like “time-consuming” and “waste of time” to describe the inconvenience of walking to the microphone, which can impact the overall communication in the class.

Some students prefer to participate in discussions while remaining seated, especially if the microphone’s location is prominently visible in the room. Shyness was identified as a reason for some students’ hesitance to use the fixed microphone. It is speculated that shyness may stem from cultural factors or personality traits, but further investigation is required to understand the underlying reasons behind this sentiment.

Another theme that emerged from the interviews is that students intentionally refrain from participating due to spatial and technical challenges. For example, participant 4 explained that she holds back from answering questions because she believes others in the second room will reach the microphone faster or the instructor will notice them first. As a result, she remains silent and stays in her place. Participant 10 echoed a similar sentiment, stating that sometimes it takes the instructor time to realize that they want to ask or answer a question, leading to a reluctance to disturb the class or interrupt the instructor. The time required to walk to the microphone makes them hesitant, as by the time they reach there, the instructor might have moved on to the next topic. This situation can be embarrassing for students, as they do not want to interrupt the lecture inadvertently.

Participant 6 shared a similar experience, stating that she refrained from participating altogether during lecture classes due to the effort and stress involved. The process of walking to the microphone, ensuring it works, and repeating herself to those in the other room feels overwhelming. Participant 12 also acknowledged this challenge, indicating that she often weighs whether her question or comment is worth the time and potential disruption to the class.

Participant 3 expressed that she avoids participation due to the lengthy process involved in a socially distanced classroom. She feels that someone else will answer, so she does not need to speak up. Similarly, Participant 4 chooses not to participate in certain situations, believing that others will answer before her.

We propose that this pattern of hesitating to participate may be linked to a concept known as “learned helplessness.” This phenomenon occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable stressors, leading them to develop a belief that they lack control over their environment. Thus, this diminished sense of control can reduce their motivation to take action or attempt to change the situation ( APA Dictionary of Psychology , n.d.)

Microphone manners

One emerging sub-theme from the study is the intimidation some users, especially students, experience when using microphones. Instructors are also not effectively trained in microphone usage. Participants reported instances where they could not hear the instructor clearly due to audio volume fluctuations. This was attributed to instructors holding the microphone too far away or pointing it at their chin instead of their mouth, causing acoustic issues for students in the other classroom. Consequently, students tended to zone out when unable to hear clearly, impacting their engagement in class discussions.

Participant 5 mentioned that although instructors were generally audible, there were instances of sound cut-offs or distractions when the microphone was too close to the professor’s mouth, picking up unwanted sounds like breathing. Participant 7 also noted that some students had soft voices even when using the microphone, affecting clarity.

Zoom was deliberately chosen to visually connect people in both rooms for this study, as the transition from full online learning for two years made it a suitable platform. However, interview results revealed two main perspectives on using Zoom in a socially distanced classroom. Some participants found Zoom distracting, perceiving it as a reminder of online classes, while others appreciated its usefulness, especially visual learners who could easily view lecture slides through the sharing feature.

Distraction emerged as a recurring concern among several participants, particularly related to visual and auditory stimuli. These distractions encompassed factors such as noise originating from neighboring classrooms, the movements of the instructor, and technical issues. Notably, some students, like Participant 14, disclosed that they had Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and experienced heightened sensitivity to various forms of movement, which made both virtual and in-person classes equally challenging in terms of maintaining focus. Conversely, some participants held a positive perspective regarding Zoom’s role in enhancing communication between the two interconnected classrooms. For example, participant 10 expressed gratitude for the opportunity to observe the lecturer’s body language, which contributed to a sense of human interaction, even within a semi-virtual learning environment.

Technical issues occasionally led to student disengagement, but Zoom proved helpful for those in the no-instructor classroom. Students utilized Zoom’s sharing feature to follow lecture slides and virtually raise their hands for participation. However, overall, students preferred face-to-face interaction over Zoom communication, finding the latter tiring and distracting. Observations during the study supported this preference for face-to-face interaction.

Locus of control

Four participants indicated that they had little control over their classroom location and settled for what was available. However, some, like Participant 5, displayed an internal locus of control, stating she could teach herself and adapt to any situation. Participant 5 emphasized that the physical presence of the instructor was not crucial for her learning, indicating a strong internal strength and adaptability.

Conversely, Participant 17 exhibited a blend of external and internal locus of control. Initially, her seat choice was influenced by the location of her friends, reflecting an external factor. However, she later opted to change her seat with the goal of “improving her grades,” indicating a degree of internal control in her decision-making process.

Participant 17: “At the beginning I was just walking with my friends, and they sat so I sat. So, we sat and we were chatting, then I realized oh ok this is my place. But then I felt I cannot continue, and after the midterms, I did not like my grades, they were average but I did not like them. So, I felt I had to change, I had to be more comfortable, so I can focus more. Then I found another available place” .

Participant 15, on the other hand, favored keeping her laptop active during lectures, utilizing Zoom’s sharing feature to manage slides and search for answers when necessary. In doing so, she demonstrated an external locus of control, relying on available resources such as Zoom to address technical and acoustic challenges.

To our knowledge, this study is the first exploration of post-pandemic classroom design and its effects on classroom communication and student engagement under preventive measures such as face covering and social distancing. To investigate the research question in this case study, a thorough examination of both old and recent literature was methodically undertaken. This approach serves as both a limitation and a strength. The absence of pertinent studies prior to the research in 2021 posed a significant challenge. Nevertheless, delving into well-established older literature proved instrumental in overcoming this hurdle and establishing the groundwork for this exploratory research.

With the implementation of social distancing and the redefined proxemics, our study aimed to investigate the variations in the concept of personal space in this context. Hall’s work provided the foundation for our research in this specific area. While reviewing several studies referencing proxemics theory, none closely resembled ours. Thus, we utilized the original work as a starting point for exploration. This approach mirrors Mehta’s study ( 2020 ), which explored the impact of COVID-19 measures in urban settings, noting the transformation of spaces in response to social distancing. Mehta’s findings on sociable spaces resonated with our results regarding furniture arrangement and classroom layout. Our findings on the redefined proxemics in the new setup reveal that the post-pandemic classroom was widely praised for its redefined personal space. A majority of 11 out of 17 participants expressed positive sentiments about the spaciousness and convenience of the newly defined personal space (Table 3 ). Crowding, a psychological concept associated with personal space, was seldom experienced in the new setup. Some participants mentioned that crowding was only felt when there was limited access to charging outlets for their laptops. Additionally, individuals who experienced any form of stress in class identified checking their phones or taking short breaks as coping strategies.

Our findings also show that the furniture arrangement of the post-pandemic classroom is key in facilitating class communication. While being in close proximity to the instructor in the front or middle of the classroom is deemed conducive to student engagement, as it enables close and direct communication that helps students stay on task (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited by Gullup, 1986), our study reveals that these middle seats do not cater to the spatial requirements of design students in studio classes, mainly due to the absence of pin-up walls. The findings indicate insufficient attention to the needs of students situated in the middle, exposing them to more visibility and diminished privacy compared to their counterparts along the perimeter. This situation is akin to the airplane aisle and window seats’ dilemma. While middle-seat students benefit from being close to the lecturer as a source of information, wall-side students enjoy privacy, access to a pin-up wall, and window advantages. A socio-petal (Mehta, 2020 ) furniture arrangement is recommended as it can provide equal opportunities and amenities for art and design students while facilitating communication in a socially distanced classroom.

The results of interviews and observations highlight the substantial influence of the instructor’s positioning in the classroom on communication with students, encompassing both verbal and non-verbal aspects. The students are more inclined to engage in class discussion if the instructor’s location in the classroom, as well as their body language are visually accessible. This highlights Kopec’s insights about the benefits of a rectangular classroom layout and how it supports the instructor’s capacity to establish eye contact with students since they fall within “the instructor’s primary visual field” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 224). Moreover, our research shows that 80% of the interview responses highlight the positive impact of body language on students’ attentiveness and engagement. This finding is consistent with the established literature, specifically Zeki’s ( 2009 ), emphasizing the significance of body language in non-verbal communication within the classroom. Put differently, the arrangement of the classroom is pivotal for both verbal and non-verbal communication, both in a general classroom setting and specifically in the post-pandemic classroom. Our study contributes to the existing knowledge by examining the utilization of Zoom to enhance body language, including eye contact, in a scenario involving the coordination of two or more classrooms simultaneously, necessitated by insufficient space in the facility. Fifteen percent of our sample expressed positive perceptions of using Zoom as an alternative to face-to-face communication to address spatial challenges in this context (Table 3 ). Based on these findings, we propose that new hidden dimensions arise, shaping communication and interactions within socially distanced classrooms. The noted expansion of personal, social, and public spheres, with the public sphere arguably encompassing the use of Zoom, prompts further exploration in these settings. The distances between students and instructors have the potential to redefine proxemics in post-pandemic classroom arrangements.

Our investigation explored lighting aspects, revealing that they had the least impact on the socially distanced classroom setup. Students’ main concerns revolved around having more control over lighting levels in their designated spaces. Responses showed diverse preferences for lighting conditions, with some favoring dim lighting and others opting for brighter classrooms. The L-shaped workspace effectively addressed glare issues, allowing students to adjust their positions for control if the problem arose. In a prior UAE study (Al-Sallal, 2010 ), it was observed that simulation runs revealed three key issues causing visual discomfort: sharp contrasts in luminance between the task surface (e.g., whiteboard) and nearby surfaces, excessive brightness from windows and uneven distribution of daylight in the space. In his study, the student’s sitting location was identified as a crucial factor influencing visual quality. The most problematic location was reported to be “the rear, opposite side of the windows” (Al-Sallal, 2010 , p. 208) in terms of acceptable luminance. While our study primarily addressed lighting preferences and emerging behaviors impacting post-pandemic classroom communications, certain findings resonate with Al-Sallal’s ( 2010 ), especially those related to student location. Six out of 17 students favored daylighting and found glare issues insignificant, attributing this to their ability to adjust positions within the spacious workspace. Additionally, four out of 17 participants expressed a preference for more control and the ability to adjust lighting levels according to their individual needs to enhance attention and focus (Table 3 ). Some participants positively associated proximity to windows with productivity, as highlighted in the lighting results subsection. To prioritize confidentiality, our study analyzed responses without linking them to specific student locations, resulting in a lack of specificity in our results. This limitation is acknowledged, but the decision was made to safeguard confidentiality, especially since one researcher served as the course instructor, creating a potential challenge in handling information related to student locations. This aspect is worth exploring in future research to understand the correlation between lighting and student location in post-pandemic classrooms.

In addition, we investigated acoustics in this distinctive setup utilizing technology to facilitate the operation of two classrooms simultaneously, aiming to improve verbal communication. Our research focused on exploring the consequences of preventive measures on classroom communication in a post-pandemic setting. Considering earlier research in the field, notably Berg et al.’s ( 1996 ) review article, which synthesized results from diverse studies, emphasizing the influence of noisy classrooms on students’ effective listening, impacting task engagement, discipline, and cooperation. They highlighted that teachers adjust their vocal approach, exhibiting variations in strength (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited in Gallup, 1986; Ray, 1990). While some effectively project their voices, individuals with weaker voices may encounter stress when elevating their vocal levels (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited in Berg, 1993). These findings proved valuable as we sought to comprehend the challenges faced by instructors in both general and specific settings. Our findings show that the adoption of microphones eliminated the need for vocal exertion by instructors. One of the acoustic concerns pointed out by some participants was noise. In this setup, noise primarily originated from adjacent classrooms and internal sources, such as speakers’ echoing sound and unwanted noise resulting from improper microphone use (e.g., instructor breathing). Seven out of 17 interviewees expressed more concern about noise related to technical issues, while three out of 17 interviewees identified external noise as more distracting (Table 3 ). For instance, participant 6 mentioned that her location is mainly distracting due to external noise from the neighboring classroom. These findings emphasize emerging challenges in temporary arrangements for socially distanced classrooms, suggesting areas for further exploration, such as the impact of using speakers in acoustically unprepared lecture spaces during emergencies.

This research uncovered novel findings not present in existing literature. One such discovery is the concept of microphone etiquette, an aspect not previously addressed in the specific context of our study. This introduces a new avenue for exploration by researchers and designers. The intentional inclusion of microphones in this setting aimed to improve verbal communication between two interconnected classrooms. Further investigation into blended learning or hybrid approaches utilizing microphones could be valuable, potentially mitigating challenges during local or global outbreaks.

An aspect warranting future exploration in research is students’ perceptions of microphone usage. Approximately 70.6% of participants indicated that microphone location affected their level of engagement in class. Three out of 17 participants explicitly reported abstaining from engagement due to recurrent technical issues, leading to delayed verbal communication. Students refrained from participating due to shyness, as they had to walk to the microphone location and their apprehension that technical problems might arise (Table 3 ). Arguably, this behavior can be attributed to learned helplessness, which is defined as “occurring when an individual continuously faces a negative, uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they have the ability to do so” (Psychology Today, n.d. ). This finding resonates with Polat’s study ( 2022 , p. 95), which suggests that the students’ “individual uncertainties” can lead to learned helplessness, diminishing motivation and resulting in decreased academic performance and passive behaviors. However, given the sample’s size and homogeneity, it remains challenging to definitively associate learned helplessness with the socially-distanced setup or other variables in this case study. Additional data is needed to establish this as a dependent variable specific to this context. The locus of control was also identified within the responses, as outlined in the results section. A more comprehensive understanding of the data regarding locus of control could have been achieved with a larger sample and the incorporation of additional qualitative methods, such as surveys. The four responses collected in this aspect may be influenced by unanticipated variables specific to this context beyond the locus of control.

It is essential to recognize that the findings derived from this case study are highly contextual. If a similar setup is implemented in a different context or country, the results, especially concerning student attitudes toward microphone usage and privacy concerns, may vary. The transferability of our findings may be constrained both geographically and across disciplines. Since the study exclusively targeted interior design students, its relevance to other fields in the hard sciences may be restricted due to the unique nature of their work. It is noteworthy that cultural aspects were not explicitly addressed within the scope of this research.

It is worth mentioning that the non-participant observation method proved valuable in aligning predetermined themes from the literature review with the research question. Given this unprecedented environmental context, we opted for deductive coding to stay within the scope of this research study on classroom communication post-pandemic. However, the semi-structured interviews revealed unexpected themes, providing opportunities for further research, as mentioned earlier. Hence, we utilized a hybrid approach, incorporating both deductive and inductive coding, to identify patterns in the interview responses. This method facilitated the emergence of new themes, including the consideration of microphone etiquette.

In addressing potential biases arising from observations, we took measures to clearly delineate the role of each researcher (Glesne, 2011 ) to ensure transparency and maintain participant data confidentiality. Throughout the study, we consistently practiced reflexivity ( Reflexivity , n.d. ), allowing us to continually scrutinize our own biases and perspectives during data collection and analysis. The decision to employ a single observer was influenced by regulations limiting classroom capacity and other restrictions related to external visitors. Additionally, we incorporated the Devil’s Advocate approach (Trochim, 2020 ) during data analysis, actively challenging our interpretations of the findings.

This research holds relevance for administrators as they strategize for campus emergencies. Future studies could delve into the optimization of furniture arrangement, considering aspects like privacy and body language, particularly in emergency scenarios necessitating preventive measures like face covering and social distancing. The insights gleaned from our findings might aid administrators in effectively organizing designated spaces for concurrent use or incorporating hybrid modes to ensure instructional continuity during emergencies. A deeper understanding of enhancing hybrid learning environments post-pandemic could contribute to user satisfaction and reduce reliance on lockdown measures.

Conclusions

The pandemic has instilled in us the importance of carefully designing successful learning experiences and programs for our students. It forced us to reevaluate our priorities and life choices, leading to significant changes in communication due to preventive measures like face coverings and social distancing. In times of hardship and uncertainty, telecommunication has become indispensable for businesses, governments, and communities to sustain themselves. As a result, interior environments should be adaptable to accommodate such emergencies.

Our study investigated communication dynamics within a classroom environment adapted to mitigate the spread of the coronavirus while ensuring instructional continuity. We conclude that the impact of preventive measures on classroom communication in a post-pandemic setting is multifaceted and context-dependent. While we have delved into specific aspects we believe are linked to communication, there may be more to consider. Among these aspects, we have explored proxemics, which have evolved beyond its cultural definition to incorporate new physical dimensions to accommodate social distancing. Our findings indicated that psychological concepts like crowding in this socially distanced setting require reassessment. The increased spaciousness in classrooms resulting from the setup with social distancing has reduced crowding. Interestingly, the use of cell phones during class, not resulting in disciplinary action, has served as a positive distraction for students experiencing crowding or stress.

Furthermore, post-COVID spacing mechanisms, including occupant load and furniture arrangement with social distancing in mind, have reshaped our perception of personal space. People became less concerned with non-verbal cues that differ across cultures and define their personal space. Instead, the COVID-preventative measures have introduced new hidden dimensions to our understanding of personal space. These new hidden dimensions encompass factors such as proximity to microphones, the instructor’s desk, the pinup walls, and/or windows, all of which regulate communication within a socially distanced classroom. For instance, adopting a socio-petal layout in the classroom could significantly enhance these new hidden dimensions, thereby facilitating communication in a socially distanced setting. Our findings indicate that crowding, often associated with personal space and spatial density, is less prevalent in the post-COVID setup, as each student benefits from a more spacious personal area dictated by COVID protocols. This reduction in crowding contributes to improved performance as individuals regain control over their social interactions.

In times of emergency, like the pandemic, technology becomes essential to facilitate both verbal and non-verbal communication. This exploratory case study highlights the significance of technology in socially distanced setups in design-studio classrooms, particularly in addressing the communication challenges identified. However, further research is needed to investigate the potential for tailored technology usage and its effectiveness within these distinctive educational environments.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are accessible upon request from the corresponding author (MA). The data cannot be publicly released as they may contain information that could compromise the privacy or consent of research participants.

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Acknowledgements

We thank all the students who participated in this study for sharing their time and valuable insights. We also appreciate the support and funding provided by Virginia Commonwealth School of the Arts in Qatar for this research.

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Abdelmonem, M., Karawia, S. Classroom communications post pandemic: a case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 728 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03171-6

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Experiences of medical students and faculty regarding the use of long case as a formative assessment method at a tertiary care teaching hospital in a low resource setting: a qualitative study

• Jacob Kumakech 1 ,
• Ian Guyton Munabi 2 ,
• Aloysius Gonzaga Mubuuke 3 &
• Sarah Kiguli 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  621 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

The long case is used to assess medical students’ proficiency in performing clinical tasks. As a formative assessment, the purpose is to offer feedback on performance, aiming to enhance and expedite clinical learning. The long case stands out as one of the primary formative assessment methods for clinical clerkship in low-resource settings but has received little attention in the literature.

To explore the experiences of medical students and faculty regarding the use of the Long Case Study as a formative assessment method at a tertiary care teaching hospital in a low-resource setting.

Methodology

A qualitative study design was used. The study was conducted at Makerere University, a low-resource setting. The study participants were third- and fifth-year medical students as well as lecturers. Purposive sampling was utilized to recruit participants. Data collection comprised six Focus Group Discussions with students and five Key Informant Interviews with lecturers. The qualitative data were analyzed by inductive thematic analysis.

Three themes emerged from the study: ward placement, case presentation, and case assessment and feedback. The findings revealed that students conduct their long cases at patients’ bedside within specific wards/units assigned for the entire clerkship. Effective supervision, feedback, and marks were highlighted as crucial practices that positively impact the learning process. However, challenges such as insufficient orientation to the long case, the super-specialization of the hospital wards, pressure to hunt for marks, and inadequate feedback practices were identified.

The long case offers students exposure to real patients in a clinical setting. However, in tertiary care teaching hospitals, it’s crucial to ensure proper design and implementation of this practice to enable students’ exposure to a variety of cases. Adequate and effective supervision and feedback create valuable opportunities for each learner to present cases and receive corrections.

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The long case serves as an authentic assessment method for evaluating medical students’ competence in clinical tasks [ 1 ]. This form of assessment requires students to independently spend time with patients taking their medical history, conducting physical examinations, and formulating diagnosis and management plans. Subsequently, students present their findings to senior clinicians for discussion and questioning [ 2 , 3 ]. While developed countries increasingly adopt simulation-based assessments for formative evaluation, logistical challenges hinder the widespread use of such methods in developing countries [ 4 ]. Consequently, the low-resource countries heavily rely on real patient encounters for formative assessment. The long case is one such method predominantly used as a primary formative assessment method during clinical clerkship and offers a great opportunity for feedback [ 5 ]. The assessment grounds students’ learning into practice by providing them with rich opportunities to interact with patients and have the feel of medical practice. The long case thus bridges the gap between theory and practice, immersing students in the real tasks of a physician [ 1 ]. The complexity of clinical scenarios and the anxiety associated with patient encounters may not be well replicated in simulation-based assessments because diseases often have atypical presentations not found in textbooks. Assessment methods should thus utilize authentic learning experiences to provide learners with applications of learning that they would expect to encounter in real life [ 6 ]. This requires medical education and the curriculum to focus attention on assessment because it plays a significant role in driving learning [ 7 ]. The long case thus remains crucial in medical education as one of the best ways of preparing for practice. It exposes the student repeatedly to taking medical history, examining patients, making clinical judgments, deciding treatment plans, and collaborating with senior clinicians.

The long case, however, has faced significant criticism in the medical education literature due to perceived psychometric deficiencies [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Consequently, many universities have begun to adopt assessment methods that yield more reliable and easily defensible results [ 2 ] due to concerns over the low reliability, generalizability, and validity of the long case, coupled with rising litigations and student appeals [ 11 , 12 ]. Despite these shortcomings, the long case remains an educationally valuable assessment tool that provides diagnostic feedback essential for the learning process during clinical clerkship [ 13 ]. Teachers can utilize long-case results to pinpoint neglected areas or teaching deficiencies and align with course outcomes.

However, there is a paucity of research into the long case as a formative assessment tool. A few studies conducted in developed countries highlighted its role in promoting a holistic approach to patient care, fostering students’ clinical skills, and a driving force for students to spend time with patients [ 2 , 13 ], . There is a notable absence of literature on the use of long case as a formative assessment method in low-resource countries, and no published work is available at Makerere University where it has been used for decades. This underscores the importance of conducting research in this area to provide insight into the effectiveness, challenges, and potentials for improvement. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the experiences of medical students and faculty regarding the utilization of the long case as a formative assessment method within the context of a tertiary care teaching hospital in a low-resource setting.

Study design

This was an exploratory qualitative study.

Study setting

The research was conducted at Makerere University within the Department of Internal Medicine. The Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB) degree at Makerere University is a five-year program with the first two years for pre-clinical (biomedical Sciences) course and the last three years dedicated to clinical clerkship. Medical students do Internal Medicine clerkships in third- and fifth-year at the two tertiary teaching hospitals namely; Mulago and Kiruddu National Referral Hospitals. The students are introduced to the long case in third-year as Junior Clerks and later in the fifth-year as Senior Clerks. During clerkship, students are assigned to various medical wards, where they interact with patients, take medical history from them, perform physical examinations, and develop diagnosis and management plans. Subsequently, students present their long cases to lecturers or postgraduate students, often in the presence of their peers, followed by feedback and comprehensive case discussions. Students are afforded ample time to prepare and present their cases during ward rounds, at their discretion. The students are formatively assessed and a mark is awarded on a scale of one to ten in the student’s logbook. Each student is required to make a minimum of ten long cases over the seven weeks of clerkship.

Study participants

The study participants were third- and fifth-year medical students who had completed junior and senior clerkship respectively, as well as lecturers who possessed at least five years of experience with the long case. The participants were selected through purposive sampling. The sample size for the study was determined by data saturation.

Data collection

Data were collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). A total of 36 medical students participated in FGDs, reflecting on their experiences with the long case. Five faculty members participated in individual KIIs. The students were mobilized by their class representative and a brief recruitment presentation was made at the study site while the lecturers were approached via email and telephone invitation.

Six FGDs were conducted, three for junior clerks and three for senior clerks. Each FGD comprised of 5–7 participants with balanced male and female gender representation. Data saturation was achieved by the fifth FGD, at which point no additional new information emerged. A research assistant proficient in qualitative research methods moderated the FGDs. The discussions lasted between 55 min and 1 h 10 min and were audio recorded. The Principal Investigator attended all the FGDs to document interactions and record his perspectives and non-verbal cues of participants.

Semi-structured KIIs were used to collect data from Internal Medicine faculty. Five KIIs were conducted, and data saturation was achieved by the fourth interview, at which point no new theme emerged. The Principal Investigator conducted the KIIs via Zoom. Each interview lasted between 25 and 50 min and all were audio recorded. A research assistant proficient in qualitative methods attended all the Zoom meetings. The data collected were securely stored on a hard drive and Google Drive with password protection to prevent unauthorized access.

Data analysis

Data analysis was done through inductive thematic analysis method. Following each FGD or KII session, the data collection team listened to the recordings to familiarize themselves with the data and develop general ideas regarding the participants’ perspectives. The data were transcribed verbatim by the researchers to generate text data. Two separate transcripts were generated by the Principal Investigator and a research assistant. The transcripts were then compared and manually reviewed by the research team to compare the accuracy with the audio recordings. After transcript harmonization, data cleaning was done for both FGDs and KIIs transcripts.

The transcribed data from both FGDs and KIIs underwent inductive thematic analysis as aggregated data. This involved initial line-by-line coding, followed by focused coding where the relationships between initial codes were explored and similar codes were grouped. Throughout the analysis, the principle of constant comparison was applied, where emerging codes were compared for similarities and differences.

Study results

Socio-demographics.

A total of 36 medical students participated in the FGDs, comprising 18 junior clerks and 19 senior clerks. The participants were aged between 21 and 25 years except two participants who were aged above 25 (30 and 36 years old). Among the third-year students, there were 10 male and 9 female participants while the fifth-year student comprised of 8 male and 10 female participants.

Five lecturers participated in the Key Informant Interviews, three of whom were females and two male participants. They were aged between 40 and 50 years, and all had over 10 years of experience with the long case. The faculty members included one consultant physician, one associate professor, two senior lecturers, and one lecturer.

Themes that emerged

Three themes emerged from the study: ward placement, case presentations, and case assessment and feedback.

Theme 1: Ward placement

The study findings disclosed that medical students are assigned to specific wards for the duration of their clerkship. The specialization of medical wards was found to significantly restrict students’ exposure to limited disease conditions found only in their allocated ward.

With the super-specialization of the units, there is some bias on what they do learn; if a particular group is rotating on the cardiology unit, they will obviously have a bias to learn the history and physical exam related to cardiovascular disease (KII 1).

The students, particularly junior clerks, expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of proper and standardized orientation to the long case on the wards. This deficiency led to wastage of time and a feeling of being unwelcome in the clerkship.

Some orient you when you reach the ward but others you reach and you are supposed to pick up on your own. I expect orientation, then taking data from us, what they expect us to do, and what we expect from them, taking us through the clerkship sessions (FGD 4 Participant 1).

Students’ exposure to cases in other wards poses significant challenges; the study found that as some lecturers facilitate visits to different wards for scheduled teaching sessions, others don’t, resulting in missed learning opportunities. Additionally, some lecturers leave the burden on students’ personal initiative to explore cases in other wards.

We actually encourage them to go through the different specialties because when you are faced with a patient, you will not have to choose which one to see and not to see (KII 4).

Imagine landing on a stroke patient when you have been in the infectious disease ward or getting a patient with renal condition when you have been in the endocrinology ward can create problems (FGD 6 Participant 3).

Theme 2 Case presentation

Medical students present their long case to lecturers and postgraduate students. However, participants revealed variations among lecturers regarding their preferences on how they want students to present their cases. While some prefer to listen to the entire history and examination, others prefer only a summary, and some prefer starting from the diagnosis.

The practice varies depending on the lecturer, as everyone does it their own way. There are some, who listen to your history, examination, and diagnosis, and then they go into basic discussion of the case; others want only a summary. Some lecturers come and tell you to start straight away from your diagnosis, and then they start treating you backward (FGD 6 Participant 3).

The students reported limited observation of their skills due a little emphasis placed by examiners on physical examination techniques, as well as not providing the students with the opportunity to propose treatment plans.

When we are doing these physical examinations on the ward no one is seeing you. You present your physical examination findings, but no one saw how you did it. You may think you are doing the right thing during the ward rotations, but actually your skills are bad (FGD 4 Participant 6).

They don’t give us time to propose management plans. The only time they ask for how you manage a patient is during the summative long case, yet during the ward rotation, they were not giving us the freedom to give our opinion on how we would manage the patient.(FGD 2Participant 6).

Supervision was reportedly dependent on the ward to which the student was allocated. Additionally, the participants believe that the large student-to-lecturer ratio negatively affects the opportunity to present.

My experience was different in years three and five. In year three, we had a specialist every day on the ward, but in year five, we would have a specialist every other day, sometimes even once a week. When I compare year five with year three, I think I was even a better doctor in year three than right now (FGD 1 Participant 1).

Clinical training is like nurturing somebody to behave or conduct themselves in a certain way. Therefore, if the numbers are large, the impacts per person decrease, and the quality decreases (KII 5).

Theme C: Case assessment and feedback

The study found that a student’s long case is assessed both during the case presentation on the ward and through the case write-up, with marks awarded accordingly.

They present to the supervisor and then also write it up, so at a later time you also mark the sheet where they have written up the cases; so they are assessed at presentation and write up (KII 2).

The mark awarded was reportedly a significant motivator for students to visit wards and clerk patients, but students also believe that the pressure to hunt for marks tends to override the goal of the formative assessment.

Your goal there is to learn, but most of us go with the goal of getting signatures; signature-based learning. The learning, you realize probably comes on later if you have the individual morale to go and learn (FGD 1 participant 1).

Feedback is an integral part of any formative assessment. While students receive feedback from lecturers, the participants were concerned about the absence of a formal channel for soliciting feedback from students.

Of course, teachers provide feedback to students because it is a normal part of teaching. However, it is not a common routine to solicit feedback about how teaching has gone. So maybe that is something that needs to be improved so that we know if we have been effective teachers (KII 3).

Whereas the feedback intrigues students to read more to compensate for their knowledge gap, they decried several encounters with demeaning, intimidating, insulting, demotivating, and embarrassing feedback from assessors.

Since we are given a specific target of case presentation we are supposed to make in my training , if I make the ten, I wouldn’t want to present again. Why would I receive other negative comments for nothing? They truly have a personality effect on the student, and students feel low self-esteem (FGD 1, Participant 4).

This study aimed to investigate the experiences of medical students and faculty regarding the use of the long case as a formative assessment method at a tertiary care teaching hospital in a low-resource setting. This qualitative research provides valuable insights into the current practices surrounding the long case as a formative assessment method in such a setting.

The study highlighted the patient bedside as the primary learning environment for medical students. Bedside teaching plays a crucial role in fostering the development of skills such as history-taking and physical examination, as well as modeling professional behaviors and directly observing learners [ 14 , 15 ]. However, the specialization of wards in tertiary hospitals means that students may not be exposed to certain conditions found in other wards. This lack of exposure can lead to issues of case specificity, which has been reported in various literature as a cause of low reliability and generalizability of the long case [ 16 , 17 ]. Participants in the study expressed feeling like pseudo-specialists based on their ward allocations. This is partly attributed to missing scheduled teachings and poor management of opportunities to clerk and present patients on other wards. Addressing these challenges is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of the long case as a formative assessment method in medical education.

Proper orientation at the beginning of a clerkship is crucial for clarifying the structure and organization, defining students’ roles, and providing insights into clinical supervisors’ perspectives [ 18 ]. However, the study revealed that orientation into the long case was unsatisfactory, resulting in time wastage and potentially hindering learning. Effective orientation requires dedicated time and should involve defining expectations and goals, as well as guiding students through the steps of history-taking and physical examination during the initial weeks of the rotation. Contrary to this ideal approach, the medical students reported being taken through systemic examinations when the clerkship was nearing its end, highlighting a significant gap in the orientation process. Proper orientation is very important since previous studies have also documented the positive impact of orientation on student performance [ 19 ]. Therefore, addressing the shortcomings in orientation practices identified in this study is essential for optimizing learning outcomes and ensuring that students are adequately prepared to engage in the long case.

There was reportedly a significant variation in the way students present their long cases, with some lecturers preferring only a case summary, while others expect a complete presentation or begin with a diagnosis. While this diversity in learning styles may expose students to both familiar and unfamiliar approaches, providing a balance of comfort and tension [ 20 ], it’s essential for students to first be exposed to familiar methods before transitioning to less familiar ones to expand their ability to use diverse learning styles. The variation observed in this context may be attributed to time constraints, as lecturers may aim to accommodate the large number of students within the available time. Additionally, a lack of standardized practices could also contribute to this variation. Therefore, there is a pressing need for standardized long-case practices to ensure a consistent experience for students and to meet the desired goals of the assessment. Standardizing the long case practice would not only provide a uniform experience for students but also enhance the reliability, validity, and perception of fairness of the assessment [ 9 , 21 ]. It would ensure that all students are evaluated using the same criteria, reducing potential biases and disparities in grading. Additionally, standardized practices facilitate better alignment with learning objectives and promote more effective feedback mechanisms [ 22 ].

Related to the above, students reported limited observation of skills and little emphasis placed on them to learn physical examination techniques. This finding resonates with the research conducted by Abdalla and Shorbagi in 2018, where many students reported a lack of observation during history-taking and physical examination [ 23 ]. The importance of observation is underscored by the fact that students often avoid conducting physical examinations, as highlighted in Pavlakis & Laurent’s study among postgraduate trainees in 2001 [ 24 ]. This study sheds more light on the critical role of observation in forcing medical students to master clinical assessment and practical skills. The study also uncovered that students are rarely given the opportunity to propose management plans during case presentations, which hampers their confidence and learning of clinical decision-making. These findings likely stem from the large student-to-lecturer ratio and little attention given to these aspects of the long case during the planning of the assessment method. The result is students not receiving the necessary guidance and support to develop their clinical and decision-making skills. Therefore, addressing these issues by putting more emphasis on observation of student-patient interaction, management plan, and having a smaller student group is vital to ensure that medical students receive comprehensive training and are adequately prepared for their future roles as physicians.

The study found that the marks awarded for the long case serve as the primary motivator for students. This finding aligns with previous research indicating that the knowledge that each long case is part of assessment drives students to perform their duties diligently [ 2 , 25 ]. It underscores the crucial role that assessment plays in driving learning processes. However, the pressures to obtain marks and signatures reportedly hinder students’ engagement in learning. This could be attributed to instances where some lecturers relax on supervision or are absent, leaving students to struggle to find someone to assess them. Inadequate supervision by attending physicians has been identified in prior studies as one of the causes of insufficient clinical experience [ 26 ], something that need to be dealt with diligently. While the marks awarded are a motivating factor, it is essential to understand other underlying motivations of medical students to engage in the long case and their impact on the learning process.

Feedback is crucial for the long case to fulfill its role as an assessment for learning. The study participants reported that feedback is provided promptly as students present their cases. This immediate feedback is essential for identifying errors and learning appropriate skills to enhance subsequent performance. However, the feedback process appears to be unilateral, with students receiving feedback from lecturers but lacking a structured mechanism for providing feedback themselves. One reason for the lack of student feedback may be a perceived intimidating approach from lecturers which discourages students from offering their input. It is thus important to establish a conducive environment where students feel comfortable providing feedback without fear of negative repercussions. The study underscores the significance of feedback from students in improving the learning process. This aligns with the findings of Hattie and Timperley (2007), who emphasized that feedback received from learners contributes significantly to improvements in student learning [ 27 ]. Therefore, it is essential to implement strategies to encourage and facilitate bidirectional feedback between students and lecturers in the context of the long case assessment. This could involve creating formal channels for students to provide feedback anonymously or in a structured format, fostering open communication, and addressing any perceived barriers to feedback exchange [ 28 ]. By promoting a culture of feedback reciprocity, educators can enhance the effectiveness of the long case as an assessment tool.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the long case remains a cornerstone of formative assessment during clerkship in many medical schools, particularly in low-resource countries. However, its effectiveness is challenged by limitations such as case specificity in tertiary care hospitals, which can affect the assessment’s reliability and generalizability. The practice of awarding marks in formative assessment serves as a strong motivator for students but also creates tension, especially when there is inadequate contact with lecturers. This can lead to a focus on hunting for marks at the expense of genuine learning. Thus adequate supervision and feedback practices are vital for ensuring the success of the long case as an assessment for learning.

Furthermore, there is a need to foster standardized long case practice to ensure that scheduled learning activities are completed and that all students clerk and present patients with different conditions from various wards. This will promote accountability among both lecturers and students and ensure a consistent and uniform experience with the long case as an assessment for learning, regardless of the ward a student is assigned.

Data availability

The data supporting the study results of this article can be accessed from the Makerere University repository, titled “Perceptions of Medical Students and Lecturers of the Long Case Practices as Formative Assessment in Internal Medicine Clerkship at Makerere University,” available on DSpace. The identifier is http://hdl.handle.net/10570/13032 . Additionally, the raw data are securely stored with the researchers in Google Drive.

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This research was supported by the Fogarty International Centre of the National Institute of Health under award number 1R25TW011213. The content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Health.

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Kumakech, J., Munabi, I.G., Mubuuke, A.G. et al. Experiences of medical students and faculty regarding the use of long case as a formative assessment method at a tertiary care teaching hospital in a low resource setting: a qualitative study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 621 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05589-7

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