chapter 2 research about 4ps

1.2 The Marketing Mix and the 4Ps of Marketing

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1 Define and describe the marketing mix.
2 List and explain the 4Ps of marketing.

Marketing Mix Defined

Having a great product or service is just the first step in establishing a successful business or building a successful brand. The best product or service in the world won’t translate to profits unless people know about it. How do you reach customers and help them connect with your product? That’s the role of the marketing mix.

The marketing mix is commonly referred to as the tactics a company can use to promote its products or services in the market in order to influence consumers to buy. The marketing mix is also known as the 4Ps: product, price, place, and promotion (see Figure 1.4 ). Let’s look more closely.

The product is the good or service that the company provides.
The price is what the consumer pays in exchange for the product.
The place is where the product is purchased.
Promotion is comprised of advertising, sales, and other communication efforts the company utilizes to attract the customer.

The 4Ps of Marketing

To this point, we’ve been talking marketing in somewhat of an abstract manner. Instead of continuing with a theoretical discussion of the marketing mix and the 4Ps of marketing, we’re going to approach these topics using an example of a product you probably already own—a backpack. Let’s get started.

Remember: product refers to a good or service that a company offers to its customers. Let’s consider a product that many of you likely own as a college student: a backpack (see Figure 1.5 ).

In terms of the first of the 4Ps, marketing analyzes the needs of consumers who buy backpacks and decides if they want more and/or different bags. For example, marketing will analyze what features consumers want in the bag. Do they want a water bottle pocket, padded shoulder straps, reflective tape, a padded laptop sleeve, or organizer pockets? Think about your own bag for a moment: Why did you buy this particular product? What features did it have that made it appealing to you?

Armed with market research knowledge, marketing then attempts to predict what types of backpacks different consumers will want and which of these consumers they will try to satisfy. For example, are you selling bags to adults for their children’s use? Are you selling them to young adults who might want more (or different) graphics on the bag? Are you selling to adults who will use these bags for work or for school?

Marketing will then estimate how many of these consumers will purchase backpacks over the next several years and how many bags they’ll likely purchase. Marketing will also estimate how many competitors will be producing backpacks, how many they’ll produce, and what types.

Price is the amount consumers pay for a product or service. There’s a delicate balance here. On one hand, marketers must link the price to the product’s real or perceived benefits while at the same time taking into consideration factors like production costs, seasonal and distributor discounts, and pricing product lines and different models within the line.

Marketers attempt to estimate how much consumers are willing to pay for the backpack and—perhaps more importantly—if the company can make a profit selling at that price. Pricing products or services can be both an art and a science. In the case of our backpack example, the company wants to determine two things:

What’s the minimum price that the company can charge for the backpack and still make a profit?
What’s the maximum price that the company can charge for the backpack without losing customers?

The “correct” answer usually lies somewhere in between those points on the price continuum.

Promotion includes advertising, public relations, and many other promotional strategies, including television and print advertisements, internet and social media advertising, and trade shows. A company’s promotional efforts must increase awareness of the product and articulate the reasons why customers should purchase their product. Remember: the goal of any promotional activity is to reach the “right” consumers at the right time and the right place.

In terms of our backpack example, marketing now needs to decide which kinds of promotional strategies should be used to tell potential customers about the company’s backpacks. For instance, should you use TV advertisements to make customers aware of the backpack? If so, you’ll want to run your commercials during programs that your target audience watches. For example, if you’re selling backpacks to children (or trying to entice them to badger their parents to purchase them), children’s cartoons may be the most cost-effective avenue to reach your target market. If your backpacks are designed for work or school, you’ll likely decide to advertise on television programs that target younger adults.

Link to Learning

Netflix, jansport, and stranger things.

A real-world promotional example is the recent brand partnership between Netflix and JanSport , the backpack company. These two companies collaborated on a Stranger Things –branded backpack with the launch of the fourth season of Stranger Things in 2022. This collaboration created five Hawkins-inspired backpacks centered on various Stranger Things themes. Read more about this promotion and see the backpacks here .

Perhaps you’ll decide to run magazine print ads. If so, you’ll need to decide in which magazines you’ll place the ads. Most magazines have a very specific readership demographic consisting of factors such as age, gender, and interests. If you’re going to advertise those backpacks with print ads, you’ll want to leverage readership demographics to ensure that your message is being seen by the right consumers—those who are most likely to buy your backpacks. 18

What about internet advertising? Internet advertising (sometimes known as online advertising or digital advertising) is a promotional strategy in which the company utilizes the internet as a medium to deliver its marketing messages. If you’re going to go the digital route, what types of internet advertising will you use? Search engine marketing? Email marketing? Social media ads? TikTok videos?

Place considerations focus on how and where to deliver the product to the consumer most likely to buy it. Where did you buy your backpack? Did you buy it in a big box store, online, in an office products store, or perhaps even the school bookstore? Once again, through market research, marketers determine where potential customers will be and how to get the company’s backpacks to them.

One important factor to note about the importance of place in the marketing mix is that it doesn’t refer to the location of the company itself but rather to the location of the customers or potential customers. Place deals with strategies the marketer can employ to get those backpacks from their present location—a warehouse, for example—to the location of the customers.

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

Positioning

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The Benefits of 4p's (Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program)Towards Academic Performance of Selected Senior High Students of Emiliano Tria Tirona Memorial National High School

Jean Michael E. Sy
Danica T. Caimol
Suzy S. Magdalaga
Christoper Rey Gella

INTRODUCTION

The conditional cash transfer (CCT) program locally known as (PantawidPamilya Pilipino Program), or 4Ps, is a government program that provides conditional cash grants to the poorest of the poor in the Philippines. The programs aim to break the cycle of poverty by keeping children aged 0-18 healthy and in school, so they can have a better future.

There are many factors, which account for the good or poor academic performance in secondary schools like; the quality of students admitted the type of scholastic materials available in the school and home environment, the methods of teaching, the nature of administration and teachers involved in academic matters.

However, it seems that the most important factor to be considered in the academic performance of students is being a 4P's member. In fact, there is no recent study conducted in ETTMNHS about the effects of 4P's to the academic performance of selected senior high students so, the study is novel.

The researchers chose this topic for research to find out the benefits of 4P's to the academic performance of selected senior high students of the said school

The researchers used Descriptive Research Design. The Grade 11 and 12 4P's benefactors are a sample of this study with 14 sections of Grade 11 and 5 sections of Grade 12. The instrument used in this research was the questionnaire. The data were collected, tabulated and interpreted using the mean and standard deviation.

Majority of the senior high school students agree that 4P's motivates themselves in going to school, pushes them to perform well in the academic activities that would lead them into the top of their class, helps them to submit all of the school requirements, provides financial assistance to buy their needs.

DISCUSSIONS

It is evident from the result that 4P's has a good benefit for the public school students who want to study hard to rich their dreams in life. This research would also give good realizations about the importance of financial assistance for the poor who cannot afford to send themselves into the academe.

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1.2: The Marketing Mix and the 4Ps of Marketing

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define and describe the marketing mix.
List and explain the 4Ps of marketing.

Marketing Mix Defined

The product is the good or service that the company provides.
The price is what the consumer pays in exchange for the product.
The place is where the product is purchased.
Promotion is comprised of advertising, sales, and other communication efforts the company utilizes to attract the customer.

The marketing mix includes product, price, place, and promotion.

The 4Ps of Marketing

Remember: product refers to a good or service that a company offers to its customers. Let’s consider a product that many of you likely own as a college student: a backpack (see Figure 1.5).

What’s the minimum price that the company can charge for the backpack and still make a profit?
What’s the maximum price that the company can charge for the backpack without losing customers?

The “correct” answer usually lies somewhere in between those points on the price continuum.

Link to Learning: Netflix, JanSport, and Stranger Things

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

Which of the following is NOT one of the 4Ps of marketing?

Positioning

Which of the 4Ps focuses on determining how much consumers would be willing to pay for a product or service?

Which of the 4Ps of marketing focuses on how and where to deliver the product to the consumer most likely to buy it?

DiJuan, a marketer for a soft drink company, ensures that his company’s products are available in numerous locations—vending machines, convenience stores, restaurants, and supermarkets. Which element of the 4Ps is DiJuan addressing?

You’re a marketer trying to determine which trade shows you might want to include in your marketing mix. Which element of the marketing mix would address this concern?

Search Search Please fill out this field.

What Are the 4 Ps of Marketing?

Understanding the 4 Ps

4. Promotion

How to use the 4 ps of marketing in your marketing strategy, example of the four ps of marketing, how does apple use the four ps of marketing, the bottom line.

Business Essentials

4 Ps of Marketing: What They Are & How to Use Them Successfully

Product, price, place, and promotion are the four Ps in a winning "marketing mix"

The four Ps or marketing are a “marketing mix” comprised of four key elements—product, price, place, and promotion.

These are the key factors that are involved in introducing a product or service to the public. Often referred to as a marketing mix , they provide a framework that companies can use to successfully market a product or service to consumers. Since the four Ps were introduced in the 1950s, more Ps have been added to the mix, including people, process, and physical evidence.

Key Takeaways

The four Ps are the four essential factors involved in marketing a product or service to the public.
The four Ps are product, price, place, and promotion.
The concept of the four Ps has been around since the 1950s. As the marketing industry has evolved, other Ps have been identified: people, process, and physical evidence.

Investopedia / Julie Bang

Understanding the 4 Ps of Marketing

Neil Borden, an advertising professor at Harvard, popularized the idea of the marketing mix—and the concepts that would later be known primarily as the four Ps—in the 1950s. His 1964 article "The Concept of the Marketing Mix" demonstrated the ways that companies could use advertising tactics to engage their consumers.

Decades later, the concepts that Borden popularized are still being used by companies to advertise their goods and services.

Borden's ideas were developed and refined over a number of years by other key players in the industry. E. Jerome McCarthy, a marketing professor at Michigan State University, refined the concepts in Borden's article and named them the "four Ps" of marketing. McCarthy co-wrote the book Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach , further popularizing the idea.

At the time the concept was introduced, it helped companies breach the physical barriers that could hamper widespread product adoption. Today, the Internet has helped businesses to overcome some of these barriers.

People, process, and physical evidence are extensions of the original Four Ps and are relevant to current trends in marketing.

Any successful marketing strategy should be revisited from time to time. The marketing mix you create is not intended to be static. It needs to be adjusted and refined as your product grows and your customer base changes .

Creating a marketing campaign starts with an understanding of the product itself. Who needs it, and why? What does it do that no competitor's product can do? Perhaps it's a new thing altogether and is so compelling in its design or function that consumers will have to have it when they see it.

The job of the marketer is to define the product and its qualities and introduce it to the consumer.

Defining the product also is key to its distribution. Marketers need to understand the life cycle of a product , and business executives need to have a plan for dealing with products at every stage of the life cycle.

The type of product also dictates in part how much it will cost, where it should be placed, and how it should be promoted.

Many of the most successful products have been the first in their category. For example, Apple was the first to create a touchscreen smartphone that could play music, browse the internet, and make phone calls. Apple reported total sales of the iPhone for FY 2022 at $205.4 billion. In 2021, it hit the milestone of 2 billion iPhones sold.

Price is the amount that consumers will be willing to pay for a product. Marketers must link the price to the product's real and perceived value, while also considering supply costs, seasonal discounts, competitors' prices, and retail markup.

In some cases, business decision-makers may raise the price of a product to give it the appearance of luxury or exclusivity. Or, they may lower the price so more consumers will try it.

Marketers also need to determine when and if discounting is appropriate. A discount can draw in more customers, but it can also give the impression that the product is less desirable than it was.

UNIQLO, headquartered in Japan, is a global manufacturer of casual wear. Like its competitors Gap and Zara, UNIQLO creates low-priced, fashion-forward garments for younger buyers.

What makes UNIQLO unique is that its products are innovative and high-quality. It accomplishes this by purchasing fabric in large volumes, continually seeking the highest-quality and lowest-cost materials in the world. The company also directly negotiates with its manufacturers and has built strategic partnerships with innovative Japanese manufacturers.

UNIQLO also outsources its production to partner factories. That gives it the flexibility to change production partners as its needs change.

Finally, the company employs a team of skilled textile artisans that it sends to its partner factories all over the world for quality control. Production managers visit factories once a week to resolve quality problems.

Place is the consideration of where the product should be available—in brick-and-mortar stores and online—and how it will be displayed.

The decision is key: The makers of a luxury cosmetic product would want to be displayed in Sephora and Neiman Marcus, not in Walmart or Family Dollar. The goal of business executives is always to get their products in front of the consumers who are the most likely to buy them.

That means placing a product only in certain stores and getting it displayed to the best advantage.

The term placement also refers to advertising the product in the right media to get the attention of target consumers.

For example, the 1995 movie GoldenEye was the 17th installment in the James Bond movie franchise and the first that did not feature an Aston Martin car. Instead, Bond actor Pierce Brosnan got into a BMW Z3. Although the Z3 was not released until months after the film had left theaters, BMW received 9,000 orders for the car the month after the movie opened.

The goal of promotion is to communicate to consumers that they need this product and that it is priced appropriately. Promotion encompasses advertising, public relations, and the overall media strategy for introducing a product.

Marketers tend to tie together promotion and placement elements to reach their core audiences. For example, In the digital age, the "place" and "promotion" factors are as much online as offline. Specifically, where a product appears on a company's web page or social media, as well as which types of search functions will trigger targeted ads for the product.

The Swedish vodka brand Absolut sold only 10,000 cases of its vodka in 1980. By 2000, the company had sold 4.5 million cases, thanks in part to its iconic advertising campaign. The images in the campaign featured the brand's signature bottle styled as a range of surreal images: a bottle with a halo, a bottle made of stone, or a bottle in the shape of the trees standing on a ski slope. To date, the Absolut campaign is one of the longest-running continuous campaigns of all time, from 1981 to 2005.

The four Ps provide a framework on which to build your marketing strategy. Think through each factor. And don't worry when the factors overlap. That's inevitable.

First, analyze the product you will be marketing. What are the characteristics that make it appealing? Consider similar products that are already on the market. Your product may be tougher, easier to use, more attractive, or longer-lasting. Its ingredients might be environmentally friendly or naturally sourced. Identify the qualities that will make it appealing to your target consumers.

Think through the appropriate price for the product. It's not simply the cost of production plus a profit margin. You may be positioning it as a premium or luxury product or as a bare-bones, lower-priced alternative.

Placement involves identifying the type of store, online and off, that stocks products like yours for consumers like yours.

Promotion can only be considered in the context of your target consumer. The product might be appealing to a hip younger crowd or to upscale professionals or to bargain hunters. Your media strategy needs to reach the right audience with the right message.

To put this into perspective, let's consider a fictional skincare company that produces organic skincare products. Here's how the four Ps might be utilized:

Product: The company offers a range of organic skincare products, including cleansers, moisturizers, and serums. These products are formulated with natural ingredients, free from harsh chemicals, and designed to promote healthy and radiant skin.
Price: The pricing strategy for these skincare products is positioned as premium, reflecting the high quality of ingredients and the company's commitment to sustainability and ethical sourcing.
Place: The products are sold through multiple channels, including the company's website, select retail stores specializing in organic products, and high-end spas and salons. This distribution strategy ensures accessibility to environmentally conscious consumers seeking natural skincare solutions.
Promotion: The company's promotional efforts focus on emphasizing the benefits of organic skincare, such as nourishment, hydration, and skin rejuvenation. This includes social media campaigns, influencer partnerships, and educational content highlighting the importance of using non-toxic products for skincare routines.

Apple utilizes the four Ps of marketing by focusing on:

Product innovation: Evident in its continuous development of cutting-edge technology like the iPhone, MacBook, and Apple Watch.

Pricing strategy: Apple often positions its products as premium offerings, targeting a more affluent consumer base.

Place: Apple emphasizes distribution through its own retail stores, online platforms, and strategic partnerships with authorized resellers.

Promotional efforts: Apple emphasizes sleek design, user experience, and aspirational branding, creating a sense of exclusivity and desirability around its products.

How Do You Use the 4 Ps of Marketing?

The model of the 4Ps can be used when you are planning a new product launch, evaluating an existing product, or trying to optimize the sales of an existing product.

A careful analysis of these four factors—product, price, place, and promotion—helps a marketing professional devise a strategy that successfully introduces or reintroduces a product to the public.

When Did the 4 Ps Become the 7 Ps?

The focus on the four Ps—product, price, place, and promotion—has been a core tenet of marketing since the 1950s. Three newer Ps expand the marketing mix for the 21st century.

People places the focus on the personalities who represent the product. In the current era, that means not only sales and customer service employees but social media influencers and viral media campaigns.
Process is logistics. Consumers increasingly demand fast and efficient delivery of the things they want, when they want them.
Physical evidence is perhaps the most thoroughly modern of the seven Ps. If you're selling diamond jewelry on a website, it must be immediately clear to the consumer that you are a legitimate established business that will deliver as promised. A professionally designed website with excellent functionality, an "About" section that lists the principals of the company and its physical address, professional packaging, and efficient delivery service are all critical to convincing the consumer that your product is not only good, it's real.

What Are Some Examples of the 4 Ps of Marketing?

Place refers to where consumers buy your product, or where they discover it. Today's consumers may learn about products and buy them online, through a smartphone app, at retail locations, or through a sales professional.
Price refers to the cost of the product or service. Properly determining product price includes an analysis of the competition, the demand, production costs, and what consumers are willing to spend. Various pricing models may be considering, such as choosing between one-time purchase and subscription models.
The product a company provides depends on the type of company and what they do best. For example, McDonald's provides consistent fast food in a casual setting. They may expand their offerings, but they wouldn't stray far from their core identity.
Promotion refers to specific and thoughtful advertising that reaches the target market for the product. A company might use an Instagram campaign, a public relations campaign, advertising placement, an email campaign , or some combination of all of these to reach the right audience in the right place.

The four Ps of marketing—product, price, place, promotion—are often referred to as the marketing mix. These are the key elements involved in planning and marketing a product or service, and they interact significantly with each other. Considering all of these elements is one way to approach a holistic marketing strategy .

Neil Borden. " The Concept of the Marketing Mix ."

E. Jerome McCarthy. "Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach." Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960.

Apple. " Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations (Unaudited) Q4 2022 ," Page 1.

Apple Insider. " At 2 Billion iPhones Sold, Apple Continues to Redefine What Customers Want ."

Harvard Business School: Technology and Operations Management. " UNIQLO: What’s Behind the Low-Cost High-Quality Casual Wear? "

Smart Insights. " Campaign of the Week: The Longest Running Print Ad Marketing Campaign in History ."

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2024 Theses Doctoral

Statistically Efficient Methods for Computation-Aware Uncertainty Quantification and Rare-Event Optimization

He, Shengyi

The thesis covers two fundamental topics that are important across the disciplines of operations research, statistics and even more broadly, namely stochastic optimization and uncertainty quantification, with the common theme to address both statistical accuracy and computational constraints. Here, statistical accuracy encompasses the precision of estimated solutions in stochastic optimization, as well as the tightness or reliability of confidence intervals. Computational concerns arise from rare events or expensive models, necessitating efficient sampling methods or computation procedures. In the first half of this thesis, we study stochastic optimization that involves rare events, which arises in various contexts including risk-averse decision-making and training of machine learning models. Because of the presence of rare events, crude Monte Carlo methods can be prohibitively inefficient, as it takes a sample size reciprocal to the rare-event probability to obtain valid statistical information about the rare-event. To address this issue, we investigate the use of importance sampling (IS) to reduce the required sample size. IS is commonly used to handle rare events, and the idea is to sample from an alternative distribution that hits the rare event more frequently and adjusts the estimator with a likelihood ratio to retain unbiasedness. While IS has been long studied, most of its literature focuses on estimation problems and methodologies to obtain good IS in these contexts. Contrary to these studies, the first half of this thesis provides a systematic study on the efficient use of IS in stochastic optimization. In Chapter 2, we propose an adaptive procedure that converts an efficient IS for gradient estimation to an efficient IS procedure for stochastic optimization. Then, in Chapter 3, we provide an efficient IS for gradient estimation, which serves as the input for the procedure in Chapter 2. In the second half of this thesis, we study uncertainty quantification in the sense of constructing a confidence interval (CI) for target model quantities or prediction. We are interested in the setting of expensive black-box models, which means that we are confined to using a low number of model runs, and we also lack the ability to obtain auxiliary model information such as gradients. In this case, a classical method is batching, which divides data into a few batches and then constructs a CI based on the batched estimates. Another method is the recently proposed cheap bootstrap that is constructed on a few resamples in a similar manner as batching. These methods could save computation since they do not need an accurate variability estimator which requires sufficient model evaluations to obtain. Instead, they cancel out the variability when constructing pivotal statistics, and thus obtain asymptotically valid t-distribution-based CIs with only few batches or resamples. The second half of this thesis studies several theoretical aspects of these computation-aware CI construction methods. In Chapter 4, we study the statistical optimality on CI tightness among various computation-aware CIs. Then, in Chapter 5, we study the higher-order coverage errors of batching methods. Finally, Chapter 6 is a related investigation on the higher-order coverage and correction of distributionally robust optimization (DRO) as another CI construction tool, which assumes an amount of analytical information on the model but bears similarity to Chapter 5 in terms of analysis techniques.

Operations research
Stochastic processes--Mathematical models
Mathematical optimization
Bootstrap (Statistics)
Sampling (Statistics)

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More About This Work

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Advances and Challenges of Collaboration as a Learning and Research Field for Mathematics Teachers

Open Access
First Online: 04 June 2024

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Dario Fiorentini 7 &
Ana Leticia Losano 8

Part of the book series: New ICMI Study Series ((NISS))

807 Accesses

This chapter systematizes relevant issues highlighted by the papers presented at ICMI Study 25. Such issues are presented considering four perspectives: 1) different forms and meanings for collaboration; 2) what do we investigate, how do we investigate, and who investigates collaboration?; 3) the complex relations between collaborative groups and classroom practice; and 4) possibilities for scaling up collaborative professional development initiatives. Through the discussion of such perspectives, on the one hand, we seek to reflect on the advances and possibilities of collaboration considered as a field of investigation and as a process that promotes professional development. On the other hand, we aim to identify some of the challenges that collaboration confronts nowadays.

You have full access to this open access chapter, Download chapter PDF

1 Introduction

After receiving the invitation from the editors of this volume to write this chapter, we decided to organise our discussion in four perspectives that, in our view, systematise relevant issues highlighted by the papers presented at ICMI Study 25. Such perspectives are:

different forms and meanings for collaboration;

what do we investigate, how do we investigate, and who investigates collaboration?:

the complex relations between collaborative groups and classroom practice;

possibilities for scaling up collaborative professional development initiatives.

Through the discussion of such perspectives, on the one hand, we seek to reflect on the advances and possibilities of collaboration considered as a field of investigation and as a process that promotes professional development (PD). On the other hand, we aim to identify some of the challenges that collaboration confronts nowadays.

For this purpose, we build our arguments by drawing on two references. Firstly, the chapters included in this book, the papers presented at the ICMI Study 25 conference mentioned in those chapters, and other complementary literature resources. Secondly, we draw on our experiences of collaboration with teachers in Brazil. To do so, we refer to our participation in the Grupo de Sábado [Saturday Group] (GdS), a Brazilian collaborative group operating for more than 20 years. The GdS gathers schoolteachers, teacher educators, graduate students and pre-service teachers interested in learning about and researching on mathematics teaching practice. As we will show in this chapter, the GdS differs from many groups and collaborative initiatives presented in this book in several ways. Thus, it provides a counterweight that reveals and interrogates some of the ideas assumed by diverse research endeavours focused on mathematics teacher collaboration.

2 Different Forms and Meanings of Collaboration

In England and the U.S., the movement of collaboration among teachers gained visibility and recognition in the 1970s, when Stenhouse ( 1975 ) systematised a type of action research or design research aimed at improving learning and teaching through inquiry. Such a framework involved a cycle of four steps: examining current practice, making decisions, planning optimal learning environments; implementing the findings in the classrooms with reflection. This movement gained strength in the U.S. in the 1980s, mainly in the context of in-service teacher education. At that time, it was adopted stressing its potential contributions to teachers’ PD. Considering that not all PD initiatives are collaborative, the term ‘collaborative PD’ has come to be used by the pertinent literature to differentiate those that are.

By the end of the twentieth century, according to Hargreaves ( 1994 ), collaboration had already become a “meta-paradigm of educational and organizational change in the postmodern age” especially because it made possible the articulation and integration of “action, planning, culture, development, organization, and research” (p. 244). Collaboration was recognised as a creative and a “productive response to a world in which problems are unpredictable, solutions are unclear, and demands and expectations are intensifying. In this kind of context, the promise of collaboration is extensive and diverse” (p. 244). Since then, collaborative work and collaborative research among professionals from different institutions and levels of education have emerged worldwide as a response to the social, political, cultural, and technological changes that are taking place on a global scale and that jeopardise the traditional ways of organising PD initiatives (Fiorentini, 2004 ).

This movement gave rise to several models and conceptualisations of collaboration and collaborative research. Besides, models were recovered and adapted according to different sociocultural realities: that was the case of the Japanese Lesson Study (LS). It emerged at the end of the nineteenth century, but only came to the attention of educators outside Japan in the late 1990s, due to the systematisation conducted by Yoshida ( 1999 ). Since 2000, educational researchers have tried to use the LS model, adapting it to different cultural realities (Isoda, 2020 ). We suggest that the study of these processes of modification and adaptation of models of collaboration is a great opportunity for our research field. On the one hand, it would enable us to systematise and discuss diverse theoretical perspectives of collaboration, revealing different meanings assigned to collaboration. On the other hand, it would allow us to identify and problematise each model's educational possibilities, contributions, and limitations.

da Ponte et al. (Chap. 2 , this volume), drawing on Robutti et al. ( 2016 ), conceptualise collaboration as “a group of participants, who work together pursuing a common aim, by establishing some joint working processes in which active involvement, balanced roles and caring relationships are central features” (p. 21). In our view, such conceptualisation is relevant, since it includes PD initiatives that promote horizontal or dialogical relations among teachers and teachers’ educators. However, we consider that this conceptualisation does not enable us to distinguish between superficial and deeper or sustainable forms of collaboration (Azorín & Fullan, 2022 ). In addition, this broad conceptualisation makes it difficult to analyse diverse collaborative initiatives in relation to their impact and appropriateness in different circumstances and sociocultural contexts (Hargreaves, 2019 ).

In what follows, we discuss briefly these different conceptualisations of collaboration, especially since it seems to have been an issue little discussed during the ICMI Study 25 conference. To “work together pursuing a common aim” may happen, for instance, in situations of contrived collegiality (Hargreaves, 1994 , 2019 ), especially when subjects are requested to participate in groups without having the possibility of negotiating the group’s goals. Besides, it could happen in a group that lacks a common culture of sharing and negotiating practices and meanings. In a similar direction, both Azorín and Fullan ( 2022 ) and Hargreaves ( 2019 ) stress that a group becomes effectively collaborative and sustainable when it develops collaborative professionalism .

Such a notion refers to a learning community whose members, even having different knowledge, develop joint practices, negotiate their goals and carry out collaborative research. Therefore, the development of collaborative professionalism demands time: a time that cannot be pre-established by administrators or teacher educators, since it depends upon the disposition and upon the previous experiences of the members. Similarly, our years of participation in the GdS and other collaborative groups, as well as the research we conducted (Fiorentini, 2004 , 2013 ; Losano et al., 2021 ), point to the fact that groups are not born collaboratives. Instead, they became collaboratives over time. For example, when new members join the GdS, their participation during the first 6 months involves experiencing and reflecting on practices historically produced by the group over the years—practices oriented at planning, implementing and analysing investigative classroom tasks.

To understand better what we mean, let us consider, for example, the study by Cooper ( 2019 ) that was analysed by Krainer, Roesken-Winter and Spreitzer (Chap. 8 , this volume), using the RATE tool to highlight the relationships among Actors, Goals and Relevant Environments. It is an Israeli PD initiative that gathered twenty primary schoolteachers, two mathematicians and a facilitator with a Ph.D. in mathematics education, who was the study’s author. The goal of the initiative was to bring together two groups that could share their perspectives on teaching integers, crossing boundaries between the world of primary school and the world of academic mathematics.

Such a goal emerged from the requirement, external to both groups, of the Israeli Ministry of Education, establishing that, “primary-school teachers need ‘to enroll in mathematics PD initiatives to specialize in mathematics’ (p. 71)” (cited by Krainer et al., Chap. 8 , this volume, p. 8). Such collaborative arrangement gathered representatives from two fields of study, enabling sharing perspectives about how to teach integers. The group facilitator also gave her feedback, valuing the contributions of the two communities. The author concluded that the initiative allowed teachers to benefit from the mathematicians’ perspective. In addition, it enabled mathematicians to achieve sensitive understanding. According to Cooper, collaboration contributed to mathematicians paying more attention to their students’ ideas, opening spaces for discussion in their university math classes. Primary teachers, on the other hand, were able to build more mathematical confidence.

There is no doubt that there was learning involved in this PD initiative. Each subgroup learned something from the dialogue with the other. Each participant mobilised a surplus of vision and knowledge (Bakhtin, 2003 ) in relation to the other. Notwithstanding, is it possible to state that such learnings are sustainable and have the potential of transforming the participants’ teaching practices? We suggest that this short PD initiative opened up the possibility of negotiating and developing a joint project around a common goal in the future. From this experience, mathematicians and primary teachers could engage in a sustainable project focused on teaching and learning mathematics at school (Azorín & Fullan, 2022 ). Thus, they could establish a “genuine collaborative work” according to the expression used by Esteley et al. (Chap. 3 , this volume). Our point is to reinforce the etymological meaning of the verb ‘to collaborate’, which means to work together ( collaborare from Latin) around a common objective, defined or negotiated jointly by all the participants.

Voluntariness is another relevant condition for participation in a collaborative group (Esteley et al., this volume). Although participation can be initiated on a mandatory basis, a PD initiative may become effectively collaborative if the participants have opportunities to jointly define their goals and actions. Several articles presented at the ICMI Study 25 Conference show that this scenario is feasible within a school (Collura & Di Paola, 2020 ) or an educational system (Canavarro & Serrazina, 2020 ; Soto et al., 2020 ). However, those authors stressed that such success depends on the way in which the leaders build, in collaboration with the participants, the group design and dynamics.

Hollingsworth et al. (Chap. 10 , this volume) shed light on this process. They report on a teacher who participated in a collaborative group that was part of the network of Research Institutes in Mathematics Teaching (IREM—France). IREM usually promotes collaboration between the university and the school, improving mathematics teaching and teachers’ PD. Thus, the collaborative IREM group sought to address a problem that had emerged during the annual conference of this network. Teachers lacked didactical resources to teach logic effectively in secondary education, as recommended by the new curriculum.

The group members were two university teachers, three high-school mathematics teachers, and a French language teacher. During the first meeting, they collectively defined the group goals and work schedule. Thus, they agreed the group would produce classroom tasks to develop the students’ logical reasoning. The tasks were tested in their classrooms before being analysed and disseminated to other teachers. The two university teachers initially assumed a traditional role, providing mainly theoretical content and perspectives. Over time, they also assumed a more collaborative role, analysing and discussing the teachers’ proposals. One of them actually ended up leading the group.

To sum up, the analysis of the papers presented at the ICMI Study 25 conference reveals diverse meanings for collaboration, and different and rich ways of promoting it among mathematics teachers. Such analysis also brings to the forefront two relevant features of our conceptualisation of this notion: collaboration requires time and demands shared negotiation of goals and actions. We identified such features by drawing on the literature focused on collaboration as well as on our years of experience collaborating with teachers.

Considering such diversity of meanings for collaboration, we suggest some future directions for research. How do diverse ways of promoting collaboration contribute to transforming teaching practice? What are their contributions to teachers’ learning? How do mathematicians, mathematics educators and teachers negotiate mathematical meanings and reconstruct their professional knowledge? How does that knowledge differ from the school and/or academic tradition?

3 What Do We Investigate, How Do We Investigate and Who Investigates Collaboration?

The works presented at the ICMI Study 25 Conference indicate the presence of two privileged research perspectives. The first concerns the study of collaboration, its resources and its theoretical–methodological bases . This perspective was the focus of three themes covered in this event, highlighting the following descriptive aspects: the theoretical, epistemological, and methodological bases to promote and investigate the collaboration of mathematics teachers (Chap. 2 , Theme A, this volume); the design and dynamics of collaboration, with an emphasis on its goals, its environments and the different collaborative actors and their roles, interactions, and identities (Chap. 4 , Theme C, this volume); the tools and resources mobilised and produced to support and organise the collaboration (Chap. 5 , Theme D, this volume). The second research perspective focused on the effects of collaboration . Such perspective had a dual emphasis: (1) on participants’ PD and learning as well as on the growth of the collaborative community; (2) on the improvement of curriculum and teaching linked to the collaborative process (Chap. 3 , Theme B, this volume).

The discussion of the theoretical bases of collaboration is relevant, since it is an emerging field of study. Furthermore, the discussion of this issue during the ICMI Study 25 addressed a limitation noted by Jaworski et al. ( 2017 ): only one-third of the papers analysed by Robutti et al. ( 2016 ) explicitly stated their theoretical bases. Although the theoretical aspects in collaboration were the main focus of Theme A, they were also discussed by all themes and were present in all parallel plenary sessions.

Regarding the studies focused on the resources and tools produced in/for collaboration, the authors who contributed to Theme A argued that theory can be seen as an important tool for designing and developing relevant and sustainable collaborative projects. Concretely, such theories may be useful for analysing the contributions of collaborative groups to teachers’ learning, curriculum development, or teaching improvement. This point was also made by authors who contributed to Theme D, albeit placing greater emphasis on the resources of collaboration. Brodie and Jackson (Chap. 9 , this volume), for instance, considered knowledge and representations of professional practices as resources. Differently, Robutti et al. (Chap. 5 , Theme D, this volume) highlighted the dialectical nature of resources. Thus, they argue that, on the one hand, resources are essential for challenging teachers’ thinking and practices, producing the desired results of collaboration. On the other, such results become resources that can lead to new cycles of collaborative learning.

We value the emphasis given to resources in/for collaboration during the ICMI 25 Study Conference. However, we would like to call attention to one resource that, in our view, has great generative power and was not discussed in this volume: the narratives written by participants of collaborative groups. According to our experiences in the GdS (Fiorentini & Carvalho, 2015 ; Fiorentini et al., 2018 ; Losano et al., 2021 ), narratives written by teachers are relevant resources to represent their histories of participation and learning processes. Therefore, narratives increase collaborative work and provide rich material for analysing teachers’ learning. In addition, teachers’ narratives are loaded with affections, meanings and perceptions of the support (or lack of) provided by their schools to introduce innovations in teaching practices. Hence, they also reveal forms of teacher resistance and the strategies they develop to mobilise their agency, implementing in their classrooms aspects of what they learn in the collaborative group.

Narratives written by teachers who participate in collaborative groups are “means and products” (Robutti et al., Chap. 5 , this volume, p. 3) of collaboration. From their authors’ point of view, these narratives are not only the means (semiotic mediation), but also a way in which they develop their collaborative professionalism and identity in dialogue with other professionals and members of the group. Thus, by becoming the authors of published narratives disseminated to a wide audience, they also become agents of change in the school culture and productive members of a broader educational community (Hargreaves, 2019 ; Fiorentini, 2013 ). From the point of view of teachers’ educators, once published, narratives become relevant resources to support pre-service and in-service PD initiatives (Fiorentini & Carvalho, 2015 ).

In collaboration, all voices have value and need to be heard, as each member has a surplus of vision and knowledge (Bakhtin, 2003 ) about the practices of teaching and learning mathematics at school. In this sense, the organisers’ decision to give teachers a platform to share their experiences while participating in collaborative projects was quite pertinent to the purposes of ICMI Study 25 (Hollingsworth et al., Chap. 10 , this volume). We suggest that encouraging participating teachers to write narratives about their learning in this context is another way to give them voice and authorship and to value their perspectives.

The discussions presented in this volume, as well as our experiences of collaboration, reveal that the design and the resources have strong impacts on the effects of collaboration , which lead us to the second research perspective on collaboration mentioned previously. Such effects may be analysed in terms of teachers’ learning, community development and/or institutional improvement. These benefits highlight the multifaceted and complex nature of collaboration, given its different purposes and modes of organisation, as shown in Borko and Potari ( 2020 ).

The attempt to understand and theorise the learning and the development of teacher’ knowledge for-in-of-practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999 ) from participation in collaborative groups makes us return to the heading of this section. Considering who investigates collaboration, when we examined the papers presented at the ICMI Study 25 Conference, we verified that its authors are mainly mathematics educators, especially teacher educators or graduate students who participated in collaborative groups. Many of them also assumed the role of facilitators.

The focuses of such investigations include the two perspectives described above—that is, the study of collaboration and its effects. There is a clear trend toward developing studies about teachers. Such trend explores teachers’ learning, PD, professional knowledge or their roles in collaboration. These results indicate that there are still few collaborative investigations, that is research carried out collaboratively by university academics with schoolteachers. Of the eighty papers reported in ICMI Study 25, only two are of this nature.

In this sense, we stress that collaboration is also a good opportunity for both parties to investigate together. University academics and schoolteachers engaged in collaborative groups can negotiate the focus of the research and develop joint interpretations about the participants’ knowledge, actions and discourses, revealing knowledge situated in the collaborative practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991 ). Faced with the challenges of the current school context and the unfavourable conditions for schoolteachers to carry out research, they are left with the possibility of participating in collaborative inquiry groups, as underlined by some studies presented in ICMI Study 25 (Castro Superfine & Pitvorec, 2020 ; Uzuriaga et al., 2020 ).

Many of the Brazilian studies that assumed this perspective adopted the Relational Narrative Investigation (RNI) as a research methodology (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000 ). Cristovão and Fiorentini ( 2021 ) consider the RNI suitable for academics to develop investigations with schoolteachers, focusing mainly on teachers’ professional learning and the PD. In this investigative process, “teachers are also encouraged to investigate their practices, narratively, with the collaboration of teacher educators, especially when both are committed to discuss and understand what and how they learn in this context” (p. 35).

Thus, schoolteachers generally explore their professional work. They may, for instance, analyse their students’ or their own learning during a cycle of planning–implementation–reflection–evaluation of lessons. By sharing these investigations and findings in the collaborative group, teachers may problematize their practice, developing an inquiring and critical attitude towards their work and public policies in the educational field (Jaworski, 2008 ; Fiorentini, 2013 ).

Collaboration between schoolteachers and university academics is a powerful context for PD and for producing knowledge about school practice from a non-colonising perspective. In addition, we suggest that it is also a rich field of research for both, namely academics at the university and schoolteachers. Thus, we argue in favour of carrying out collaborative research with teachers, instead of conducting exclusively research about them. In recent years, this research perspective has flourished in Brazil and Latin America, fuelled by the expansion of the Lesson Study process. To map these investigative experiences and analyse their findings and contributions seems to be a relevant topic for research and discussion in an upcoming ICMI Study.

4 The Complex Relations Between Collaborative Groups and Classroom Practice

The chapters included in this volume show the wide variety of ways in which mathematics teachers can work and learn in collaborative groups. Chapter 3 (Theme B, this volume) reveals that each one of these ways of collaborating establishes different relations with regular classroom practice. For example, the initiative studied by Kooloos et al. ( 2020 ) connects the collaborative setting with teaching practice through the analysis of classroom videos to develop teachers’ noticing of students’ thinking. Soto et al. ( 2020 ) employed problems as a linking resource: teachers engaged in a community of practice were invited to solve problems, implement them in their classrooms and discuss such experiences in the community. Also, there are social contexts that developed powerful forms of school-based collaborative professional development. This is the case of Lesson Study in Japan or China, where the cycles of planning, implementing and analysis are job-embedded tasks with a long tradition. On the other extreme, the work of Heck et al. ( 2020 ) analysed a PD program based on the mathematics immersion of secondary teachers. The authors admit having trouble attending some of the program’s goals since, “discussions about the connections between what they experienced in mathematical immersion and teaching were infrequent or lacked depth” (Esteley et al., Chap. 3 , this volume, p. 33).

These examples highlight that PD in collaborative groups and regular teaching practice are different social, cultural and historical situations. Even in the cases in which the PD is strongly connected to classroom practice, the participants, the activities, the positionings, the times and the spaces specifics of collaboratives groups are not the same as the ones of regular classroom practice. Such understanding is evident in Brodie and Jackson’s words, in this volume, when they state that, “although collaborating with colleagues about teaching has become more common in recent years, by and large, classroom instruction remains a private endeavour” (Chap. 9 , this volume, p. 13). In our view, further work analysing the complex relationships among collaborative groups and regular classroom practice would be highly beneficial to the field. To pursue such a research interest encompasses theoretical and methodological challenges.

Considering theory as a way of understanding—i.e. theory as a means “to understand the educational phenomena related to teacher collaboration, by providing conceptual and/or methodological tools to analyse and understand phenomena from different perspectives”, in da Ponte et al.’s words (Chap. 2 , this volume, p. 15)—the challenge concerns how to conceptualise the relations between PD in collaborative groups and regular classroom practice. One possibility is to frame the problem in terms of ‘impacts’: we need to study how participation in collaborative groups impacts teachers’ classroom practice. This is a perspective frequently adopted and mentioned several times in this volume. Although we agree with the point being made, we would like to problematize the cause–effect metaphor underneath the notion of ‘impact’. Theoretically, this perspective assumes that teachers learn within the collaborative group and then apply such learning in their classroom.

Such an assumption is strongly questioned by socio-cultural perspectives—extensively employed in our research field—that stress the mutual relations among people, activity, and the social world. According to Lave and Wenger ( 1991 ), what teachers learn while participating in collaborative groups is situated in the practices and social arrangements developed by the group. Therefore, we cannot assume such knowledge will be directly transferred into the classroom setting without consideration of the different activities, goals, circumstances, and social positions (Lave, 1996 ).

The perspective of Kazemi and Hubbard ( 2008 ), squarely brought in Brodie and Jackson’s chapter, brings another important point in this regard: the relations between PD and classroom settings are not unidirectional, but multidirectional. Teachers’ participation in PD and classroom practice co-evolves, since they are engaged in knowing in both contexts and bring their knowledge across contexts.

The two premises presented previously—the one that states that there is no direct learning transference between different contexts, and the one that assumes that the relations between collaborative groups and regular teaching practice are multidirectional—bring to the forefront the challenges involved in theorising about the complex relationships between PD in collaborative groups and classroom practice.

In terms of methodology, we identify two main issues. The first one is related to the temporal dimension. It is possible to adopt a short-term perspective, considering only the period in which the teacher participates in the group. Otherwise, it is possible to employ a long-term perspective, addressing the question of the sustainability of outcomes, that is, to analyse if changes made in the context of collaboration sustained long-term changes in the classroom setting (Esteley et al., Chap. 3 , this volume). The second issue concerns the analytical procedures mobilised. In our view, it is necessary to develop methodological strategies to establish relations between data coming from the PD setting and data coming from the classroom and school settings. This would require a careful and creative endeavour. Further exploration of this issue might usefully inform directions for advancing research in this area.

Considering the theoretical and methodological challenges involved in researching the relations between collaborative groups and regular teaching practice, we believe that the chapters of this volume, as well as the papers presented at the ICMI Study 25, point to two promising directions to further our understanding of the topic. The first one is the study of the resources and how they are transformed while travelling between the collaborative group and the classroom setting. Considering Brodie and Jackson’s framework in this volume, we refer specifically to the representational resources created for and from collaboration. Frequently, participation in collaborative groups involves creating and/or adapting tasks, lesson plans, curricular material, websites, etc., as well as analysing students’ errors, assessment items or classroom videos. As stated in Chap. 9 (Brodie & Jackson) and Chap. 3 (Esterley et al., Theme B), resources are important products of collaboration and, in our view, can support important links between classroom practice and collaborative groups.

We believe that the situated perspective proposed by Brodie and Jackson, in this volume, is a fruitful approach to the problem of analysing how resources are transformed as they travel back and forth between the collaborative group and the classroom. Such a perspective assumes that, “the use of tools and artifacts to mediate learning relies on people assigning meaning to them […] and these meanings are shaped by the broader contexts in which tools and artifacts are used” (Brodie & Jackson, Chap. 9 , p. 4). This assumption is evident in our experiences in the GdS when a task or a lesson plan, carefully planned during several meetings, is subtlety—or sometimes substantially—transformed when implemented by the teacher in her classroom.

For instance, while interacting with her students, the teacher modifies the duration of the task or emphasises one aspect of the task over others. How and why do these transformations take place? What can we, and the teachers, learn from them? In addition, when we consider a long-term perspective, the evolving nature of resources comes to the forefront. Prior resources developed inside collaborative groups are often retrieved and adapted by teachers to be employed in their teaching at present. How are these resources shaped by the users over time? When, why and how are they recovered and adapted? Such questions highlight the complexity of the transformation operated over the resources when they travel from the collaborative group to the classroom, and vice versa . We believe that research focused on such issues deserves our attention and study.

The second promising direction for studying the relations between collaborative groups and regular teaching practice is to focus on the teachers. They regularly cross the boundaries between the collaborative group and the school context, introducing elements of practice and ways of knowing and of being from one context into the other. In this process, they become boundary brokers (Wenger, 1998 ). To co-ordinate their affiliation to both communities is a delicate endeavour, since it often requires reconciling, implicitly or explicitly, competing expectations. How do teachers manage to develop a sense of themselves among such conflicting practices and discourses? What conflicts do they experience in this process? How do teachers solve them? What do they learn in the process?

Another possibility is to adopt the notions of professional identity and agency. While participating in the GdS, teachers come to know other ways of understanding mathematics teaching and learning. In addition, they engage in reflexive processes that often problematise the implicit rules and identities fostered by the school world. Teachers also implement classroom activities inspired by these new perspectives and, later, they share and analyse such experiences in the group. Thus, participation in the GdS enables teachers to take a stance in front of the demands and expectations of the school world, gradually expanding their room for manoeuvre to make decisions and choices concerning their work (Vähäsantanen, 2015 ).

The collaborative group allows its members to experience new ways of being teachers, engaging themselves in an evolving process of identity development. Over time, teachers also expand their agency. They become actively involved in conceiving and directing their teaching practice according to their purposes, principles, and interests, as well as to the requirements and possibilities set by the school context (Losano & Fiorentini, 2021 ). How do teachers develop new positions and roles in the school and the collaborative group? How do they recover practices and discourses coming from one context to develop senses of themselves as mathematics teachers in the other? In our field, research on teachers’ identity and agency has flourished over the last decades. We suggest that further exploration of the process of identity and agency development of teachers who participate in collaborative groups could provide opportunities to develop our understanding of teachers’ professional growth across contexts.

5 Possibilities for Scaling-Up Collaborative Professional Development

In our view, collaboration is a way of transforming the colonising relationship commonly established between the university and the school. In this way, collaborative groups, such as the GdS, are an opportunity for university teachers and schoolteachers to engage in joint learning processes and imagine together ways of facing the current challenges involved in teaching and learning mathematics.

The great potential of these groups is underlined throughout this volume. Thus, the question posed by Hollingsworth et al. (Chap. 10 , this volume), is particularly relevant: “How might effective collaborative group activities and outcomes ‘reach’ more mathematics teachers?” (p. 23). To respond to such a question is a complex endeavour, because, in our perspective, collaboration cannot be imposed in small-scale projects and much less in large-scale initiatives.

A partial answer to this issue can be found in our experience with collaborative groups in Brazil. The sustained work of some of those groups allowed many schoolteachers and university teachers to have relevant experiences of participation. Many of these members moved to other regions of Brazil due to personal or career opportunities—a common thing in a country with continental dimensions such as ours—and decided to promote and cultivate collaborative groups in the new institutions in which they began working. In addition, collaborative groups also developed practices oriented at disseminating their work. Thus, they created and organised diverse events—congresses, seminars, etc.—and journals devoted to presenting and discussing teachers’ reflexive work developed from their participation in collaborative groups.

In addition, books containing narratives written by teachers who participate in collaborative groups began to be published. In such narratives, teachers problematised and analysed classroom situations, producing knowledge- of -practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999 ). These dissemination processes inspired many school and university teachers to constitute collaborative groups over the country. In a snowball effect, collaborative groups expanded and gained legitimacy inside the mathematics education community in Brazil (Carvalho, 2014 ).

The expansion of collaborative groups in different regions of the country happened informally and spontaneously. In this scenario, the participation of schoolteachers, pre-service teachers, mathematics educators and researchers in such groups is still little or not recognised by public policies (Gonçalves et al., 2014 ). The members of many collaborative groups devote their own time to participating in the group. In this way, they prioritise their PD over other responsibilities. Moreover, several of the members that abandon the GdS make that decision based on their difficulties to balance group participation with work or familiar commitments—to take care of their children or attend to the demands of a new job.

As stated by Brodie and Jackson in this volume, the issue of the resources made available for collaboration by public policies, “draws attention to the deeply cultural, political and historical contexts in which teachers’ collaboration occurs across different contexts, and the many inequalities that still pervade our school systems” (Chap. 9 , this volume, p. 8). To expand opportunities for collaborative PD public policies that explicitly support collaboration are needed. Such policies should provide time and spaces for professional collaboration, as well as value and acknowledge teacher collaborative work.

Some of the papers presented at ICMI 25 suggest a promising possibility of scaling up collaborative PD: the development of blended professional networks that gather schoolteachers, pre-service teachers, mathematics educators and researchers. Two examples of these networks are described in this volume. The first one is mentioned in Chap. 3 (Theme B, this volume) and refers to the research conducted by Heck et al. ( 2020 ). In this project, groups of teachers from different cities in the United States were engaged in PD involving both synchronous and asynchronous activities. In such a network, teachers were immersed in mathematical activities connected to their teaching practice. The second example is described in Chap. 10 (Hollingsworth et al.) and concerns Shelly, a teacher who participated in an online professional learning network directed at promoting “quality mathematics instruction, mentorships for new teachers, and curriculum development” (p. 3) via social media.

Both examples highlight the potentialities of online or blended collaboration. They enable access to “many participants from different geographically distant regions and from a variety of contexts […] bringing together a myriad of perspectives” (Esteley et al., Chap. 3 , this volume, p. 48). In this way, such networks have the potential of connecting teachers in distant or isolated contexts. They also make possible to gather professionals who work with different student populations, enriching the personal learning experience. In addition, social media enable teachers to receive real-time feedback for lesson development, as Hollingsworth et al. stated in this volume. Social media open up new possibilities of collaboration, reaching, in seconds, a vast public and allowing extended discussions in which people from all around the world can contribute. Finally, online communities are often flexible, embracing new educational tends more rapidly than mainstream educational circles.

Inspired by such experiences, as well as by our last research projects, we suggest that blended collaborative networks would be a powerful way for scaling up collaboration. Considering the demands and interests coming from classroom teaching practice, the members of such networks would organise themselves in small groups. Such small groups would congregate teachers, pre-service teachers, facilitators and researchers interested in discussing one topic related to teaching practice considered particularly problematic. Each group would negotiate its goal and the activities it would develop—for example, to plan and implement classroom tasks oriented at teaching a specific mathematical topic or analysing textbooks or classroom material. The small groups would gather periodically face-to-face or online. The network would act as a support space. Thus, all their members would meet more sporadically to share and discuss the work of the small groups.

In addition, the members of the network would be able to help and support each other through interactions via digital technologies. Once the small groups achieve their goals and complete their activities, the members of the network would reorganise themselves, forming new small teams. This kind of collaborative network would be organised according to a bottom-up model, since it would have the autonomy for establishing its agenda through the negotiation of aims and topics explored by the small groups.

Several works discussed in this volume showed that the Covid-19 pandemic challenged many aspects of teaching and teacher education. In the present context, it is unlikely that teacher education would return to its previous traditions. Thus, developing effective online or blended opportunities in which teachers could work and learn through collaboration, such as the ones we are suggesting, is an urgent endeavour.

Despite their potential, we cannot be naïve about the constitution of this kind of network. Thus, we anticipate some challenges to be faced. As Esteley et al. stated in Chap. 3 , “collaboration is essentially about relationships, about finding a common ground to have support for the possible changes” (p. 4). Gathering together people who work in different places, with diverse publics and resources could produce rich exchanges. But it also demands establishing shared understandings among the members. In addition, collaboration frequently requires adopting an open attitude and sharing uncertainties, problems or ambiguous situations of teaching practice. Therefore, each member should feel safe and embraced, trusting that the interactions inside the network would be oriented toward seeking alternatives in a non-judgmental way.

The division of responsibilities and roles inside each small group and in the network also requires fine-tuned negotiation processes. Also, it is necessary to set up carefully the processes through which each group delineates its topic and the resources—technological or not—that are best suited for each one of them. If collaboration is not established instantaneously in groups interacting face-to-face, this would neither happen in blended networks.

Considering that many agents would participate in the network, careful scheduling for interactions among the members can also be challenging. Brodie and Jackson (Chap. 9 , this volume) point out another challenge located in a different dimension—nowadays, there are still “inequalities between rich and poor in relation to access to the internet” (p. 22). We had already co-ordinated online teacher education initiatives, in which teachers should take a one-hour boat trip on a Saturday to reach their school, since only there do they access a stable internet connection. Thus, when establishing blended collaborative networks, we cannot assume that all the teachers in the region or the country would have the same online accessibility.

How to promote trustful relationships among members of blended networks? What practices and strategies support transparent negotiation processes inside the network? How can technological tools contribute to these processes? How to cope with the inequalities regarding access to technological devices? We suggest that the development of studies centred on these issues would provide a more accurate vision on the advantages and disadvantages of blended collaboration.

6 Final Remarks

In this chapter, we have made an effort to highlight the advances resulting from the ICMI Study 25, drawing mainly from the systematisation carried out in the chapters of this book. The contributions of this systematisation allowed us to understand better the possibilities and potentialities of collaboration for the PD of teachers who participate in collaborative projects.

We believe that this progress would help us—and the rest of the members of the mathematics education community— to design better opportunities of collaboration, as well as to gain understanding about the development of collaborative communities. On the other hand, the studies in this volume also showed that collaboration is a complex and multifaceted undertaking (Theme B), since it depends on the conditions and dispositions of the participants and on the support of the institutions of which they are part.

In this direction, we argued that the possibility of collaboration does not entirely depend on the institutions’ desire to promote it, nor on the willingness of participants who want to work together. Collaboration is a cultural practice that needs time to be developed. In our view, teachers’ communities are not born collaboratively, even if that is the initial intention of their members. Therefore, no ideal model designed to foster collaboration can be applied without adapting it to local conditions and cultures, as Isoda ( 2020 ) has shown about the international diffusion of Lesson Study. The chapters of this book also acknowledge the importance of material and theoretical resources to support the design of collaborative PD and to conduct research in this context (Themes A and D).

In this regard, we argued in favour of using teachers’ written narratives (Fiorentini, 2013 ; Fiorentini & Carvalho, 2015 ). We believe they provide rich opportunities for teachers to investigate their own practice and reveal their learning processes. We also highlighted the methodological potential of Relational Narrative Investigation as a framework that enables developing joint research with teachers. In this direction, our analysis of the papers presented at ICMI Study 25 suggests that a great challenge in our research field is to describe and characterise the knowledge-of-professional-practice produced inside collaborative groups and how it is co-produced by its members.

In addition, the chapters of this volume also delineate issues concerning the way collaborative groups relate to other settings. In particular, the study of the relations between collaboration and regular classroom practice emerges as a relevant and exciting topic for further research. We suggest that the notions of resources, professional identity and agency may be key concepts to develop nuanced and rich analysis in this direction (Themes C and D). Such theoretical constructs have the potential of moving forward simplistic perspectives based on cause–effect relations to measure the ‘impact’ of collaboration.

Finally, another challenge faced by teachers and researchers interested in fostering and investigating collaboration is how to scale up opportunities of collaborative professional development. Such challenge becomes more urgent since the work of the ICMI Study 25—starting with the literature review presented at ICME 13 (Robutti et al., 2016 ) and finishing with the synthesis of the papers presented at the conference in this volume—had shown the immense potentialities of collaborative groups. Considering the uncertainties of the global context, the possibility of cultivating blended collaborative networks seems to be highly promising.

The chapters of this volume stress that teacher collaboration, especially among teachers with different knowledge and views on practice, is multi-faceted and takes diverse forms in different parts of the world. However, in each of these forms of collaboration, what is learned and how it is learned has its own singularities and nuances that are different from other traditional learning and PD processes. This is one of our challenges as researchers in the field of collaboration: namely, to systematise and theorise these epistemological processes of co-learning and co-production of knowledge from practice. Collaboration, therefore, is a fertile and still little explored field that demands continuity of studies and socialisation, discussion and systematisation in events, as was the case of ICMI Study 25.

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Fiorentini, D., Losano, A.L. (2024). Advances and Challenges of Collaboration as a Learning and Research Field for Mathematics Teachers. In: Borko, H., Potari, D. (eds) Teachers of Mathematics Working and Learning in Collaborative Groups . New ICMI Study Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56488-8_11

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