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Students’ emotional experience in physical education—a qualitative study for new theoretical insights.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study design, 2.2. data analysis, 3.1. students’ emotional experiences, 3.2. attractiveness of the task, 3.3. social belonging, 3.4. perceived competence, 3.5. autonomy, 4. discussion, 4.1. which emotions do students experience in pe, 4.2. what triggers students’ emotions in secondary school pe, 4.3. present results in the context of sdt, 4.4. open questions, 4.5. implications, 5. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Leisterer, S.; Jekauc, D. Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights. Sports 2019 , 7 , 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

Leisterer S, Jekauc D. Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights. Sports . 2019; 7(1):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

Leisterer, Sascha, and Darko Jekauc. 2019. "Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights" Sports 7, no. 1: 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

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Article Contents

Introduction, conflict of interest statement.

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Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies

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Steven Allender, Gill Cowburn, Charlie Foster, Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies, Health Education Research , Volume 21, Issue 6, December 2006, Pages 826–835, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl063

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Qualitative research may be able to provide an answer as to why adults and children do or do not participate in sport and physical activity. This paper systematically examines published and unpublished qualitative research studies of UK children's and adults' reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity. The review covers peer reviewed and gray literature from 1990 to 2004. Papers were entered into review if they: aimed to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity, collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom and presented data collected using qualitative methods. From >1200 papers identified in the initial search, 24 papers met all inclusion criteria. The majority of these reported research with young people based in community settings. Weight management, social interaction and enjoyment were common reasons for participation in sport and physical activity. Concerns about maintaining a slim body shape motivated participation among young girls. Older people identified the importance of sport and physical activity in staving off the effects of aging and providing a social support network. Challenges to identity such as having to show others an unfit body, lacking confidence and competence in core skills or appearing overly masculine were barriers to participation.

It is generally accepted that physical activity confers benefits to psychosocial health, functional ability and general quality of life [ 1 ] and has been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease [ 2 ] and some cancers [ 3 ]. Here, physical activity refers to ‘any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure’ [ 4 ].

Conditions associated with physical inactivity include obesity, hypertension, diabetes, back pain, poor joint mobility and psychosocial problems [ 5–7 ]. Physical inactivity is a major public health challenge in the developed world and is recognized as a global epidemic [ 8 ]. Within the United States, the rate of childhood obesity is expected to reach 40% in the next two decades [ 9 ] and Type 2 diabetes is expected to affect 300 million people worldwide within the same time [ 10 ].

The UK government has set a target for ‘70% of the population to be reasonably active (for example 30 minutes of moderate exercise five times a week) by 2020’ [ 8 , 11 ] (p. 15). This target could be described as ambitious; only 37% of men and 24% of women in the United Kingdom currently meet this benchmark [ 12 ]. The Health Survey for England (HSE) [ 13 ] found that the number of physically inactive people (less than one occasion of 30-min activity per week) was increasing and that this trend was consistent for both genders and across all age groups [ 14 ]. Conventionally, sport and forms of physical activity such as aerobics, running or gym work have been the focus of efforts to increase population activity levels. The HSE measure includes activities, such as gardening and housework, which are not traditionally considered as physical activity. Sport England found that in the 10-year period between 1987 and 1996 participation in traditional types of sport and physical activity stagnated or fell in all groups other than the 60- to 69-year old age group. This trend was socially patterned by gender, socio-economic status, social class and ethnicity [ 15 ]. There are many broad influences upon physical activity behavior including intra-personal, social, environmental factors and these determinants vary across the life course [ 4 ].

Ambitious national targets and increased funding of community sport and physical activity projects (such as the Sports Hub in Regent's Park, London) [ 16 ] show that sport and physical activity is gaining social, political and health policy importance. The increased interest in physical activity is welcome, but the trend data hints that current interventions to promote sport and physical activity are inadequate. Further, it questions whether the evidence base supporting physical activity policy provides an adequate understanding of the reasons for participation or non-participation in physical activity.

Historically, research into determinants of sport and physical activity participation has tended to adopt quantitative methods, which undertake cross-sectional surveys of pre-determined questions on individual's knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about sport and physical activity. For example, the HSE [ 13 ] asks adults about activity in five domains: activity at work, activity at home (e.g. housework, gardening, do it yourself maintenance (DIY)), walks of ≥15 min and sports and exercise activities. Large studies such as these can successfully assess the direction and strength of trends in participation but are unable to explain how children and adults adopt, maintain or cease to participate in sport and physical activity throughout their lives.

An alternative approach is required which is sensitive to the contextual, social, economic and cultural factors which influence participation in physical activity [ 17 ]. Qualitative methods offer this in-depth insight into individuals' experiences and perceptions of the motives and barriers to participation in sport and physical activity [ 18 ] and are recognized as increasingly important in developing the evidence base for public health [ 19 ]. Although qualitative research is a blanket term for a wide range of approaches, this type of research typically aims to understand the meaning of individual experience within social context. The data for qualitative studies often come from repeated interviews or focus groups, are generally more in-depth and have fewer participants than quantitative research. Additionally, the inductive nature of qualitative research allows for theory to emerge from the lived experiences of research participants rather than the pre-determined hypotheses testing of quantitative approaches.

Thomas and Nelson [ 20 ] describe qualitative methods as the ‘new kid on the block’ in sport and physical activity research and a small body of qualitative research on sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom is known to exist. This paper aims to systematically examine published and unpublished qualitative research studies which have examined UK children's and adults' reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity.

The review of qualitative research covered the period from 1990 to 2004. This 15-year period was considered adequate to cover the most recent research on barriers and motivation to participation in sport and physical activity. Research papers were sourced in three ways. First, a wide range of electronic databases were searched, including Medline, CINAHL, Index to Thesis, ISI Science Citation Index, ISI Social Science Citation Index, PAIS International, PSYCHINFO, SIGLE and SPORTS-DISCUS. Second, relevant references from published literature were followed up and included where they met inclusion criteria. Third, additional ‘gray’ literature not identified in electronic searches was sourced through individuals who were likely to have knowledge in this area, including librarians and researchers active in the field. This third step ensures inclusion of papers which may not be submitted to peer review journals including reports for government bodies such as Sport England or the Department of Health. Search terms included ‘sports’, ‘dancing’, ‘play’, ‘cycle’, ‘walk’, ‘physical activity’, ‘physical education’ and ‘exercise’.

Papers which met the following criteria were entered into the next phase of the review:

(i) the aim of the study was to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity;

(ii) the study collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom; and,

(iii) the study presented data collected using qualitative methods.

Two researchers (GC and SA) reviewed each paper independently. Results were compared and discrepancies discussed. Data were extracted using a review schema developed by the research team. In most cases, the original author's own words were used in an attempt to convey the intended meaning and to allow for more realistic comparison between studies.

More than 1200 papers were identified by the initial search strategy. A total of 24 papers were accepted into the final stage of the review, with all but two published during or after 1997. Half of the papers (12) reported research where data were collected in community settings. Of the others, four were set in general physician (GP) referral schemes (in which GPs refer patients to physical activity groups), three in schools, two in sports and leisure clubs and one in a group of three national sports governing bodies. Table I shows that studies described participants by socio-economic status (working class, low income, private or public patient), ethnicity (South Asian and Black in one study, or Scottish, Pakistani, Chinese, Bangladeshi in another) and level of exercise (Elite or other, participant or non-participant).

Participant characteristics

Almost two-thirds of papers (15) did not specify a theoretical framework. Of the nine that did, three used grounded theory, three used a feminist framework, one used figurational sociology, one used gender relations theory and one used Sidentop's model of participation.

The age profile of participants was described in different ways although some grouping was possible ( Table I ). Two studies involved children aged <15 years (5–15 years old and 9–15 years old), seven studies involved research with teenage girls or younger women (aged between 14 and 24 years), 11 related to middle-aged participants (30–65 years) and four reported on adults 50 years or older. The results are organized in two sections: reasons for participation in physical activity and barriers to participation in physical activity. Within each section, results are presented in order of the age group which participated in the study.

Reasons for participation in sport and physical activity

Table II summarizes the main findings of this review. Although most people recognized that there were health benefits associated with physical activity, this was not the main reason for participation. Other factors such as weight management, enjoyment, social interaction and support were more common reasons for people being physically active.

Summary of main findings

Young children

Participation for young children was found to be more enjoyable when children were not being forced to compete and win, but encouraged to experiment with different activities. MacPhail et al. [ 21 ] found providing children with many different types of physical activity and sport-encouraged participation. Enjoyment and support from parents were also crucial [ 22 ]. Parents play a large role in enabling young children opportunities to be physically active and Bostock [ 23 ] found that mothers with young children discouraged their children from playing in an environment perceived as unsafe. Porter [ 24 ] showed that parents are more supportive of activity with easy access, a safe play environment, good ‘drop-off’ arrangements and activities available for other members of the family.

Teenagers and young women

Concerns about body shape and weight management were the main reasons for the participation of young girls. A number of studies [ 25–27 ] reported pressure to conform to popular ideals of beauty as important reasons for teenage girls being physically active. Flintoff and Scraton [ 28 ] interviewed very active girls who described having learnt new skills, increased self-esteem, improved fitness and developed new social networks as motivation to be physically active.

Support from family and significant others at ‘key’ transitional phases (such as changing schools) was essential to maintaining participation [ 29 ]. Those who continued participating through these transitionary periods recalled the importance of positive influences at school in becoming and staying physically active. For girls, having peers to share their active time with was important.

A wide range of adults were studied including patients in GP referral schemes, gay and disabled groups, runners and South Asian and Black communities.

Adults exercise for a sense of achievement, skill development and to spend ‘luxury time’ on themselves away from daily responsibilities [ 30 ]. Non-exercisers recalled negative school experiences as reasons for not participating into middle age [ 31 ].

Studies of GP exercise referral schemes found that the medical sanctioning of programs was a great motivator for participation [ 32 ]. Other benefits reported by referral scheme participants were the social support network created and the general health benefits of being active [ 30 , 33 ].

Among disabled men, exercise provided an opportunity to positively reinterpret their role following a disabling injury [ 34 ]. For this group, displaying and confirming their status as active and competitive was beneficial. Participants in this study described the support network offered by participation as the real value of physical activity and sport. In particular, meeting other disabled men and sharing similar experiences was a key motivator. The building of skills and confidence was another motive for disabled men's participation in sport [ 35 ].

The enjoyment and social networks offered by sport and physical activity are clearly important motivators for many different groups of people aged between 18 and 50 years. The reasons for participation can, however, differ subtly between people within a single group. For example, Smith [ 36 ] interviewed members of a running club and found a distinction between ‘runners’ and ‘joggers’. Runners were elite members of the club and were motivated by intense competition and winning. Conversely, joggers did not consider themselves competitive in races but aimed to better their own previous best time. Joggers were more motivated by the health benefits of running and the increased status afforded to them by non-exercisers who saw them as fit and healthy.

Older adults

Hardcastle and Taylor [ 37 ] suggest that a complex interplay of physical, psychological and environmental factors influence participation among older people. Older adults identified the health benefits of physical activity in terms of reducing the effects of aging and being fit and able to play with grandchildren [ 38 ].

While GP referrals [ 32 , 39 ] encouraged the uptake of exercise in older age groups participation appears to be maintained through enjoyment and strong social networks. This is exemplified by Cooper and Thomas' [ 40 ] study of ballroom dancers in London. Social dancers described dance as helping them challenge the traditional expectations of older people being physically infirm. Participation over time was supported by the flexible nature of ballroom dancing. Different styles of dance provide more or less vigorous forms of activity to suit the skills and limitations of each dancer. Equally important was the social network provided by the weekly social dance encouraging the maintenance of participation across major life events such as bereavement through the support of other dancers in the group. Other studies also highlight the importance of social networks in maintaining participation [ 41 ].

Barriers to participation in sport and physical activity

On a simple level, barriers to participation in physical activity include high costs, poor access to facilities and unsafe environments. Other more complex issues relating to identity and shifting social networks also have a great influence. There were no studies reporting on the barriers to participation in sport and physical activity facing young children.

Negative experiences during school physical activity [physical education (PE)] classes were the strongest factor discouraging participation in teenage girls [ 29 ]. For many girls, impressing boyfriends and other peers was seen as more important than physical activity. While many girls wanted to be physically active, a tension existed between wishing to appear feminine and attractive and the sweaty muscular image attached to active women [ 25 ].

A number of studies [ 27 , 29 , 42 ] showed that tight, ill-fitting PE uniforms were major impediments to girls participating in school sport. These concerns over image and relationships with peers led to an increased interest in non-active leisure.

Flintoff and Scraton [ 28 ] cited the disruptive influence of boys in PE class as another major reason for girls' non-participation. The competitive nature of PE classes and the lack of support for girls from teachers reinforced these problems. Girls were actively marginalized in PE class by boys and many described not being able to get involved in games or even getting to use equipment. Teachers were found to be complicit in this marginalization by not challenging the disruptive behavior of boys in class. Coakley and White [ 29 ] noted that boys were also disruptive out of class and some boys actively discouraged their girlfriends from participating in sport as it made them look ‘butch’. Mulvihill et al. [ 22 ] and Coakley and White [ 29 ] both argue that gender stereotyping has serious negative effects on the participation of girls. Realistic role models for all body types and competency levels were needed rather than the current ‘sporty’ types.

Orme [ 42 ] found that girls were bored by the traditional sports offered in PE. Mulvihill et al. [ 22 ] found that many girls were disappointed with the lack of variety in PE and would rather play sports other than football, rugby and hockey. Being unable to demonstrate competency of a skill to peers in class also made people uncomfortable with PE. Non-traditional activities such as dance were more popular than traditional PE as they provided the opportunity for fun and enjoyment without competition [ 28 ].

Coakley and White [ 29 ] showed that the transition from childhood to adulthood was a key risk time for drop-out. Teenagers did not wish to be associated with activities which they described as ‘childish’ and instead chose activities that were independent and conferred a more adult identity upon them. One participant in this study described leaving a netball team of younger girls because it was ‘babyish’. A number of young women interviewed by these researchers described their belief that ‘adult’ women did not participate in physical activity or sport.

Anxiety and lack of confidence about entering unfamiliar settings such as gyms were the main barriers to participation in GP referral schemes. Not knowing other people, poor body image and not fitting in with the ‘gym’ culture were the prime concerns of this group [ 33 ]. The adults reported in the studies reviewed did not identify with role models used to promote physical activity and people from this age group suggested that realistic exercise leaders would be more effective in encouraging participation [ 41 ]. The lack of realistic role models was also a problem for members of the South Asian and Black community [ 43 ]. This group did not see physical activity as a black or Asian pursuit, but rather as white, middle-class, male domain. The authors argue that there were few opportunities or facilities available to this group.

Self-perception is incredibly important in motivating people to participate in all types of physical activity. The stigma attached to being socially disadvantaged was shown to decrease exercise among low-income women in the Midlands [ 23 ]. Women in this study did not want others to see them walking due to the social stigma attached with not owning a car.

Arthur and Finch's [ 35 ] study of adults with disabilities found that few relevant or positive role models existed. Disabled men reported a lack of knowledge about the appropriate types or levels of activity in relation to their disability. Additionally there were few opportunities to meet other people who were active and disabled. This study also found that the dominance of masculine stereotypes in sport was a particular challenge to participation among gay men. These men expressed concerns about not fitting in and not being one of the ‘lads’. Gay men reported withdrawing from organized sport due to feeling uncomfortable in the associated social situations [ 34 ].

Shaw and Hoeber's [ 44 ] discourse study of three English sports governing bodies reinforced the negative impact of macho culture in sport. Their study found that discourses of masculinity were predominant at all levels of the organization from coaching to senior management. The use of gendered language was shown to actively discourage women from advancing in these organizations. Discourses of femininity (characterized by loyalty, organizational, communicative and human resource skills) were associated with middle and lower management positions compared with masculine discourses (centered on elite coaching, competition and the imperative to win), which were associated with senior organizational roles.

Some older adults were unsure about the ‘right amount’ of physical activity for someone of their age [ 38 ]. As in other age groups, the lack of realistic role models in the community was a deterrent. Exercise prescriptions were perceived as targeted at young people and not relevant to older groups. Porter [ 31 ] found that older people were anxious about returning to physical activity and identified cost and time barriers as the main problems.

This paper has reviewed the qualitative research into the reasons for participation and non-participation of UK adults and children in sport and physical activity. The review covered all qualitative papers relating to sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom from 1990 to 2004.

Although we did find >20 studies, few studies met the basic qualitative research quality criteria of reporting a theoretical framework [ 45 ]. It would appear that little theory is being generated empirically and suggests that any understanding of reasons for participation and non-participation in physical activity in the United Kingdom may be limited.

Shaw and Hoeber [ 44 ] provide one example of the benefits a theoretical framework brings to qualitative research in their analysis of the gendered nature of discourses in three national sporting bodies. Their feminist discourse analysis framework directed the research toward the particular forms of language used in a specific social setting and the implications of this language for marginalizing some groups while supporting the dominance of others. The authors used this framework to show how the masculine discourses used in senior positions actively reduced the career opportunities for women, while men were shown to be actively deterred from regional development officer posts by the feminine discourse surrounding these roles.

Motivations and barriers to participation

Fun, enjoyment and social support for aspects of identity were reported more often as predictors of participation and non-participation than perceived health benefits. For young children and teenage girls in particular, pressure to conform to social stereotypes is a key motivator. Along with older groups, children see enjoyment and social interaction with peers as reasons to be physically active. Although girls report a willingness to be active, this must be on their own terms in a safe non-threatening environment.

A clear opposition can be seen between girls wanting to be physically active and at the same time feminine [ 25 ] and the strong macho culture of school and extracurricular sport [ 46 ]. One area where the evidence base is strong is the negative impact which school PE classes have on participation of young girls. Changing PE uniforms, providing single sex classes and offering alternate, non-competitive forms of PE are easy, realistic ways in which PE could be changed and which the research suggests would improve long-term participation. Additionally, teachers need to take a more active role in ensuring that students are involved and enjoying PE classes. There appears to be some change in this area. The Youth Sports Trust/Nike Girls Project ‘Girls in Sport’ program involved 64 schools across England with the intention of creating ‘girl-friendly’ forms of PE and with changing school practices and community attitudes [ 47 ]. Preliminary results show changes in the style of teaching in PE, ‘girl-friendly’ changing rooms, positive role models for girls in sport, extended and new types of activities, relaxed emphasis on PE kit and an emphasis on rewarding effort as well as achievement.

A number of papers reviewed made the point that the role models for children and young adults are usually beautiful and thin in the case of women and muscular in the case of men. The desire to be thin and, in the case of girls, feminine, leads to increased motivation to be physically active [ 28 ]. This desire is not as strong in older populations and from the mid-20s on, role models with a perfect body have a negative effect on participation [ 43 ].

While the masculine nature of organized and semi-organized sport culture marginalizes women, this review has shown that groups of men are also marginalized. Robertson [ 34 ] has suggested a rethinking of youth sports and in particular the links between sport and masculine identities. Identity formation is a key transition in adolescence, and there is some evidence that physical activity advances identity development. Kendzierski [ 48 ] reported that individuals with an exercise self-schema (self-perception as a physically active person) tended to be active more often and in more types of activity than those with a non-exercise schema (self-perception as not physically active). This relationship between leisure activity and identity may also be dependent on gender and the gendered nature of activities [ 49 ]. Alternate models of sporting clubs, such as those in which children can try a number of traditional and non-traditional sports in one place, could also provide improved take up and maintenance of participation.

Implications for the promotion of sport and physical activity

… throughout the sport and physical activity sector the quality and availability of data on facilities, participation, long term trends, behavioural and other factors is very poor [ 11 ] (p. 14).

Little is known about the reasons why people do and do not participate in physical activity and the relationship between their levels of participation and different stages in their lives. A number of the papers reviewed [ 29 , 34 , 35 ] found that significant shifts in the life course have implications for participation in physical activity. A mix of quantitative and qualitative methods could build an evidence base to understand changes to sport and physical activity at critical transitional phases during childhood, adolescence and adult life. This review provides a starting point for new work.

This review has identified qualitative studies of the reasons for and barriers to participation in sport and physical activity. Participation is motivated by enjoyment and the development and maintenance of social support networks. Barriers to participation include transitions at key stages of the life course and having to reorient individual identities during these times. The theoretical and evidence base informing policy and health promotion is limited and more work needs to be done in this area.

None declared.

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• Volume 4, Issue 9
• Pupils’ and teachers’ experiences of school-based physical education: a qualitative study
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• Kiara Lewis
• Division of Health and Wellbeing , University of Huddersfield , Huddersfield , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Kiara Lewis; kiara.lewis{at}hud.ac.uk

Objectives To explore pupils’ and teachers’ experiences of physical education (PE).

Study design A qualitative investigation employing semistructured interviews. Self Determination Theory was used as a guiding theory and Template Analysis was used to analyse the data.

Setting A secondary school in the North East of England.

Participants 14 pupils (aged 13 and 14, boys and girls) with a range of self-perceived competencies regarding PE and four PE teachers of the pupils (3 male, 1 female).

Primary and secondary outcomes (1) Attitudes and perceptions of PE pupils regarding their experiences of compulsory school PE lessons. (2) PE teachers’ experiences of teaching PE.

Results Key results from pupils and teachers suggest pupils enjoy participation in PE when they feel competent, in control and supported by others. Feeling competent depended on (1) the activity within PE and (2) the pupils perceived physical capabilities/aptitude. Feeling in control related to (1) having a choice of activities, (2) being able to set exertion levels and (3) control over clothes worn while taking part. Relationships within pupil groups and between pupils and teachers were perceived as important. Teachers could positively influence their pupils’ enjoyment by understanding and supporting their personal goals, as opposed to dictating and controlling what they did and for how long, and by promoting a non-threatening atmosphere between pupils.

Conclusions Rising obesity levels and concerns over the fitness of children and young people has returned the focus of PE to its potential as a vehicle for promoting health. This study suggests schools and PE teachers in particular can positively influence the PE experience of both boys and girls by providing more choice of activities and letting pupils make their own decisions based on their personal needs.

• PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• SPORTS MEDICINE
• PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005277

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Strengths and limitations of this study

The main strength of this study is that it allowed both boys and girls to articulate their varied experiences of physical education. The inclusion of boys in the study suggested that many of the barriers to activity are not gender specific but are as a result of perceived competency.

The study is limited by the sample size and while the interviews provide in-depth information it is not possible to generalise to other secondary aged pupils without further research, in particular with boys.

The least competent pupils declined to be interviewed and different methods are required to engage with them.

Introduction

Children's and young people's cardio respiratory fitness (CRF) is declining globally by 4.3% per decade; in the UK, it is estimated that every year CRF declines by 0.8%. 1 This steep decline in CRF has been mirrored by increases in childhood obesity with some suggestions that the reductions in CRF may be due to increased adiposity. 2 While obesity is attenuating in some populations it continues to rise in children with high levels of deprivation. 3 Although national BMI levels are no longer rising, waist circumferences of school children continue to increase. 4 In terms of children's health, CRF may be more important than body mass index (BMI), with CRF being inversely related to children's cardiac risk factors. CRF may also attenuate the impact of adiposity. 5 Recent research suggests there is a ‘dose-response’ to physical activity and that the more active adolescents are, the more positive the health effects. 6 The immediate health benefits, combined with improved psychological well-being, 7 and the probability that childhood activity tracks into adult activity, 8 suggests that the declining levels of fitness are of concern and more needs to be carried out to address children and young people's physical activity levels.

The school environment seems to be the obvious place to intervene in increasing children’s physical activity (PA), 9 but to date there have only been modest improvements. In a recent systematic review there was no evidence to support school interventions impacting significantly on adolescents’ activity levels. 10 One reason for this lack of success may be the paucity of research, in particular qualitative, 11 asking children and young people how they would improve school physical education (PE). While there are a few studies of teenage girls, the literature has under represented boys and overweight and obese young people. A review of research from 1950 to 2009 12 found only four qualitative studies asking overweight and obese children about their PE experiences. Instead of researching ‘on’ children it is important they are part of the research process and have a voice. By listening to children and young people's points of view it may be possible to provide an insight into what does and does not work for them, helping to inform future interventions. This is supported by the WHO who state that policymakers and practitioners should seek to identify what prevents and what motivates physical activity participation. 13

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that there are three basic human needs that we all strive towards: autonomy, relatedness and competency. 14 We persevere in behaviours that we perceive are under our own volition, which we are capable of and which we believe others support us in doing. The current PE experience within secondary school, for many young people, has the opposite effect. 12 PA becomes something they have to do despite a lack of confidence in their ability, where they may be mocked or humiliated in the process. 15–17 It is of no surprise that many young people disengage with PE as they progress through school and, for some, participation is that of reluctant compliance. Once the activity no longer becomes compulsory it is likely to stop. The SDT has been tested in schools with promising results, 18 , 19 however, this has been predominantly through quantitative research. The complexity of the PE environment makes it difficult to test all factors impacting on motivation. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to explore many aspects of the theory, rather than testing individual components. Although PE aims to provide pupils with the skills, knowledge and confidence to participate in physical activity in their leisure time, 20 activity levels continue to decline once young people leave school, suggesting PE has been ineffective. Recent UK Government interventions have been to increase the time made available and to reintroduce competitive team sports in an attempt to motivate pupils to be more active. 21 However, in order to increase motivation, pupils’ experience of PE needs to be understood. Ntoumanis (2002) 22 suggests only a minority of pupils are intrinsically motivated to take part in PE and a majority are either externally motivated or amotivated (do not take part). What is needed is to identify which factors contribute to pupils’ motivation (or lack of therein) towards PE. A study was conducted by Hassandra et al 23 which used a qualitative approach with PE pupils at two high schools in Greece. They interviewed 16 pupils following the administration of a self-report questionnaire to identity pupils with differing motivation levels. They found a wide variety of social factors influenced motivation towards PE lessons. With those thoughts in mind this study aimed to understand the experience of PE from the perspective of both teachers as well as pupils, and to assess the extent to which the SDT can explain the differing levels of motivation within a mixed gender sample of English PE pupils.

Study design

As adopted by Hassandra et al , 23 a qualitative approach was used to explore the experience of PE at a Secondary High School in the North East of England. The author has taken a ‘subtle realist’ approach to qualitative research. Within this position the researcher acknowledges that they cannot be certain about any knowledge claims and there is no way that the researcher can escape the social world in order to study it. 24 The objective, from a subtle realist perspective, is to search for knowledge about which we can be reasonably confident.

The author approached all schools within one region of the North of England through the ‘Heads of PE’ forum. The teachers were given information regarding the proposed study and offered a report of the findings. Although a number of the PE teachers were keen to be involved in the study and wanted to know what they could do to increase motivation, the research was subsequently blocked by the head teachers who did not think it was worthwhile for pupils to miss lessons to take part in the study. One school did, however, respond positively and so formed the base for this study. Staff members were keen for us to speak to the pupils to try to find out what engaged them with PE. The teachers felt the children may be more forthright in their answers to us, as independent researchers, than they would be to them. The school went on to use the report provided as the basis for a review of PE in the school and as an example to ‘Ofsted’ as to how they were responding to students’ needs. The area in which the school is located is one of high levels of deprivation and low levels of employment. 25

The study was ethically approved and consent was gained from the head teacher (who acted ‘in loco parentis’), the participating pupils and teachers. Pseudonyms were used for the presentation of findings. The local dialect has been maintained but explanations provided in parenthesis where necessary.

All pupils in year 9 (n=198) were asked to complete a short questionnaire asking them to rate their ability at PE on a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high; see online supplementary appendix 1) and to state if they were willing or not to take part in an interview. The questionnaire was adapted from Nicholls 26 competence scale and was designed to allow the interviews to be conducted with pupils with a range of perceived competencies, rather than as a robust measure of ability. Pupils (n=14) were then purposively sampled using maximum variation sampling to include both males as well as females, and a wide range of motivational levels. Selected participants were then invited to a semistructured interview, which took place within the school setting during class time in a communal area. The semistructured interview schedule was piloted with 2 year nine pupils, not involved in the study, and minor amendments were made to the wording in response to this process. The schedule was designed to explore why participants self-rated themselves at the given score and how this compared to their self-perceived rating at other PAs undertaken out of school (if applicable). A number of affective questions were included to allow pupils to discuss their feelings towards PE lessons and their PE teachers and how they would change PE if given the opportunity.

The interviewers were allowed into school for 1 day to interview pupils and staff. All PE staff (n=10) were invited to take part in semistructured interviews and four accepted the invitation (3 male, 1 female). The remaining teachers were not available due to teaching responsibilities or providing lunchtime cover on that day. These interviews also took place in the school setting and centred on the teachers’ experience of PE, how they motivated less able pupils and what changes they might want to make to PE at the school. The semistructured interview schedule was piloted with an adult with previous teaching experiences and no changes were recommended following this process.

Data analysis

All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Template analysis 27 was used to analyse the interviews. This style of thematic analysis involves the development of an initial template from a subset of the data, which may include ‘a priori’ themes based on previous literature. This is then applied to further data and revised and reapplied until a final version is arrived at that incorporates all the themes emerging from the data. This template was used as the basis for organising the discussion of results. Template analysis works well within a ‘subtle realist’ framework since it does not differentiate between descriptive and interpretative coding as it assumes they cannot be separated. 28 The final template was discussed with another researcher, to allow the author to reflect and discuss the interpretations of the findings. This process is not to ‘validate’ the findings but to allow the researcher to reflect on the process and on how feelings towards the participants may have impacted on the interpretation of the interviews. This process of reflexivity is a common method of quality checking utilised within qualitative analysis.

Of the 198 pupils (age 13 and 14) in the year group, 124 filled in the initial questionnaire. Of these, 48 (39%) were willing to be interviewed; however, none of the eight pupils who rated themselves as three or below agreed to be interviewed. A purposive sample of pupils (half male, half female, with scores ranging from 4 to 10), were invited to be interviewed.

Four staff members (3 males, 1 female) agreed and were able to find time to be interviewed. Their experience ranged from 2 years to over 20 years as PE teachers.

Three themes based on the SDT, which were identified ‘a priori’ were supported by the analysis: perceived competence, perceived autonomy and relatedness. The subthemes that contributed to the higher order themes are described below and provide more in-depth information as to how these concepts impacted on the children (illustrative quotes are provided in the accompanying tables).

Perceived competence

The pupils enjoyed, and put effort into, activities they felt competent in. The feelings of competency were determined by the type of activity and the pupils’ physical capabilities/aptitude.

Type of activity

Impact of the type of activity on pupils’ motivation.

‘If it's Wednesday it's not too bad cos I've got something I like…but if it's athletics I'm like ‘OMG’ [Oh My God] cos I'm rubbish at it. Things I'm alreet [alright] at I like but if I'm not, I don't’.

(Female rating 5/6)

‘..because, wiv art [without] sounding big headed, I know I'm good at it (majorettes) so then I put more effort into it like so…I enjoy it’.

(Female rating 9)

‘It's easier to engage kids in tennis, badminton things like that. When you tend to have two teams it's hard to set differentiated tasks and things for when they're playing a game and so some can drift off and so it's harder. In the team games I think that the pupils who are more better and more engaged in it take to it more’

(Teacher B)

Physical capabilities and/or aptitude

Pupils who felt they were better at some sports than others typically put it down to their physical build (bigger children felt better at strength sports) or physical aptitude: poor flexibility meant some activities like gymnastics were harder and poor hand-eye skills and ability to catch led to a lack of enjoyment in ball sports. The children who described themselves as bigger, ‘I'm not the skinniest’, generally found running difficult and felt at a disadvantage in activities requiring speed or endurance.

Impact of the pupils’ physical capability and aptitude on their motivation

‘probably the one I like best is rugby because it's the best sport I'm good at, probably cos of my build I'm quite strong…there's not one I particularly don't like um I'll do anything…err probably sports that involve running for a long time, like hundred metres and things, um I suppose I feel a little bit negative about but I still do it cos that's what I gotta do…it's just to be honest I don't like being beaten by people’.

(Male rating 5)

‘I don't like if it's a ball game, like catching, like rounders, I'm not interested. I'm not good at catching, I might let the team down’.

(Female rating 6)

‘I think a nurture group would help us, particularly nurture group at the bottom—for kids who are struggling with the basic skills—dyspraxia—different problems like that they've got‘.

(Teacher C)

Perceived autonomy

Feelings of control were important to pupils and teachers. Conflict arose when staff chose the activities on offer, when they tried to control how hard the pupils worked and when they chose what pupils wore during PE.

Control over activities

While the pupils rating themselves as high in PE ability were happy with the activities available in general, all the others complained about the activities that they ‘had to take part in’ and the lack of a voice in expressing what they would like to do was seen as a major disincentive to taking part.

Impact of control over participation in activities on motivation

‘I dunt [don't] really like doing sport, well I do the sport but there are certain things I dunt like doing. I'm not keen on rounders and err netball cos I've done them like every year since I came to this school, sort of had enough of the’m.

‘…they can't be bothered ‘kill me now’ that's what they say, they're suicidal—it's only PE!’

(Female rating 5/6 describing how others in her PE class feel in the morning before a PE lesson).

‘…if we got to choose because not everybody's comfortable with what subject they're doing and if someone's not comfortable then I don't see why they should do it’

(Female rating 9) L5

‘They get to pick 7 of the 10 blocks in year 10 which works well for engagement obviously cos once you get to that point if they've done it for the fourth time—a sport they don't enjoy—cos they do it 7, 8, 9, they do it for a fourth time the engagement goes completely down, so by picking, generally our year 10 they're good lessons all the time—your 10 s and 11 s—because the kids want to be there and do it’

Control over exertion

Pupils did not like physical pain; however, they liked a physical challenge and were happy to push themselves physically when it was an activity that they enjoyed. What they did not like was being pushed further than they wanted to be, not having an option of stopping or feeling under pressure through peer comparisons to keep going longer than they wanted to.

Impact of control over exertion on motivation

‘Basically PE teachers, not to me, to others they try and push them too far. They make them do things that they are not comfortable with. It's like if they don't really try (but) some people hate running, if they don't try they remove them from the lesson and that goes on their record. But, if they don't like running they don't like running basically’

‘I think they are quite pushy really, with like athletics…then if they did it like other subjects like cricket or hockey they'd not be as strict abaht (about) it but they are really pushy with running and stuff’

Interviewer: ‘So do you think being pushy works?’

‘No cos then it makes them start to disagree with the teacher and then they weren't gonna do anything’

‘I don't feel under as much pressure (out of school) like at school they're like sometimes…I don't know like they won't force you to do it but they're like make you do it, there (majorettes) if you want a break you can have a break’

(Female rating 5)

‘What I always say is you do not sit down—so they know that they're not sitting down in my lesson—especially the key stage 4 pupils that are less keen, cos it frustrates me when they just take themselves off and sit down, cos I'm like why are you doing that? You wouldn't just sit there in maths and say I'm not doing it..’

(Teacher D)

Control over uniform

Impact of control over pe uniform on motivation.

‘instead of having a uniform I would prefer to just wear some shorts and a top—t-shirt and stuff like that’

(Male rating 4)

‘So to be wearing baggy track suit bottoms when you're doing athletics is not good enough—I think there is a lot of me that is old fashioned and I want them to wear shorts’

(Teacher A)

Relatedness

The relationship between pupils and teachers was seen as important by all involved and pupils were also concerned about their interactions with other pupils during PE lessons.

Teachers’ approach to pupils

The pupils with higher ratings generally ‘liked’ the teachers and the approach they took. The better pupils felt they could ‘have a laugh’ with teachers and teachers also felt the more relaxed environment (in PE as compared to other subjects) meant it was easier to control pupils. Discipline and controlling behaviour seemed important to some teachers, for others the emphasis was less on discipline and more on understanding and building relationships.

Impact of teachers’ relationships with pupils on motivation

‘… it’s fun because you're doing it with a teacher that you like because they're making you laugh and stuff but then there's some teachers that if you dunt understand it then they just don't give ya time of day at all they dunt care’

‘I think you need to be someone who can show that you care for that student—and ensure that you want what's best for them, you can't just be focusing on the people who are doing…got to focus more on the ones that aren't doing as much, you need to try and get everybody’

Pupils’ relationship with each other

The pupils wanted to feel as though they were at a competitive level with their peers. If they felt they were at a lower level than others in their PE class there was a fear of letting others down and being mocked or berated for this (by their peers). This was particularly the case in team sports but less of an issue in individual activities.

Impact of pupils’ relationships with each other on motivation

‘Like in a team if someone does it wrong they're like ‘why did you do it like that—stupid’. I feel sorry for them’

‘You're not relying on other people you're doing it yourself. Like in a team if you do it wrong they're like ‘why did you do it like that?’ Like trampolining you're doing it for yourself. Working in a team is good but if it's a big team then some people get left out so it's not right fair on them. Trampolining its just 2 trampolines and one goes on and one goes off’

(Female rating 5).

Principal findings

An emerging finding from this study is that many young adolescents enjoy PA participation when it is under their control. This suggests that, for some children and young people, it is not physical activity ‘per se’ that they do not engage with, but the controlling manner in which it is enforced through schools, which they object to. For many of the pupils interviewed, PE was reducing, not increasing, their motivation to be physically active. This was in part due to the narrow range of activities offered, which only suits the skills of a minority of pupils, but largely due to the controlling behaviour of some of the PE teachers. In attempting to make pupils take part and work at a desirable intensity, the teachers are in fact undermining the pupils’ feelings of autonomy and motivation to take part. These same teachers are less controlling in after-school activities, when there is reduced pressure to meet levels or achieve standards and in individual activities (except running) where a more relaxed atmosphere is provided in comparison to traditional team sports. The finding that a number of the pupils not engaged with PE are active out of school was unexpected; previous research has found that those who are more active in PE are generally also more active out of school. 29 The expectation that being active in school will lead to more activity out of school has resulted in numerous attempts to make pupils more active—in the hope they will continue afterward. 30 The pressure to increase activity levels may, however, have led to a clash between teachers and pupils. The outcomes from this study suggest that pupils who do not have the skills or aptitude in traditional team sports and ball games, often favoured by PE departments, have disengaged with PE. Pupils, far from feeling motivated, leave feeling embarrassed or humiliated and future participation is reluctant compliance rather positive engagement.

Support for SDT

This study suggests that pupils need to enjoy the activity if they are to be motivated to continue. Although enjoyment of activity has been consistently recognised as a factor in participation in physical activity, there has been little investigation into what makes activity enjoyable from a young person's perspective. This study suggests that perceptions of competency combined with control over activities, exertion and uniform are important to young adolescents’ enjoyment of activity. These findings are congruent with SDT theory that postulates that individuals need to feel self-determined, competent and related to others.

Implications for PE

The PE teachers recognised that the pupils enjoyed activity more in after-school clubs but they felt compelled to work differently in school time. This is probably in part due to their perceptions of what a PE class should provide. While some teachers highly rated discipline within lessons, other teachers identified a need to understand and build relationships with pupils to help them reach their personal goals. Evidence, linked to SDT, suggests that this approach would be more effective in engaging pupils 31 and is supported by the findings in this study. Prusak et al 32 suggest that the ‘health club model’, which involves providing a variety of opportunities that allow for personal interest and individual differences, rather than traditional team games, may be more effective. This includes offering sport, recreational activities, fitness and nutritional sessions and activity that is available before, during and after school. The study presented here also suggests that this would be an effective approach for the pupils interviewed. In order to promote lifelong engagement in PA, PE needs to be personally and socially relevant to the pupils’ needs. 33 This requires designing curricula based on the views and opinions of the pupils involved. This approach was taken by the school concerned, which used the results of this study to inform future provision.

Strengths and limitations

Pupils were recruited from one school in the North East of England and may not represent pupils from all school PE lessons; however, the findings may be of interest to other teachers who experience similar problems with disengagement from PE and frustration with pupils who opt out. It would have been interesting to actually speak to the pupils with the lowest rating levels but they were not willing to engage with the process and a different approach may be needed to find out their views. The impact of ethnicity is another aspect that could have been explored further.

The main strength of the study is the in-depth analysis of student's perceptions of PE from across the range of competencies and from boys as well as girls. This combined with the interviews with the PE teachers allows a more comprehensive understanding of what PE is like for those involved within one school. The findings from this investigation could be used to test the importance of the elements of the SDT in other schools.

Conclusions and recommendations

School PE teachers, with an interpersonal style and pedagogical approach that positively influences the PE climate, can help motivate pupils to take part. The SDT suggests that teachers can support autonomy through providing a range of activities to choose from and promoting personal goals. They can develop perceived competency through setting appropriate challenges related to the young person's physical capabilities and aptitudes. 34

Teachers may also influence, positively or negatively, the relatedness factor through the quality of the relationship established with young people. Flintoff and Scratton's 34 research with girls suggests a teaching style that is ‘hierarchical, discipline based and relies on traditional curricula and pedagogy’ (p.17) is unlikely to lead to a learning environment that supports girls who are not already competent and confident in their PE abilities. This study suggests this may also be true for boys.

The students who did not want to take part in this study need further investigation and other methods, rather than face-to-face interaction, may be required in order to engage with them. The use of technology and interactive web sites where responses can be anonymous, yet familiar, may prove useful.

Once the views and opinions of children and young people have been sought more needs to be carried out to put them into practice. Some of the findings from this study replicate those found in other studies (on adolescent girls) yet there has been little change in policy or practice to accommodate these findings.

The results of this study have been used by the school involved to inform future provision and to aid teachers in increasing pupils’ motivation towards PE. This practice needs to be replicated in other schools and those factors that are consistent across gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, need to be acknowledged and acted on by policymakers.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the participants who volunteered their time to take part in the study and Louisa Horner and Max McLean for their contributions.

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Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None.

Ethics approval Provided by the School Research and Ethics Panel, University of Huddersfield. All participants consented to their participation in the study.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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Qualitative research as a form of scientific inquiry in sport and physical education

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• 1 Department of Professional Preparation in Physical Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003.
• PMID: 2489819
• DOI: 10.1080/02701367.1989.10607407

Qualitative research includes a family of loosely related inquiry traditions rooted in psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Each differs in origins, assumptions, central questions, and methods. They are united at a deeper paradigmatic level, however, by a shared view of the nature of the world which distinguishes all qualitative research traditions from the conventional natural science model of inquiry in the domains of education, sport, and exercise. This divergence of world view is illustrated by how scientists using qualitative and conventional designs would respond to the query, "How do you know?" There, qualitative traditions yield distinctly different perspectives on questions about the social world. Despite both heuristic power and great promise for application in sport and physical education, however, unresolved questions and troublesome concerns remain. Active scholars, editors, reviewers, and research consumers will control the future for qualitative research and all must stretch to accommodate an unfamiliar way of knowing.

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Qualitative Research and Evaluation in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

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• Physical Education Keyphrases 100%
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• Qualitative Research Psychology 100%
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Historical Evolution of Qualitative Research within Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

Qualitative research design principles.

T1 - Qualitative Research and Evaluation in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

AU - Richards, Kevin Andrew

AU - Hemphill, Michael A.

AU - Wright, Paul M.

N2 - Focusing on the unique nature of qualitative methods within kinesiology settings, Qualitative Research and Evaluation in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy guides graduate students and early career researchers through designing, conducting, and reporting of qualitative research studies with specific references to the challenges and possibilities of the field.Written by qualitative researchers in the fields of physical education and activity, this practical text begins with an overview of qualitative methods before advancing into planning for, collecting, and analyzing qualitative data. The final sections highlight specific qualitative methods applications in physical education and activity before discussing future directions and emerging applications of qualitative research.

AB - Focusing on the unique nature of qualitative methods within kinesiology settings, Qualitative Research and Evaluation in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy guides graduate students and early career researchers through designing, conducting, and reporting of qualitative research studies with specific references to the challenges and possibilities of the field.Written by qualitative researchers in the fields of physical education and activity, this practical text begins with an overview of qualitative methods before advancing into planning for, collecting, and analyzing qualitative data. The final sections highlight specific qualitative methods applications in physical education and activity before discussing future directions and emerging applications of qualitative research.

SN - 9781284262391

BT - Qualitative Research and Evaluation in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

PB - Jones & Bartlett Learning

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A Qualitative Study on Physical Education and Sports Teaching Practice

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Uluslararası Eğitim Programları ve Öğretim Çalışmaları Dergisi

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The aim of this study is to evaluate the initial teacher training programs updated in 2018 in Turkey. In the study, the basic interpretive research design was used. Participants of the study were 32 faculty members from different programs in a faculty of education of a university in the western part of Turkey. Data were collected via face to face interviews using semi-structured interview form. Findings of the study generally revealed that 2018 initial teacher training programs were not prepared in line with curriculum development principles. The faculty members think that the changes in the programs cannot meet the needs of qualified teacher training. They recommended updating the teacher training programs in line with the curriculum development principles, increasing the weekly course hours, adding the implementation hours in the courses and adding the school experience course back to the programs.

… AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD

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Bu çalıĢmanın amacı, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi hakkındaki görüĢlerini, deneyimlerini ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda 35 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayına yarıyılın sonunda öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi kapsamında gözlem ve deneyimlerini yansıtmaları için altı açık uçlu soru görüĢme formu aracılığıyla yöneltilmiĢtir. Öğretmen adaylarının açık uçlu sorulara vermiĢ oldukları cevaplar nitel araĢtırma yöntemlerinden olgusal çalıĢma tekniği kullanılarak analiz edilmiĢtir. AraĢtırma sonuçları öğretmenlik uygulaması dersinin öğretmen adaylarına tecrübe sağlayan bir ders olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Ayrıca öğretmen adayları, uygulama okullarındaki idarecilerin ilk haftadan sonra kendilerine hiç vakit ayırmadıklarını, rehber öğretmenlerin öğretmen adaylarının mesleki yeterlilikleri hakkında sürekli olumsuz ifadelerde bulunduklarını, derse gelen öğretim elemanlarının yeterince rehberlik yapmadıklarını, ders anlatımı esnasında rehber öğretmenlerinin dersleri sürekli bölen konuĢmalar yaptığını ve fakültelerin rehber öğretmen seçiminde daha dikkatli ve seçici davranması gerektiği görüĢünü ortaya koymaktadır. Purpose of this study is to discover the prospective social studies teachers‟ views and experiences on teacher practice course. In accordance with this purpose six open-ended questions were asked the prospective teachers to reveal their views and experiences about teacher practice course through the interview form. Answers from the prospective teachers were analyzed through phenomenological study methods, one of the qualitative research methods. Result of the study indicated that the teacher practice course is beneficial in providing experience. Besides the prospective teachers statements revealed that head-teacher in the practice school did not care them, guide teachers found them insufficient for teacher profession, observer tutors form the university did not help them, the guide teachers interrupted frequently while they were instructing and faculty must be very selective in assigning guide teachers.

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Social and Emotional Learning Through a Sports-Based Youth Development Program Grounded in a Hybrid Model-Based Practice

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Purpose : This study aimed to investigate the student’s experiences of social and emotional learning in a community-based youth soccer program grounded in the hybridization of the teaching personal and social responsibility model and the cooperative learning model. Methods : This research was guided by a case study design. Qualitative data were collected over 28 weeks. Twenty-three children ( n  = 23) participated in the study. Eleven individual interviews, six focus group interviews, two rounds of student drawing activities, and 22 researcher’s self-reflection journals were taken during the program. Inductive analysis and constant comparison were used for data analysis. Results : Four themes were drawn from the collected data: trying your best , respecting each other , learning and working as a team , and making your responsibilities at home and school . Conclusion : The study provided evidence that the hybridization of teaching personal and social responsibility and cooperative learning could be an effective pedagogical approach for students’ social and emotional learning development in sports-based youth development programs.

Baek https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3621-3011

Howley https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3534-6768

Zhang https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8647-9552

* Shen ( [email protected] ) is corresponding author.

Journal of Teaching in Physical Education

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Article sections.

• Promotion of SEL in SBYD Programs
• Model-Based Practice and SEL
• Hybrid MBPs
• Research Design
• Participants
• Hybrid MBP Implementation Fidelity
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis
• Trying Your Best
• Respecting Each Other
• Learning and Working as a Team
• Making Your Responsibilities at Home and School

Barlow , C.M. , Jolley , R.P. , & Hallam , J.L. ( 2011 ). Drawings as memory aids: Optimising the drawing method to facilitate young children’s recall . Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25 ( 3 ), 480 – 487 .

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A Qualitative Study of Barriers and Enablers of Physical Activity among Female Emirati University Students

Nicola w. burton.

1 School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Brisbane 4122, Australia

Bonnie L. Barber

2 Griffith Health Executive, Griffith University, Southport 4215, Australia; [email protected]

Asaduzzaman Khan

3 School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia; [email protected]

Associated Data

Data from the audiotape were transcribed verbatim and entered into Nvivo. The data transcripts were read and analysed by the separate member of the research team. The data were coded and organized into major and minor themes, according to frequency, which were then discussed with the senior author (N.W.B.) to reach consensus.

Interventions to promote physical activity participation should reflect social and culturally relevant influences of the target demographic. The aim of this study was to explore perceptions of barriers to and enablers of physical activity participation among female Emirati university students. Five semi-structured focus groups were conducted ( n = 25). Participants were asked open-ended questions about benefits, barriers and enablers of physical activity, and recommendations to promote participation. Emergent themes were identified using Nvivo software. Commonly identified benefits included improved health, weight management, improved mood, and stress reduction. The main barriers were low family support, competing time demands from domestic and academic activities, lack of convenient access to women-only facilities, and hot weather. The main enablers and recommendations related to social support from family and friends, accessible and low-cost women-only facilities, and structured supervised sessions. Findings suggest that there are specific social-cultural influences of physical activity among female Emirati university students. Approaches to promote participation could include identifying benefits consistent with family and cultural values, using social media for education, support and modelling, on campus supervised physical activity sessions integrated with the academic timetable, low-cost women-only opportunities in the local residential area, and support for home-based activities.

1. Introduction

Physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes, hypertension, breast cancer, colon cancer, gestational diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke [ 1 ]. Physical activity is also associated with a range of psychological health benefits including reduced risk of depression, anxiety and stress, as well as improved mood [ 2 , 3 ]. For general health benefits, it is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) that adults do at least 150 min per week of moderate intensity aerobic physical activity, or at least 75 min of vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous intensity activities [ 4 ].

Physical activity participation appears to decrease during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood [ 5 , 6 ], which is a time that includes the years spent at university. University students typically report low levels of physical activity, with participation ranging between 30 and 50%, and lower rates among women than men [ 7 , 8 ]. Research with university students in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries identified levels of physical activity ranging from 25 to 47% [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ], which is slightly lower than university students in Western countries [ 8 ].

Evidence on the barriers to and enablers of physical activity within specific demographic groups, such as university students, can inform interventions to promote participation. The number of perceived barriers to physical activity significantly increases from high school to university [ 15 ] and physically inactive students report a significantly higher number of barriers to physical activity participation than active students [ 10 ]. University students typically report lack of time and cost as key barriers [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Lack of social support from parents and/or friends has also frequently been identified [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. As a corollary to this, social support has been commonly reported as an enabler of physical activity participation in university students [ 22 , 23 ]. Other commonly identified enablers are availability of lessons and facilities at a reasonable cost [ 19 ], on-campus programs [ 24 ], and free time [ 19 ].

Such evidence from physical activity studies with university students in Western cultures may not be directly applicable to university students in Arab countries due to distinct sociocultural differences, in particular for women. For example, less autonomy with decision making has previously been reported as a key barrier to physical activity among female Kuwaiti university students [ 25 ]. A recent review of studies in the Arab region found lower levels of physical activity among women than men in the United Arab Emirates, and cited evidence from a range of studies to attribute this to a convergence of general and gender norms including parents favouring educational and spiritual activities, conservative dress that is unsuitable for physical activity, the need for women to be chaperoned in public spaces, a lack of gender-segregated facilities, a cultural value of comfort and avoiding physical exertion, and the view that public spaces are not appropriate for physical activity [ 26 ]. More evidence is needed from culturally and linguistically diverse groups to tailor the development of socially and culturally sensitive interventions. The aim of the current study, therefore, was to examine perceptions of barriers to and enablers of physical activity participation among a group of female Emirati university students.

2. Materials and Method

This study was awarded ethical approval by the Human Ethics Research Committee at The University of Queensland (#2017000013).

2.1. Participants and Procedure

All participants were recruited from a Higher Education Institute in the Middle East. The university has separate campuses for men and women. Participants were required to be a woman aged over 18 years, and a United Arab Emirates (UAE) national and native Arabic speaker. A separate member of the research team who was known at the Education Institute attended classes at the female student campus, discussed the study with students, and verbally invited participation. Students were given a written information sheet and those interested were asked to complete a written consent form. After providing consent, a date, time and location for the focus group discussions (FGDs) were agreed upon with the participants.

Five FGDs were conducted in a private meeting room on the university campus, and led by the same member of the research team. The FGDs lasted 40–60 min. The FGDs were audiotaped and written notes were taken. All FGDs were conducted in English, which is the teaching language of the university. After the discussion groups, participants completed a short demographic questionnaire online.

2.2. Materials

The FGD guide is presented in Table 1 . This was developed by the researchers, with questions on benefits of, barriers to, enablers of, and recommendations to improve physical activity participation for female Emirati university students. Participants were initially asked to discuss benefits of physical activity as an ice-breaker activity. Clarification probes were used to explore participants’ responses about intrapersonal (i.e., relating to the individual), interpersonal (i.e., relating to other people) and contextual (i.e., relating to the academic, physical and cultural setting) factors.

Focus group discussion guide.

The online demographic questionnaire included items about age (years), height and weight (used to derive body mass index (BMI)), general health (excellent, very good, good, fair, poor), ability to manage on available income (easy, not too bad, difficult some of the time, difficult most of the time, difficult all of the time), and life satisfaction (rated from 1–10; 10 being high). Some data were categorized for descriptive purposes, e.g., age was categorised as 18–20, 21–24, 25+ years; life satisfaction was categorised as 1–3 = low, 4–6 = moderate, 7–10 = high.

2.3. Data Management and Analysis

Data from the audiotape were transcribed verbatim and entered into Nvivo. The data transcripts were read and analysed by the separate member of the research team. The data were coded and organized into major and minor themes, according to frequency, which were then discussed with the senior author (NWB) to reach consensus. Emergent themes were labelled using constructs from the Theoretical Domains Framework [ 27 ], and are presented using the headings: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual (academic, cultural/environmental).

After the fifth FGD, it was decided that a saturation point had been reached as no new themes had emerged. A total of 25 female university students completed the FGDs. The mean age of participants was 20.4 years (SD 2.6) and 40% were categorised as overweight/obese (BMI > 30). The majority of the participants reported high life satisfaction and excellent/very good health. Additional characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 2 .

Summary characteristics of participants ( n = 25).

Notes. BMI was based on self-reported height and weight.

3.1. Benefits of Physical Activity Participation

Major themes identified for benefits of physical activity participation were improved mood, improved health, weight management, disease prevention, and stress reduction. Minor themes identified were disease management, reducing “negative energy” and improving self-confidence, meeting new people, social interactions, improving focus and concentration for academic work, and reducing academic related stress.

3.2. Barriers to Physical Activity

All the identified barrier themes, with example participant statements, are summarised in Table 3 . Strong interpersonal and contextual themes emerged. Commonly reported factors were low support from family, and competing time demands from household/family responsibilities. Contextual barriers included lack of time because of a busy academic schedule, lack of suitable accessible facilities and hot weather.

Barriers to physical activity among female Emirati university student participants ( n = 25).

At the intrapersonal level, participants described that some women preferred more passive leisure activities, in particular using social media.

“A lot of them would just sit and use their laptops instead of going outside and doing exercises”

At the interpersonal level, low support from family members was one of the most commonly cited barriers to physical activity. It was said that parents and other family members may not encourage women to do physical activity if physical activity was perceived as primarily for weight loss.

“Families think differently to us and maybe sometimes when you are slim they ask why are you going to exercise—they don’t want you to be more slim so they prevent you from doing anything. Like my friend is not allowed to do exercise because she is slim—her family will not allow her”.

Another reason for low family support was related to sociocultural norms regarding appropriate lifestyle activities for women. Participants described needing family permission to engage in activities, or support to enable participation (e.g., transport, money).

“Some people have a culture where the family don’t let them go to gyms and do exercise. Like in UAE, the family - we are more private in our life and they don’t like the girls to go out and do exercise. Parents don’t like it”.

“Doing exercise disagrees with the Emirati culture—the parents are not used to letting the girls go out at 6pm and 8pm to do walking. And there is no time in the day to do exercise”.

“Some parents think that you are a girl and you should learn the kitchen work and you don’t do exercise—this is from the culture”.

Many women described that family and domestic duties created a competing time demand against physical activity. The women would attend university in the day and then return home to care for the household, which resulted in little discretionary time.

“Because most Emirati women are working mothers they don’t have time from their work and they have to take responsibility for their children so they don’t have time for exercise”.

“Not enough time, home responsibilities—taking care of the children, responsibility for other family like our mothers”.

At the contextual level, many of the students described that the intense academic study and assessment schedule left little time for physical activities. Additionally, it was noted that many of the physical activities held at the campus sports complex were at times that clashed with classes, and therefore prevented participation.

“We have many college work and exams and projects, and we don’t have time for gym and exercise”.

“The schedule is really busy for us and it’s not convenient with the schedule of the sports complex. We can’t manage it with our studies”.

Lack of suitable, accessible and affordable physical activity facilities was commonly identified as a barrier. Because of sociocultural reasons, women-only physical activity facilities were required, but it was reported that many of these were expensive to join and located far away from the home.

“And as we are women, we don’t have places to do exercises. Maybe two or three places we have—we don’t have enough clubs for ladies only, and even if there is, it is expensive. Before was cheaper but now double the price. We have ladies’ clubs but it’s expensive”.

“It is not only the gym that we want to go to—there are also parks and there are some for ladies but there are not enough of them and they are a long distance away. Maybe I live in Sharjah but the place is in Abu Dhabi and I have no way to get there”.

The climate of the UAE was also identified as a significant barrier to physical activity. Many of the women said they would like to do outdoor activities, but the hot weather made this uncomfortable. Some women wore traditional clothing in public, and this heightened the discomfort for specific activities such as walking.

“Because it is too hot, we cannot go outside and do exercise especially because we are wearing abaya and shayla, it is very hot for all weather. It is a very big problem to us because sometimes when we go to a walk they tell us that you have to wear the sport dress and come and walk so we can’t walk in these areas as we have to wear our abaya and shayla”

3.3. Enablers of Physical Activity

All enablers themes are presented in Table 4 . Strong interpersonal, contextual and academic themes emerged, which often mirrored the barriers reported previously. Commonly reported enablers were low-cost activities, accessible women-only facilities, friend and family support (including via social media) and physical activity classes integrated with the academic schedule.

Enablers of physical activity among female Emirati university student participants ( n = 25).

At the interpersonal level, social support was commonly reported as a key enabler of physical activity. Social support sources included friends, family, and from social media (e.g., Instagram influencers, etc.). Friends were reported as a preferred source of support, primarily for providing motivation.

“First of all, I think its support from friends—if we go to the sport together and encourage each other to exercise it will help for me especially”.

Family was also an important source of emotional and material support, including encouragement, transport, and costs for membership fees.

“Encouragement from parents is important when the parents give their children help to be more healthy and do activities and sometimes it’s about cost—the parents can give them money to join centres”.

Social media was identified as a source of knowledge and modelling.

“Social media maybe—for awareness and when you see some videos that advise you how to do the activities and what’s the benefits for it. Some applications like Instagram when you see the posts—there are some people who post about the health and the fitness. They put daily tips about the fitness and how you will be a fit person”.

At the contextual level, exercise classes as part of the college curriculum was identified as enabling students to engage in physical activity.

“Before last year there was one subject where the girls go to the gym but now they have cancelled. If this came back it would be good for the girls to take this subject and go to the gym because some girls do not have enough time but if it is in the schedule then it is easier”.

Also at the contextual level, one of the most commonly cited enablers was women-only facilities which were close to the residential area (i.e., within walking distance) and low cost.

“Now they say in each urban area there must be a club close. Now in our area they do it for each area for ladies only. From government, they approve it and each area must have a closed club to go and do exercise and also have activities”.

3.4. Recommendations to Improve Physical Activity Participation

Participants identified the importance of engaging with female students to understand their physical activity interests.

“Ask the females what they prefer to do and ask their opinions on what they like”

Suggested types of physical activity for Emirati female university students included jogging, cardio/aerobic classes, cycling, swimming, and Zumba/dance classes. Participants described that activities should be fun and led by an instructor, who should have both fun, motivational, and educational qualities.

“The program should be fun—not only this is activity and do it”

“I think the people (the instructors) have to show that they care about us—they are friendly and funny and confident and motivate us. And tell us the benefit that we can get from each exercise”.

Structured activities were also important, with participants interested in physical activities that were well planned.

“Not just take the ball and go play basketball—it needs more structure—not just trying to show that we are doing sport”.

The majority of participants preferred that physical activities be held at the university sports complex or at classrooms on the campus, and many agreed that this would encourage them to participate during breaks in their academic schedule.

“On the campus—not outside—like they can allocate some classrooms (for activities) on the campus and we can start. If it is closer to the campus then we can come in the break in our schedule”.

4. Discussion

This study offers insight into the barriers and enablers of physical activity among female Emirati university students. Commonly cited barriers reflected sociocultural norms for women and included low family support, competing time demands due to domestic responsibilities, and lack of women-only facilities near to home. Other common barriers were competing time demands from academic schedules and discomfort associated with the hot weather. Commonly cited enablers were social support from friends and family, the availability of low-cost women-only facilities and opportunities in close proximity to home, and organised physical activity sessions integrated with the academic schedule. Participants described a preference for activities that were fun, structured, led by a coach, and held on campus. Jogging and cardio/aerobics were commonly cited as preferred types of activity.

Distinct sociocultural factors were described as influencing physical activity participation. In particular, lack of convenient access to women-only facilities was constantly highlighted. This is consistent with a previous review which indicated the paucity of gender-segregated fitness facilities contributed to low levels of activity among women in Arab countries [ 26 ]. Accordingly, having women-only physical activity facilities and clubs in local residential areas was identified as enabling participation. The cost of these facilities is important, with comments that clubs need to be more affordable. However, providing free or subsidized women-only facilities in each residential area would be costly. It may be beneficial to conduct environmental analyses to identify underserved areas that could benefit from cost-reduced physical activity facilities—past research has shown that provision of free access to leisure facilities can increase participation in underrepresented groups [ 28 , 29 ]. There could also be opportunities to provide facilities and activity sessions in group residential buildings. This is important as other participants, noted that they were able to do physical activity within, but not outside, the home. This is consistent with previous research with Qatari women who commented on restrictions in participating in activities outside of the home [ 30 ]. Home-based resources, such as instructional materials, equipment and digital applications, may enable physical activity participation for these young women.

Some participants indicated that within their culture, there was a lack of awareness of the range of benefits of physical activity participation for women, other than weight loss. Weight loss as a motivation for exercise is more commonly identified among women than men [ 31 ]. However, weight loss may not be salient to all women, and an understanding of the broader range of benefits may motivate participation. The main benefits of physical activity identified by the young women in this study were improved mood, improved health, disease prevention, and stress reduction. Other benefits were improving self-confidence, meeting new people, social interactions, improving focus and concentration for academic work, and reducing academic-related stress. More research is needed to identify what physical activity benefits align with cultural and family values, so that participation is seen as advantageous for those young women for whom weight loss is not a concern. Previous research has demonstrated that health literacy is a consistent predictor of physical activity participation [ 32 ], including among female university students in the United Arab Emirates [ 33 ], and it may also impact on family support for physical activity.

As in previous studies with university students [ 16 , 17 , 18 ], lack of time was a commonly identified physical activity barrier. Competing time demands included academic work and family responsibilities, as well as social media use. Academic and family commitments have been commonly identified in previous research [ 10 , 19 ], and our study participants suggested on-campus activities, and physical activity sessions incorporated into the academic schedule, as potential enablers of participation. Time spent using social media may reflect the high availability, accessibility and affordability of smart devices and internet use, as well as the range of popular social media applications, such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. Digital media statistics estimate that 99% of the population of the United Arab Emirates are active social media users (UAE Social Media Statistics, 2020). Previous quantitative research with American college students has, however, indicated no association between social media use and physical activity [ 34 ]. It may be, therefore, that it is not the time spent on social media, but rather the preference for this as a leisure activity, that constrains physical activity. It is interesting to note that in the current study, use of social media, as a source of education and modelling, was also identified as a potential enabler of physical activity participation. Research on physical activity interventions using social media for these purposes among American university students has shown mixed results. One study reported that a social media intervention did not produce greater awareness of physical activity than an education intervention [ 35 ]. Another study found that social comparisons via social media were more effective for increasing physical activity than social support [ 36 ]. Other research with women provides some promising results when social media is combined with other intervention components. One study with female college freshmen showed a Facebook social support group improved results from a walking and pedometer self-monitoring intervention [ 37 ]. Another study with African American women demonstrated that a Facebook and text message intervention decreased sedentary behaviour and increased self-regulation for activity and light-to-moderate activity [ 38 ]. Therefore, more research is needed to understand how social media could be used among Arabic-speaking women to support physical activity participation.

As with other studies [ 10 , 39 ], the hot climate was commonly cited as a barrier to participation, and this was particularly salient for outdoor physical activity such as walking, and for women who wore traditional clothing. The temperature in the UAE can reach upwards of 40 degrees Celsius (104 Fahrenheit) in the summer. Past research with women in Qatari demonstrated a significant decrease in physical activity participation (measured by pedometers) in the summer months [ 40 ]. However, some participants in the current study expressed an interest in participating in activities that were outdoors. This interest could be considered during planning activity opportunities, for example, having indoor activities in the hotter months and scheduling outdoor activities for early morning or in cooler months of the year.

Participants reported that physical activities should be fun. Given the stressful nature of university life [ 41 , 42 ], students may prefer physical activities that are not evaluative or results-oriented. This may be particularly salient if there is low confidence/competence for physical activity, which is a key (inverse) predictor of participation among women [ 43 ]. Fun activities may also be seen as less effortful, competitive, aggressive, and skills-based—characteristics which are often linked to the traditional male stereotype. Activities perceived as inconsistent with feminine stereotypes can risk negative judgements among young women [ 44 ]. The reported preference for scheduled activities may reflect time constraints associated with academic demands and family responsibilities. Participants also preferred instructor-led activities, which was consistent with the preferred types of physical activity identified (e.g., Zumba, cardio).

A limitation of the current study is that participants were recruited through convenience sampling and the summary demographics indicate that a high proportion of the participants had excellent/very good health and high life satisfaction, and 60% were categorised within the healthy weight range. Results may have differed if the sample comprised more women with poor health, low life satisfaction/mood, or high body mass index (BMI), as these concerns are associated with specific barriers to physical activity [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. We did not assess the physical activity levels of participants, so we cannot make comments about their experience with physical activity. We used self-reported weight and height data, which is often associated with underestimation of BMI, in particular among those with high body weight [ 48 ]; however, BMI was not a focus of this study. Focus groups were conducted in the English language, and even though the students attended an English-speaking university, this may have led to constrained communication as English was not the native language of the participants. Focus groups were led by a male researcher, which may have constrained the female participants’ disclosure of more sensitive information.

The main strength of this study is that is provides a descriptive insight into factors which can constrain or enable physical activity among female university students in an Arab-speaking country. It builds on previous research with university students which has also identified enablers and barriers related to social support, convenient facilities, costs, academic time pressures, competing time demands from family/domestic responsibilities, and hot weather. Our research contextualises these factors for this specific demographic group, and highlights the importance of sociocultural processes. This evidence can be used to generate hypotheses about behaviour and inform other studies. One imperative for future research is assessment with families to understand how physical activity among young adult women can be valued in the culture. A recent review of published physical activity interventions in the Arabic-speaking region concluded that culture is critical to success [ 49 ], and our research suggests some key sociocultural components such as aligning physical activity benefits and participation with cultural norms and values; use of social media for education and modelling; providing support for home-based exercise; and creating local, affordable, gender-segregated opportunities for physical activity.

5. Conclusions

The findings of this qualitative study suggest that there are specific sociocultural factors associated with physical activity participation among female Emirati university students. It is important to note that the potential impact of such factors may be moderated by the strength of sociocultural norms, which will differ across people. This evidence can be used to understand patterns of behaviour and inform the development of culturally sensitive interventions to promote physical activity participation. Family support for young women to engage in physical activities will be important across a range of intervention strategies. At the university level, integrating instructor-led physical activity classes, which include social and fun aspects, into the academic curriculum could be considered. Upstream approaches could focus on providing low-cost women-only physical activity opportunities in local residential areas and support for home-based activities. If successful, such strategies could make a significant contribution to the physical and mental health of Emirati women.

Acknowledgments

This study was part of an overall research program, which commenced when N.W.B. was based at The University of Queensland. This research was conducted as part of a (since completed) PhD candidate’s research program. A PhD candidate led the data collection, analysis, and original write-up as part of a research thesis This manuscript was prepared and submitted after the degree was awarded, with the person’s written permission, which we gratefully acknowledge.

Author Contributions

Authors N.W.B. and A.K. had oversight of the study conceptualisation, data collection, and analysis.. N.W.B., B.L.B. and A.K. all contributed to the interpretation of results, drafting of manuscript, and critical review of intellectual content. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Human Ethics Research Committee at The University of Queensland (2017000013, 30/01/2017).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Preliminary developmental challenges of children at risk for specific learning disabilities: Insights from parents and teachers—a qualitative study

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• Aslı İzoğlu-Tok   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0063-8448 1 , 2 &
• Özcan Doğan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3006-8159 2  

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This study aims to uncover the preliminary developmental challenges experienced by children from infancy to their primary school years, who are subsequently diagnosed with specific learning disabilities during their primary education. The ultimate goal is to develop an item pool to identify early symptoms of specific learning disabilities. This qualitative descriptive design study employed semi-structured interviews with 20 participants, comprising both parents and teachers of 10 children aged 8–11. The interviews lasted between 45 and 60 min. To ensure the research's quality and reliability, we applied evaluation criteria and performed six-stage thematic analysis framework. The results indicate that children experienced developmental difficulties from infancy to preschool period that impacted their social-emotional development, language and communication, motor and self-care skills, as well as their perception, memory, attention, and self-regulation capabilities. These challenges were exacerbated during the school years by motivation-related issues. Parental observations primarily highlighted difficulties in language and communication, such as pronunciation, initiating conversations, and speech, during the first three years of life. Significant issues in social-emotional development included introversion, a need for physical contact, challenges in maintaining relationships, and adherence to rules. These challenges emerged during the first three years of children and progressively worsened across all developmental domains. This study contributes valuable insights into the literature by providing past observations from parents and teachers, thus enhancing understanding of the preliminary developmental challenges faced by children at risk of specific learning disabilities.

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Introduction

SLD is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant disparities between intelligence scores, which are within the normal or above-normal range, and performance in key academic areas such as reading, mathematics, and written expression (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013 ; Melekoğlu, 2020 ). SLD encompasses three primary types: dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. Diagnostic criteria are drawn from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), and the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2013 ; World Health Organization, 2019 ).

Originating from neurobiological factors, SLD's management focuses on early educational interventions rather than pharmacological treatments, highlighting the importance of early assessment and intervention (Thapar et al., 2017 ). The reason for this is that if children are not intervened in the early period, the difficulties they experience will increase (Sullivan et al., 2017 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). Therefore, intervention services provided in the early period can also contribute to reducing the negative effects (Lange & Thompson, 2006 ). The importance of the situation is further underscored by the prevalence of SLD.

SLD was identified as the most common disability among students aged 6 through 21 in the U.S., with 37.1% of those receiving special education services diagnosed with SLD (U.S. Department of Education, 2021 ). Additionally, 15% of the European population is affected by SLD (Institute of Entrepreneurship Development, 2019 ). Despite these striking rates, Turkey reports a notably lower prevalence rate of approximately 3%, highlighting a significant discrepancy in the identification and diagnosis of SLD, and pointing to a need for improved diagnostic tools and data collection methodologies (Melekoğlu, 2020 ). The fact that children at risk of SLD show similar characteristics to normally developing children makes early diagnosis even more difficult (Steele, 2004 ).

Research is advancing in early diagnosis by concentrating on identifying children at risk of SLD and preventing issues before they arise. Researches underscore the importance of early indicators in predicting future SLD, focusing on areas such as early literacy, rapid naming, phonological awareness, and working memory (Ozernov-Palchik et al., 2017 ; Snowling et al., 2019 ). Moreover, early quantitative challenges, such as deficiencies in understanding number relations, might lead to future difficulties in mathematics for children (Bull et al., 2021 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). When viewed within the framework of developmental domains, early challenges in language, social-emotional development, psychomotor skills, cognitive development, and self-care skills are identified as predictors of SLD (Firat & Bildiren, 2024 ; İzoğlu-Tok & Doğan, 2022 ). International researches also focus on intervention programs (Almulla et al., 2021 ; Aunio et al., 2021 ; Sakellariou et al., 2020 ), development of identification tools (Flores et al., 2022 ; Hellstrand et al., 2020 ; Navarro Soria et al., 2020 ), and profiles of children at risk (Bonti et al., 2021 ; Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ). These studies emphasize the critical role of early detection and intervention.

The situation in Turkey

In Turkey, the pathway to diagnosing SLD and providing special education services involves a multi-step process that engages both educators and medical professionals. Within the Turkish education system, primary education spans a four-year period following preschool, during which children undergo initial assessments. Notably, when special needs are suspected, classroom teachers play a pivotal role by referring children to medical or guidance and research centers for further evaluation. This diagnostic journey emphasizes the significance of teachers' insights into the children's academic and developmental profiles.

Specialized educational support requires obtaining a Special Needs Report for Children (SNRC), which is contingent upon a formal medical diagnosis. Importantly, the evaluation of a child's academic progress over a minimum span of six months forms a critical component of this diagnostic framework. Considering that the diagnosis process takes an average of one year, it is obvious that we cannot provide support to children in the early stages. However, both national and international research always emphasizes the importance of early detection (Chordia et al., 2020 ; Firat & Bildiren, 2024 ; Kaya-Döşlü & Bağlama, 2022 ; Roama-Alves et al., 2020 ; Thapar et al., 2017 ). Therefore, research on the characteristics of at-risk children is essential to inform the development of intervention programs, evaluation tools, and understanding children's profiles.

The current study

While existing literature underscores the significance of early identification of children at risk of SLD, there remains a noticeable knowledge gap regarding the characteristics of children in Turkey. This gap about which areas and what difficulties children experience is evidenced by the limited availability of early assessment tools (Melekoğlu, 2020 ). Therefore, the primary sources of information crucial for fill this knowledge gap are the child's parents and teachers. who possess invaluable insights into early indicators of SLD due to their extensive interactions with the child during the preschool and early school years. With this regard, this study aims to identify the difficulties experienced by children diagnosed with SLD in the preschool and school periods, with the ultimate goal of creating an item pool for identifying early symptoms of SLD. The quality of the relationship that professionals establish with parents and school personnel can affect the quality of the children's assessment process (Lange & Thompson, 2006 ). Engaging with families and teachers for their insights is deemed crucial for a comprehensive understanding of children at risk for SLD, informing strategies for health and education professionals to enhance early intervention services. By addressing these challenges, we expect that this study will enhance the comprehension of the challenges faced by children at risk of SLD, and facilitate the development of assessment tools and intervention strategies. This study offers comprehensive insights into the challenges faced by children, addressing the roles of adults both in school and at home. The research question regarding the challenges experienced by children with SLD in pre-school (0–3 years and 3–6 years) and school periods guided the study.

Study design

This qualitative study employed a qualitative descriptive design aimed at offering descriptions of experiences and perceptions, especially in areas with limited understanding (Sandelowski, 2010 ). This qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to delve into the experiences and perspectives of parents and teachers regarding children’s developmental challenges from infancy up to the present. The reporting guidelines of “Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research- SRQR” (O’Brien et al., 2014 ) and “Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research- COREQ” (Tong et al., 2007 ) were followed. The study was adhered to a postpositivist paradigm. In the postpositivist paradigm, researchers integrate the diverse perspectives of participants rather than relying on a singular viewpoint and employ various validity approaches (Creswell & Creswell, 2017 ). Consequently, in this study, we brought together the perspectives of both parents and teachers and applied validity approaches.

Sampling and participants

Participants were selected through typical case sampling, a targeted method aimed at obtaining a representative cross-section of cases. For parents, the criteria were: (1) having a child diagnosed with SLD in primary school, and (2) no additional diagnoses besides ADHD, given its frequent co-occurrence with SLD (Araz Altay & Gorker, 2017 ). For teachers, we included those who taught the children of the interviewed parents.

The first author conducted interviews with 20 participants: parents and teachers of 10 children who are currently attending primary school. All participants, including the children, were monolingual Turkish speakers, hence the interviews were conducted in Turkish. Prior to conducting the interviews, arrangements were made to meet primarily with one parent-typically the mother due to their predominant role in care and education involvement. This selection was made acknowledging that recalling past experiences might be affected by the passage of time. Therefore, our focus was on the primary school period, during which the children were first medically diagnosed.

All educators involved were classroom teachers, with the duration of their acquaintance with the children varying due to school changes or different grade levels. Typically, classroom teachers remain with the same group of students from the first to fourth grade unless their assignment changes.

The size of the sample was determined based on data saturation and representativeness (Guest et al., 2006 ). Coding commenced concurrently with the interviews and persisted until the parents and teachers of the 10th child were interviewed. The decision to conclude the interviews was made when no new codes emerged, indicating that the data had reached saturation. Details on the participating parents (P) and teachers (T) are provided in Table  1 .

Recruiting participants

Approval was obtained from the [Blinded] University Clinical Research Ethics Committee (KA-19141), along with administrative permissions from the Turkish Ministry of National Education (MoNE). The first author contacted school administrators to introduce the study to parents and teachers, focusing on children diagnosed with SLD.

Interviews were initiated following verbal confirmations from parents and subsequent confirmations from teachers regarding the children's diagnosis and inclusive education status.

Written informed consent was then collected via Google Forms. Due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, interviews were conducted by phone from September to November 2020, with durations ranging from 45 to 60 min.

Developing interview schedule

We developed two semi-structured interview schedules, distinct for teachers and parents, informed by a comprehensive literature review on developmental stages. These schedules were then refined based on feedback from three faculty members specializing in special needs education. The interview for parents comprised eleven main questions across three categories: general information, past experiences, and current status. Parents were prompted with questions designed to elicit their insights and reflections on their children's development from infancy up to the present, including the diagnostic journey and aspects of school life (detailed in Appendix A). Similarly, the teachers' interview schedule featured six main questions, organized into the same three categories. Teachers, were questioned about the developmental traits, diagnostic procedures, school experiences, and peer interactions they've noted from the commencement of the children's primary education to the present (outlined in Appendix B).

To ensure the integrity and reliability of our research, we adhered to Lincoln and Guba ( 1985 ) criteria. The interviews were conducted with 20 participants, with the first author allowing flexibility in timing to enhance the credibility and internal validity. She probed further when responses were unclear, ensuring comprehensive understanding. The diverse perspectives from both teachers and parents enriched the internal validity. Data saturation was confirmed when no new information emerged from the interviews.

For external validity criterion, transferability , we meticulously outlined the inclusion and exclusion criteria, aiming to ascertain that our findings could be applicable in various contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 2013 , p. 103). Our methodical approach, from participant recruitment to the detailed explanation of our analysis process, supports the study's transferability. The coding process and its rationale are elaborated under the findings section, with clear definitions and descriptions to facilitate understanding.

Dependability was achieved through a rigorous and transparent process, defining key concepts like social-emotional and language development, motor skills, self-care, perception, memory, attention, and motivation based on prior literature. Each participant's experiences were deductively analyzed within these frameworks. An external researcher with expertise in early intervention and qualitative methods reviewed the themes, further validating the study's reliability by assessing code accuracy and researcher impartiality (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ).

Confirmability and objectivity were reinforced through data triangulation, collecting data from multiple sources—teachers and parents—to verify consistency across different perspectives (Lincoln & Guba, 2013 , p. 106). The first author meticulously transcribed interviews, with all data securely stored in MAXQDA qualitative research software (version 20.4.1), ensuring a robust framework for our qualitative analysis.

Researcher background

In qualitative research, the experience of researchers is pivotal for knowledge generation (Creswell & Creswell, 2017 ). Our team, composed of academic staff, undertakes clinical studies to assess and support children and offers family counseling services focused on child development. Acknowledging the influence of our backgrounds and experiences, we endeavored to mitigate potential biases. We documented our initial assumptions, insights from the literature, and our theoretical and practical expertise. Engaging in continuous reflection and dialogue throughout the study (Watt, 2015 ), we maintained a postpositivist perspective, anticipating a variety of developmental challenges. For instance, we defined the possible areas we expected to emerge by keeping in mind that there may be different areas of development where difficulties may arise.

Data analysis

Following Braun and Clarke ( 2021 ) six-stage thematic analysis framework, our approach facilitated both inductive and deductive analysis. To prevent data loss, the first author meticulously transcribed the interviews, resulting in a comprehensive document of 231 pages. This document was analyzed using MAXQDA qualitative research software, starting with a thorough reading to gain an overall understanding of the data.

In the first procedure, familiarizing with the data , we read transcripts to look at the data holistically. In the second procedure, systematic data coding , we read and coded the transcriptions line by line. We outlined the distinct early developmental characteristics observed by teachers and parents in children diagnosed with SLD compared to peers. For example, one parent commented: “ He was having too many accidents compared to his peers. He was constantly getting injured. We never missed a visit to the hospital anyway. He still has a scar on his eyebrow. He burned his arm. So, he was always clumsy. He loses his balance and falls on the straight road.” . We coded this comment as ‘difficulty with balance skills.’

In the third procedure, generating initial themes from coded and collated data , we organized the codes into potential themes and sub-themes, ensuring all related codes were considered. In the fourth procedure, developing and reviewing themes , we checked coded quotations, potential categories, and themes to see if they were related. We made additions or substructions during this control process. A thematic map was created by establishing a relationship between quotation, code, category, and theme. In the fifth procedure, refining, defining, and naming themes , we named each theme so that it could create a related story for the research. In the sixth procedure, writing the report , we determined compelling quotations for inclusion in the report. After compiling the study into a report in Turkish, we translated the text into English with an expert support.

Our analysis, presented through thematic maps, adopted a developmental lens, offering a comprehensive view of the children's developmental indicators for SLD from infancy to the school years. This approach, grounded in a developmental model (Kass & Maddux, 2005 ), aimed to present a holistic understanding of the identified early symptoms of SLD.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

While composing this work, the authors used Scholar Chat-GPT by Open-AI in order to improve the readability and use of existing language. It is crucial to emphasize that Scholar Chat-GPT was solely employed to enhance the quality of the writing and facilitate better communication of ideas, and not to generate new content. Following the application of this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and takes full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Four maps were created regarding the early symptoms after the data analysis of the interviews. In these maps, categories or periods are indicated by different symbols.

Early developmental symptoms of SLD

In Map 1 , the early developmental symptoms of SLD in the preschool period fall under nine categories: social-emotional development, language and communication development, motor development, self-care skills, perception, memory, attention, self-regulation, and other difficulties.

From ages 0–3, parents frequently noticed issues with their children's language and communication development. Problems with speaking, pronunciation, and starting conversations were common in this age group. After turning three, kids started showing difficulty in expressing their feelings and thoughts, often relying on fillers like "err" and "umm." One parent (P9) shared about their child's struggle to initiate conversation:

“When he wanted to be friends and get closer, but he did not get a reaction, he gave up. So, he was very eager to have friends, but he had difficulty establishing that friendship. He was not a child who communicated a lot with his friends, nor was he social.”

For social-emotional development, parents noticed early symptoms such as a need for physical contact and introverted behavior from ages 0–3. Between the ages of three and six, parents reported their children facing challenges with following rules, sustaining peer relationships, making friends, experiencing low self-esteem, becoming victims of bullying, displaying emotional overreactions, and preferring to play alone.

In the motor development category, parents reported that their children, between the ages of 0–3, encountered difficulties with activities requiring coordination, speed, or strength. They described these challenges as clumsiness during running or an inability to participate in games like football. Between the ages of 3–6, the difficulties shifted towards activities that demand balance, drawing skills, and holding a pen properly.

In the perception category, parents identified issues related to visual and auditory perception, including difficulties in perceiving auditory stimuli, recognizing colors, writing and learning numbers, interpreting visual or auditory inputs, and slow perception speed. These difficulties became apparent to the parents after their children reached the age of three. Additionally, in other areas, parents observed challenges with direction skills.

Parents also highlighted that their children experienced difficulties with memory, attention, and self-regulation. They observed issues with memory, particularly in recalling information. Furthermore, there were struggles with maintaining attention during games or tasks that required concentration. Both parents and teachers shared the belief that the children could accomplish any task if they managed to focus. Challenges in self-regulation were noted as well, especially in terms of being tidy at home and in school settings. One parent (P1), who has twins, with one diagnosed with SLD, discussed memory difficulties by drawing comparisons in the developmental process between her twins:

“… about describing the picture she saw.... Whenever I asked her, she had a blank stare on her face. Later, when we read stories together, I used to realize she did not remember anything about the story.”

In general, the challenges identified between the ages of 0–3, with the exception of speaking difficulties, continue into the ages of 3–6. This means that issues such as pronunciation, initiating communication, introverted behavior, and difficulties with tasks requiring coordination, speed, or strength that begin to emerge from ages 0–3 tend to persist through to ages 3–6.

In Map 2 , which focuses on the school period, the early developmental symptoms of SLD are categorized into ten areas: social-emotional development, language and communication development, motor development, self-care skills, perception, memory, attention, self-regulation, motivation, and other difficulties. Within the language and communication development category, difficulties were reported in initiating communication, expressing feelings and thoughts, overusing fillers, and speaking in context.

Difficulties in social-emotional development emerged as a category in which parents and teachers predominantly share their observations. The frequency of codes in this field has increased in school age. Parents have observed challenges in engaging in casual conversations and difficulty in defense own rights, while teachers have identified reluctance, choosing to play individual games, and difficulty maintaining communication. Both participant groups have highlighted a range of early symptoms including low self-esteem, bully victimization, exclusion, introversion, emotional overreactive state, willingness to be invisible, and difficulty in following the rules. One child’s parent (P6) and teacher (T6) expressed low self-esteem as follows:

“She constructs barriers in unfamiliar situations, quickly abandoning tasks and expressing self-doubt. She often declares, ‘I cannot do this. Why do you insist? That is enough; it is not working; give up.” (P6) “There was a situation like this where her self-esteem was low and quite challenging. She frequently began sentences by stating, ‘I cannot do it.’ While many students experience this to some degree, she struggled with it more than most.” (T6)

Parents and teachers used the phrase “vulnerable, sensitive, and combative” to describe the emotionally overreactive state of the children. One child’s parent (P8) and teacher (T8) expressed bullying victimization as follows:

“I did not know if he was beaten so much. He suffered a lot from a friend. He was a quiet kid. He was not a kid who defended his rights.” (P8) “He was an oppressed child. One child in the classroom put him under the pressure. He could not defend himself. When he wanted to protect himself, he was doing it wrong.” (T8)

In the perception category, difficulties with matching letters to sounds were commonly reported by both parents and teachers. Furthermore, teachers noted challenges in interpreting stimuli and understanding instructions. Both parents and teachers reported difficulties in the self-regulation category such as external audit, disorganized notebook, and difficulty in planning. Difficulties in the field of attention, memory, motivation, and self-care skills were expressed by both parents and teachers during the school period as well. They expressed difficulty paying attention to a game/task, difficulty recalling information, reluctance, and low self-motivation about a game/task in the field of attention, memory, and motivation. Considering other difficulties, the teachers emphasized that children made more effort to learn, were reluctant to go to school, and could only learn until a certain difficulty level.

Early academic symptoms of SLD

In Map 3 , the early academic symptoms of SLD in the school period appeared under three categories: reading, writing, and mathematics.

In the reading category, reading comprehension was the most emphasized difficulty. Mixing letters, reading slowly, making reading mistakes, and reluctance to read were expressed by both parents and teachers. One child’s parent (P1) and teacher (T1) expressed the mixing of letters as follows:

“I turned the house into a map. Because I thought she could not forget letters if she saw them all the time. But she would do a lot of constant b-d shuffling.” (P1) “When I realized she was confusing the letters b-d, I thought this was not a problem. Because my four or five students made the same mistake as her… There was an application in the curriculum that I found very wrong. When I taught the letter groups b-d in the first grade, there was only one letter (s) between them. In other words, children are more confused because these letters are given one after the other… When these two letters are taught in proximity, students often experience confusion. Therefore, there is a need for change in this regard.” (T1)

Most of the difficulties in the writing category were expressed by both parents and teachers. Difficulties holding the pencil, writing numbers in the correct direction, leaving appropriate spaces between words, legible writing, the proportionality of letters, and making spelling mistakes emerged in this area. In the mathematics category, both parents and teachers expressed difficulty solving problems.

Overview of developmental symptoms

We created Map 4 by considering the chronological and developmental processes. Firstly, the parents observed differences in their children’s language and communication development. In particular, they emphasized difficulties in speaking, pronunciation, and limited vocabulary. In the following process, difficulties in social-emotional development were remarkably noted by the parents. This development area was that what both parents and teachers most expressed. Afterward, they started to mention motor development difficulties. Although parents believed their children had difficulties in motor development in preschool, they determined this to be an issue during school years.

Developmental symptoms pyramid of children at risk for SLD

This situation proceeded similarly for self-care, perception, attention, and memory. While self-care skills were tolerated in preschool, the child was expected to become independent in the first grade. All the difficulties above started to show their effects more clearly in the academic field during school years.

When we look at the developmental process holistically, social-emotional development and motivation challenges become more pronounced in school life. Parents and teachers have reported that children exhibit a notable lack of motivation in addition to other difficulties. They tend to be invisible, become introverted, show reluctance in both their social and academic lives, and strive to be unnoticed.

We also saw the process progress increasingly in the seven steps. For instance, language difficulties emerged in the 0–3 age period and continued to increase and intensify during the school period. The frequency of codes in socioemotional development has increased in school age. While the difficulties that appeared on the pyramid's base were expanded, new difficulties accrued on top of them. That was why we visualized this process as a pyramid . One child’s parent (P2) expressed the increase in difficulties experienced as follows:

“He began speaking later than his peers and entered kindergarten at five. During that time, his speech development lagged, causing communication challenges with his teacher and impacting his ability to form friendships. Even now, he faces difficulties in making friends. When my son started first grade, I became suspicious of his learning difficulties as he struggled with reading words composed of two letters, often reading them backward. I shared my concerns with his teacher, who insisted on waiting. Despite waiting patiently, the difficulties persisted and even worsened. At this point, the formal reporting process was initiated.” (P2)

When examining the pyramid, it is evident that there is an increase in the child's symptoms, coupled with a reluctance to understand, difficulty in motivation, and lack of self-esteem. Parents describe this situation as “ He has potential, but he believes he cannot do it, ” “ He gives up quickly, ” or “ It is tough to break his prejudice that he cannot do it .” Consequently, researchers believe that all the difficulties experienced by children point to a theme linked to challenges in their perception of themselves. Hence, we have labeled the final step of the pyramid “ negative self-concept .” Self-concept encompasses an individual's perceptions of themselves across various aspects, including physical appearance, achievements in sports and academics, behavior, social acceptance, and interpersonal relationships (Butler & Gasson, 2005 ). We referred to the negative self-concept when children held negative perceptions of themselves in these areas.

In general, the findings reveal difficulties across 13 areas. Only parents or teachers reported some of these difficulties. Both parents and teachers expressed some of the other difficulties. Table 2 presents all the difficulties mentioned above, categorized by developmental areas, period, and the individual expressing the difficulty.

This study aimed to explore early developmental challenges of children diagnosed with SLD and to contribute to the creation of an item pool for early symptom identification. Through qualitative interviews with parents and teachers, we identified a broad range of developmental symptoms from infancy to primary school, including difficulties in language and communication, social-emotional and motor development, self-care skills, perception, memory, attention, self-regulation, and academic challenges. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of SLD and the importance of early identification and intervention.

According to the findings, parents and teachers highlighted difficulties in 13 distinct areas. We categorized these difficulties to create an item pool for early symptoms. We created an item pool at the end of the study and organized it by age groups (0–3, 3–6 and school age, outlined in Appendix C).

Our results showed that, according to parent observations, children primarily experienced language and communication difficulties—such as challenges with pronunciation, initiating communication, and speaking—during the first three years of their lives. After age three, they also struggled to express their feelings and thoughts and tended to overuse fillers in their speech. Previous studies have consistently identified these difficulties in language and communication development as early symptoms (Aunio et al., 2021 ; İzoğlu-Tok & Doğan, 2022 ; Price et al., 2022 ; Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ). Longitudinal research emphasizes that children diagnosed with SLD face challenges in both receptive and expressive language skills during early developmental stages. Consistent with our findings, these challenges persist into later years (Carroll et al., 2014 ; Thompson et al., 2015 ; van Viersen et al., 2017 , 2018 ). Van Viersen et al. ( 2017 ) reported that children diagnosed with SLD begin to lag behind their peers in receptive language skills around the 17th month and in expressive language skills around the 23rd month. Unlike this study, our participants did not report any challenges related to receptive language skills. Parents in Turkey apparently prioritize their children's speech over their receptive language skills. Thus, it is plausible that parents primarily focus on expressive language skills when considering language development. Consequently, assessing language and communication development skills should be central to identifying risk groups. The literature supports the inclusion of these difficulties in the item pool. However, difficulty in speaking was not reported between the ages of 3 and 6. Lyytinen et al. ( 2005 ) found that late-talking toddlers with expressive delays caught up to their peers in language proficiency by the age of 3.5 years. Therefore, we suggest including this difficulty as a topic in preliminary interviews rather than incorporating it into assessment tools.

The most pronounced difficulties identified in our study relate to social-emotional development. Parental observations indicated that children exhibited symptoms such as introversion and a need for physical contact within the first three years of life. After the age of three, challenges in maintaining relationships and adhering to rules became apparent. Both parents and teachers noted an increase in introversion upon the children's entry into first grade, describing them as feeling excluded and invisible. Previous research has highlighted the importance of recognizing difficulties in social-emotional development as early indicators of potential issues (İzoğlu-Tok & Doğan, 2022 ; Sakellariou et al., 2020 ; Tercan & Yıldız-Bıçakçı, 2018 ). In particular, a qualitative study by İzoğlu-Tok et al. ( 2021 ) found that children with SLD felt marginalized and invisible due to experiences of bullying, with participation in mainstreaming services often equating to feelings of "rejection" and "not belonging." Reflecting on both our findings and those of previous studies, children were frequently described as "silent," "vulnerable," "sensitive," and "introverted." Thus, it is essential that these characteristics be considered as potential risk factors and integrated into the item pool for developing assessment tools.

Another significant observation was that children showed challenges in motor skills that require coordination, speed, application of strength, balance, and drawing abilities. Parents often described these challenges as clumsiness during physical activities, such as running or playing basketball. These issues were noted to persist throughout the school years. Similar challenges have been highlighted as early indicators of SLD in prior studies (Flores et al., 2022 ). Westendorp et al. ( 2011 ) determined that a greater learning lag in children correlates with poorer motor skill scores. Firat and Bildiren ( 2024 ) observed that children with SLD often began walking later than typical in the 0–2 age range and faced challenges in both fine and gross motor skills as they grew older. Although our study provides additional insights from parents regarding motor development issues, there is a general agreement that difficulties in motor skills are critical for identifying children at risk. Hence, it's essential to include these challenges in the item pool for early identification of SLD.

Parents reported that children faced difficulties with self-care skills after the age of three, a concern that aligns with findings from previous studies (İzoğlu-Tok & Doğan, 2022 ; Tercan & Yıldız-Bıçakçı, 2018 ). In Tercan and Yıldız-Bıçakçı ( 2018 ) qualitative study, parents emphasized the challenges their children encountered during toilet routines and the dressing process. It was also observed that close relatives often described the child as “unskillful” during early childhood. Consequently, challenges associated with self-care skills should be considered when developing the item pool for an assessment tool.

Our study revealed that children encountered difficulties with perception after age three. According to parents, these challenges were related to visual and auditory stimuli. Previous research on children at risk for or diagnosed with SLD has also underscored the significance of perception skills. Some studies have focused on difficulties in color and shape perception, while others have addressed challenges with numbers (Aunio et al., 2021 ; Hellstrand et al., 2020 ; Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ). Additional research has highlighted challenges in letter knowledge, speech perception, and following instructions (Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ; Snowling et al., 2019 ). In our study, parents did not report difficulties with letter knowledge. This may be influenced by the prevailing belief in Turkey that children should not learn letters before formal education begins. However, in the literature, visual perception is connected with reading difficulties and phonological awareness (Baluoti et al., 2012 ; Frostig, 1972 ). The phonological approach posits that children diagnosed with learning disabilities have trouble recognizing and manipulating phonemes in speech and making letter-sound matches during early phases (Wolf, 2017 , p. 173). Therefore, perception skills play a crucial role in the learning process. Thus, we suggest that challenges related to perception should be included in any assessment tool developed on this topic.

Our results also showed that children had significant escalation in self-regulation difficulties during the school period. Parents and teachers reported that children struggled with planning and maintaining the organization of their notebooks, which often required external audits. This finding aligns with findings from other studies in the literature (Tercan & Yıldız-Bıçakçı, 2018 ; Thompson et al., 2015 ). A thorough review makes it clear that challenges in this particular area are crucial and, therefore, should be included in the item pool for early identification of SLD.

Moreover, our study has demonstrated that children face challenges with paying attention to games or tasks from preschool onwards, as reported by both parents and teachers. This observation aligns with findings from previous research, where children exhibited difficulties in initiating, maintaining, or completing activities or tasks (Firat & Bildiren, 2024 ; Squarza et al., 2016 ; Tercan & Yıldız-Bıçakçı, 2018 ). Our findings indicate that parents and teachers believe that children could achieve any task if they were able to focus their attention. Consequently, problems related to attention could be mistakenly conflated with other difficulties. A common dilemma faced by parents is discerning whether the challenges with attention are a result of learning difficulties or if the inability to complete tasks stems from inherent attention issues. As such, our analysis suggests that difficulties in various domains are often attributed to an overarching issue of attention deficit by both parents and teachers.

In the context of diagnoses accompanying SLD, attention deficiency is commonly identified (Araz Altay & Gorker, 2017 ; Squarza et al., 2016 ). Thus, while attention is a necessary condition for any learning activity, it is not sufficient for diagnosing the early symptoms of SLD (Learning Disabilities Association, 2001 ). Assessing learning disabilities based solely on attention can risk misidentification as Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), another neurodevelopmental disorder (APA, 2013 ). Therefore, challenges related to attention should be considered alongside other difficulties when developing an assessment tool.

Our results also indicated that children have faced difficulties with memory recall since preschool, a symptom corroborated by previous research (Bonti et al., 2021 ). Studies have demonstrated a significant correlation between memory deficits and learning challenges, particularly in reading and mathematics (Mammarella et al., 2018 ; Moll et al., 2016 ; Peng et al., 2018 ). For instance, Moll et al. ( 2016 ) found that verbal memory deficits are linked to disorders in reading and mathematics, while visuospatial memory impairments are specifically associated with mathematics disorders. Although our study primarily relied on reports from parents and teachers, thus lacking detailed data on memory, the recurring theme of memory challenges emphasizes its importance. According to the information processing approach, memory plays a crucial role in learning, further highlighting memory as a key symptom to consider when identifying children at risk for SLD (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974 ). This underscores the necessity of including memory-related difficulties in the item pool for an assessment tool aimed at early detection of SLD.

Our findings showed that children have shown difficulty with location-orientation skills after age three, a challenge highlighted in previous studies (Açıkgöz, 2019 ; İzoğlu-Tok & Doğan, 2022 ). Research into the causes of SLD points to communication issues between the brain hemispheres, particularly noting that problems in the right hemisphere can impede the acquisition of directional concepts (Silver, 1989 ; Vellutino, 1987 ). Therefore, this skill is essential for inclusion in the item pool.

After preschool, parents reported that their children exerted more effort to learn, exhibited reluctance to attend school, and could only advance to a certain level of difficulty in other areas. We interpreted these behaviors as outcomes of the cumulative difficulties experienced across all areas. For example, an increased effort to learn may stem from perception challenges (Karakoç, 2020 ). The DSM-5 also points out a decline in academic performance as a distinguishing feature of SLD from other neurodevelopmental disorders (APA, 2013 ), suggesting that children may need to work harder to achieve the same performance level as their peers in early stages. These indicators should, therefore, enhance the comprehensibility of the item pool.

Our findings underscore that motivation is a critical early symptom in the developmental process, especially post-preschool. Previous research has identified a lack of motivation as an early indicator of SLD (Firat & Bildiren, 2024 ; Pesova et al., 2014 ). The decrease in motivation during the school period may be attributed to ongoing difficulties. Since strong motivation and a positive self-image are essential for learning, challenges in this domain can significantly obstruct educational progress (Aro & Ahonen, 2011 ). Pesova et al. ( 2014 ) observed that many students with SLD often remain unnoticed for extended periods, further complicating their learning, motivation, and confidence. Thus, early detection is vital. Accordingly, challenges related to motivation should be included in the item pool of any assessment tool designed to identify children within the risk group.

According to our research, difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics become evident during the school period, as specified in the DSM-5 (APA, 2013 ). Additionally, similar challenges have been recognized as early symptoms in previous literature (Hellstrand et al., 2020 ; Navarro Soria et al., 2020 ; Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ).

Reading has been the most extensively studied area (Ozernov-Palchik et al., 2017 ; Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ; Snowling et al., 2019 ) as it represents the most common difficulty associated with SLD (APA, 2013 ). Parents and teachers in our study reported that children faced challenges with reading comprehension, letter mixing, slow reading, frequent reading errors, and reluctance to read. Partanen and Siegel ( 2014 ) found that children at risk of reading difficulties in kindergarten scored lower in word and letter recognition, phonological processing, and rapid naming compared to their peers not at risk. Unlike other studies, our research did not identify challenges in early literacy skills, such as phonological awareness and letter knowledge, among preschool children. This discrepancy may be attributed to the Turkish curriculum, which discourages the teaching of reading and writing, including letter introduction, before formal education begins (Ministry of National Education, 2013 ). Hence, it's likely that parents did not recognize their children’s difficulties in this area as notable challenges during the preschool period. Apart from reluctance to read, all other difficulties align with the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria (APA, 2013 ), suggesting that reluctance to read may stem from underlying challenges.

One teacher we interviewed suggested revising the curriculum, especially regarding the teaching of certain letters, such as'b' and'd'. In Turkish, each sound corresponds to a letter, and when teaching reading, letters are introduced in groups. For example, the third group includes six letters ('ö','r','ı','d','s','b'), taught consecutively, placing'b' and'd' close together, which can confuse many children. This curricular approach may influence teachers' perceptions of these issues as early symptoms of SLD in Turkey.

Challenges in writing and mathematics are consistent with DSM-5 diagnostic criteria and existing literature (APA, 2013 ; Fırat & Erdem, 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). Fırat and Erdem ( 2020 ) found that a significant portion of students who struggled with mathematics in the 1st grade continued to face challenges in the 4th grade, including issues with rhythmic counting, concept comprehension, problem-solving, number knowledge, and making comparisons. Mathematics skills are often less emphasized compared to literacy skills in early education. Thus, difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics should be integral to the item pool for early SLD detection.

A significant finding from our study is the progressive increase in difficulties experienced by children at risk for SLD, which closely follows the critical stages of their development. Initially, parents noted early symptoms in language and communication skills, identifying developmental language disorders and language skill difficulties as potential indicators of future SLD (Quiroga Bernardos et al., 2022 ; Thompson et al., 2015 ; van Viersen et al., 2017 , 2018 ).

We observed that language development difficulties became evident in social settings, potentially impacting children's social development (Sakellariou et al., 2020 ). Consequently, social-emotional development challenges may arise following difficulties in language and communication. Socialization introduces environments where motor skills are actively utilized, making differences in motor development noticeable as children engage with their surroundings. Similarly, parents did not perceive challenges in perception, attention, and memory as significant until entering the first grade. These early developmental symptoms can influence academic performance later on.

Our study uncovered developmental symptoms across multiple areas at early life stages, suggesting that accumulating difficulties prevent children from realizing their full potential. This accumulation leads to diminished motivation and self-esteem, driving children towards invisibility-a phenomenon we described as a negative self-concept.

Parents and teachers reported developmental difficulties early on, noting that foundational challenges expanded as new difficulties emerged. We depicted this progression as a pyramid, illustrating the Matthew effect—where initial disadvantages lead to compounded challenges, echoing the adage "the rich get richer, and the poor get poorer" (Gladwell, 2008 ). This effect, evident in both reading and mathematics, highlights the escalating nature of difficulties in development (Flores et al., 2022 ; Ozernov-Palchik et al., 2017 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ).

Analyzing these challenges, we noted the influence of the developmental model, which suggests a complex interplay of factors in a child's development. Before facing academic challenges, children experience difficulties in multiple developmental areas, underlining the potential long-term impact on learning behaviors (Kass & Maddux, 2005 ).

Theories from Piaget, Vygotsky, and others highlight critical periods in development. Observations from parents and teachers suggest that learning difficulties are often perceived as delays in achieving expected milestones. For instance, a delay in language development can affect social interactions, emphasizing the importance of recognizing and addressing challenges early. In Turkey, regulations emphasize early intervention for children with diverse needs (Decree-Law No. 573, 1997). However, SLD diagnoses typically occur after the first grade, underscoring the need for earlier assessment and intervention tools.

This study has provided researchers with a crucial item pool sample, facilitating the development of comprehensive screening tools tailored to various age groups (0–3, 3–6, and school age). Collaboration with families, educators, and health professionals ensures the validity and reliability of these tools across different populations. Moreover, the research contributes to expert and educator training, offering sessions on early sign recognition across multiple developmental domains. By identifying specific areas of concern like language, communication and social-emotional skills, the study informs the creation of early intervention programs. Advocating for the integration of screening and intervention protocols into educational systems, including kindergartens and primary schools, underscores the importance of early support for children at risk of SLD. This research sheds light on the needs of children from infancy, informing policymakers and education officials. Longitudinal tracking of children with difficulties ensures ongoing assessment and progress monitoring, empowering families and educators to intervene early and improve developmental outcomes and educational success for affected children.

The exploration of early developmental challenges among children diagnosed with SLD presented in this study illuminates the multifaceted nature of this condition and underscores the critical importance of early identification and intervention. Through qualitative interviews with parents and teachers, a comprehensive item pool was established, delineating difficulties across various developmental domains from infancy through primary school. The findings highlight that challenges in language and communication emerge as early as infancy, followed by social-emotional, motor, perceptual, attentional, self-regulatory, memory, and academic difficulties during subsequent developmental stages. The study's thorough examination not only contributes to the existing literature on early symptoms of SLD but also emphasizes the necessity of integrating these findings into assessment tools for timely identification and intervention. By elucidating the progression of challenges experienced by children at risk for SLD, this research underscores the cumulative impact of developmental difficulties and advocates for proactive measures to support affected children's holistic development. Moreover, the study's insights hold significant implications for practitioners and policymakers, emphasizing the imperative of early intervention strategies aligned with the developmental needs of children with SLD, ultimately fostering their optimal growth and learning outcomes.

Limitations

This study primarily examined the past observations of teachers and parents. Additionally, it was confined to the research questions formulated by the researchers, which encompass information about the children's preschool and pre-diagnosis school period. A notable limitation of this research is the potential variance in the levels of perception and expression skills among participants in the study group.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Code availability

The code conducted from the findings of this study is available on request from the corresponding author. The code is not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to the children, parents, and teachers who generously shared their experiences and time with us. Additionally, a heartfelt thank you to our colleagues for their valuable contributions.

Open access funding provided by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK). The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

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Department of Child Development, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Kırşehir, Turkey

Aslı İzoğlu-Tok

Department of Child Development, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Türkiye

Aslı İzoğlu-Tok & Özcan Doğan

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1st author: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, writing– original draft, visualization, validation.

2nd author: visualization, supervision, writing– review & editing.

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Correspondence to Aslı İzoğlu-Tok .

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Ethics approval was obtained from Hacettepe University Clinical Research Ethics Committee (KA-19141), along with administrative permissions from the Turkish Ministry of National Education (MoNE). The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

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İzoğlu-Tok, A., Doğan, Ö. Preliminary developmental challenges of children at risk for specific learning disabilities: Insights from parents and teachers—a qualitative study. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06231-x

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Accepted : 03 June 2024

Published : 26 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06231-x

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