sociology term paper examples

How To Write A Sociology Research Paper Outline: Easy Guide With Template

Table of contents

• 1 What Is A Sociology Research Paper?
• 2 Sociology Paper Format
• 3 Structure of the Sociology Paper
• 4 Possible Sociology Paper Topics
• 5.1 Sociology Research Paper Outline Example
• 6 Sociology Research Paper Example

Writing a sociology research paper is mandatory in many universities and school classes, where students must properly present a relevant topic chosen with supporting evidence, exhaustive research, and new ways of understanding or explaining some author’s ideas. This type of paper is very common among political science majors and classes but can be assigned to almost every subject.

Learn about the key elements of a sociological paper and how to write an excellent piece.

Sociology papers require a certain structure and format to introduce the topic and key points of the research according to academic requirements. For those students struggling with this type of assignment, the following article will share some light on how to write a sociology research paper and create a sociology research paper outline, among other crucial points that must be addressed to design and write an outstanding piece.

With useful data about this common research paper, including topic ideas and a detailed outline, this guide will come in handy for all students and writers in need of writing an academic-worthy sociology paper.

What Is A Sociology Research Paper?

A sociology research paper is a specially written composition that showcases the writer’s knowledge on one or more sociology topics. Writing in sociology requires a certain level of knowledge and skills, such as critical thinking and cohesive writing, to be worthy of great academic recognition.

Furthermore, writing sociology papers have to follow a research paper type of structure to ensure the hypothesis and the rest of the ideas introduced in the research can be properly read and understood by teachers, peers, and readers in general.

Sociology research papers are commonly written following the format used in reports and are based on interviews, data, and text analysis. Writing a sociology paper requires students to perform unique research on a relevant topic (including the appropriate bibliography and different sources used such as books, websites, scientific journals, etc.), test a question or hypothesis that the paper will try to prove or deny, compare different sociologist’s points of view and how/why they state certain sayings and data, among other critical points.

A research paper in sociology also needs to apply the topic of current events, at least in some parts of the piece, in which writers must apply the theory to today’s scenarios. In addition to this, sociology research requires students to perform some kind of field research such as interviews, observational and participant research, and others.

Sociology research papers require a deep understanding of the subject and the ability to gather information from multiple sources. Therefore, many students seek help from experienced online essay writers to guide them through the research process and craft a compelling paper. With the help of a professional essay writer, students can craft a comprehensive sociology research paper outline to ensure they cover all the relevant points.

After explaining what this type of paper consists of, it is time to dive into one of the most searched questions online, “What format are sociology papers written in?”. Below you can find a detailed paragraph with all the information necessary.

Sociology Paper Format

A sociology paper format follows some standard requirements that can be seen on other types of papers as well. The format commonly used in college and other academic institutions consists of an appropriate citation style, which many professors ask for in the traditional APA format, but others can also require students to write in ASA style (very similar to APA, and the main difference is how you write the author’s name).

The citation is one of the major parts of any sociological research paper that needs to be understood perfectly and used according to the rules established by it. Failing to present a cohesive and correct citing format is very likely to cause the failure of the assignment.

As for the visual part of the paper, a neat and professional font is called for, and generally, the standard sociology paper outline is written in Times New Roman font (12pt and double spaced) with at least 1 inch of margin on both sides. If your professor did not specify which sociology format to use, it is safe to say that this one will be just fine for your delivery.

Sociology papers have a specific structure, just like other research pieces, which consist of an introduction , a body with respective paragraphs for each new idea, and a research conclusion . In the point below, you can find a detailed sociology research paper outline to help you write your statement as smoothly and professionally as possible.

Structure of the Sociology Paper

A traditional sociology research paper outline is based on a few key points that help present and develop the information and the writer’s skills properly. Below is a sociology research paper outline to start designing your project according to the standard requirements.

• Introduction. In this first part, you should state the question or problem to be solved during the article. Including a hypothesis and supporting the claim relevant to the chosen field is recommended.
• Literature review. Including the literature review is essential to a sociology research paper outline to present the authors and information used.
• Methodology. A traditional outline for a sociology research paper includes the methodology used, in which writers should explain how they approach their research and the methods used. It gives credibility to their work and makes it more professional.
• Outcomes & findings. Sociological research papers must include, after the methodology, the outcomes and findings to provide readers with a glimpse of what your paper resulted in. Graphics and tables are highly encouraged to use on this part.
• Discussion. The discussion part of a sociological paper serves as an overall review of the research, how difficult it was, and what can be improved.
• Conclusion. Finally, to close your sociology research paper outline, briefly mention the results obtained and do the last paragraph with the writer’s final words on the topic.
• Bibliography. The bibliography should be the last page (or pages) included in the article but in different sheets than the paper (this means, if you finished your article in the middle of the page, the bibliography should start on a new separate one), in which sources must be cited according to the style chosen (APA, ASA, etc.).

This sociology research paper outline serves as a great guide for those who want to properly present a sociological piece worthy of academic recognition. Furthermore, to achieve a good grade, it is essential to choose a great topic.

Below you can find some sociology paper topics to help you decide how to begin writing yours.

Possible Sociology Paper Topics

To present a quality piece, choosing a relevant topic inside the sociological field is essential. Here you can find unique sociology research paper topics that will make a great presentation.

• Relationship Between Race and Class
• How Ethnicity Affects Education
• How Women Are Presented By The Media
• Sexuality And Television
• Youth And Technology: A Revision To Social Media
• Technology vs. Food: Who Comes First?
• How The Cinema Encourages Unreachable Standards
• Adolescence And Sex
• How Men And Women Are Treated Different In The Workplace
• Anti-vaccination: A Civil Right Or Violation?

These sociology paper topics will serve as a starting point where students can conduct their own research and find their desired approach. Furthermore, these topics can be studied in various decades, which adds more value and data to the paper.

Writing a Great Sociology Research Paper Outline

If you’re searching for how to write a sociology research paper, this part will come in handy. A good sociology research paper must properly introduce the topic chosen while presenting supporting evidence, the methodology used, and the sources investigated, and to reach this level of academic excellence, the following information will provide a great starting point.

Three main sociology research paper outlines serve similar roles but differ in a few things. The traditional outline utilizes Roman numerals to itemize sections and formats the sub-headings with capital letters, later using Arabic numerals for the next layer. This one is great for those who already have an idea of what they’ll write about.

The second sample is the post-draft outline, where writers mix their innovative ideas and the actual paper’s outline. This second type of draft is ideal for those with a few semi-assembled ideas that need to be developed around the paper’s main idea. Naturally, a student will end up finding their way through the research and structuring the piece smoothly while writing it.

Lastly, the third type of outline is referred to as conceptual outline and serves as a visual representation of the text written. Similar to a conceptual map, this outline used big rectangles that include the key topics or headings of the paper, as well as circles that represent the sources used to support those headings. This one is perfect for those who need to visually see their paper assembled, and it can also be used to see which ideas need further development or supporting evidence.

Furthermore, to write a great sociology paper, the following tips will be of great help.

• Introduction. An eye-catching introduction calls for an unknown or relevant fact that captivates the reader’s attention. Apart from conducting excellent research, students worthy of the highest academic score are those able to present the information properly and in a way that the audience will be interested in reading.
• Body. The paragraphs presented must be written attractively, to make readers want to know more. It is important to explain theories and add supporting evidence to back up your sayings and ideas; empirical data is highly recommended to be added to give the research paper more depth and physical recognition. A great method is to start a paragraph presenting an idea or theory, develop the paragraph with supporting evidence and close it with findings or results. This way, readers can easily understand the idea and comprehend what you want to portray.
• Conclusion. For the conclusion, it is highly important, to sum up the key points presented in the sociology research paper, and after doing so, professors always recommend adding further readings or suggested bibliography to help readers who are interested in continuing their education on the topic just read.

No matter the method you choose to plan out your sociological papers, you’ll need to cover a few bases of how to assemble your final draft. If you’re stuck on where to begin your work, you can always buy sociology research paper from professional writers. Many students go to the pros to shore up their grades and make time when deadlines become overwhelming. If you do it independently, double-check your assignment’s requirements and fit them into the following sections.

Sociology Research Paper Outline Example

The following sociology research paper outline example will serve as an excellent guide and template which students can customize to fit their topics and key points. The outline above follows the topic “How Women Are Presented By The Media”.

Sociology Research Paper Example

PapersOwl website is an excellent resource if you’re looking for more detailed examples of sociology research papers. We provide a wide range of sample research papers that can serve as a guide and template for your own work.

“Changing Demographics Customer Service to Millennials” Example

Students who structure their sociological papers before conducting in-depth research are more likely to succeed. This happens because it is easier and more efficient to research specific key points rather than diving into the topic without knowing how to approach it or presenting the information, data, statistics, and others found.

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How to Write a Sociology Term Paper: Key Recommendations and 150 Topic Examples

Table of contents.

Sociology Term Paper: Basic Notions and Types of the Paper Sociology Paper Formatting The Structure of a Flawless Sociology Term Paper Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Sociology Term Paper Preparatory Stage Sociology Term Paper Outline Sociology Paper Writing Proofreading and Editing the First Draft Sociology Term Paper Topics: How to Make the Right Decision Sociology Term Paper on Family Term Paper Topics: Crime and Sociology Term Paper Ideas for Theory of Sociology Race and Ethnicity Sociology Term Paper Topics Medical Sociology Term Paper Topics Urban Sociology Term Paper Topics Conclusion

If you study Sociology, there is no way you will succeed without term paper writing. It is one of the mandatory types of academic assignments, where students should present their awareness of the field and the excellence of their writing skills. Even though the variety of sociology topics is impressive, the learner should make maximum effort to detect the most sensitive aspect that will help to showcase excellent knowledge, profound research skills, and flawless competence. 

As sociology term paper is a subtype of academic writing, it requires certain structure, format, and other elements. Therefore, working on the project, you should pay attention not only to the content of the essay but also to its form. Keep reading the article to find effective recommendations and tips that will give you a better understanding of how to set up a sociology term paper and succeed with its writing. 

Sociology Term Paper: Basic Notions and Types of the Paper

Before writing a sociology term paper, you should first find out the main peculiarities of the essay type. Pay due attention to the type of paper required, its structure, and formatting to make sure your final draft will meet the academic requirements. Once you are settled with the specifications of the work, you are ready to proceed to its writing. 

First of all, it is indispensable to remember that a sociology term paper is a scientific essay that is aimed at the analysis of a specific phenomenon. The main task of the writer is to provide readers with relevant information on a certain topic. Comprehensive analysis of relevant sources, including the scientific world, interviews, articles, and infographics, will help you make a reasonable thesis statement and prove your perspective.

What are the most critical characteristics of a successful sociology term paper? Consistency, relevance, and efficiency are the factors that will make your work relevant and worth attention. Students working on similar assignments should perform unique research on a specified topic, present a few points of view on the issue and make solid statements that will either prove or deny a selected perspective. 

Choosing a sociology term paper topic, one should make sure it is meaningful and up-to-date. Take your time to analyze the current situation, single out the most critical aspects and pick the one you want to talk about. At the same time, it is critical to note that the student should also be aware of different ideas on the same theme. Thus, you will have to work hard to analyze what famous scholars think and write about the aspect you want to discuss. 

Finally working on a sociology term paper, you should mind numerous types of data analysis that can be applied, including:

• Quantitative
• Ethnographic

Keep reading the article to find more information on the peculiarities of essay creation. Additionally, check out for impressive sociology term paper ideas that will advance the quality of your writing to a new level and will help you thrive with every single aspect of the writing. 

Sociology Paper Formatting

The overwhelming majority of college students are aware of the basic formatting styles that are used for different types of academic essays. Talking about sociology term papers, one should focus on the standard requirements applied to most papers. In most instances, essays on sociology are formatted in accordance with the requirements of the APA format:

• Times New Romans, 12pt
• Double-spaced
• 1-inch margin

Additionally, you should double-check the specific requirements mentioned by the professor so that you comply with them. Stick to the citation format predetermined by the selected formatting style. Keep in mind that if you fail with this aspect of your sociology term paper writing, you risk getting a poor-quality text.

The Structure of a Flawless Sociology Term Paper

The student should mind the structure of the sociology term paper, as it will differ from other types of the academic world. A standard outline of the sociological research will include eight critical parts, each of them representing a meaningful aspect of the work. 

Remember that the structure of the sociology term paper may predetermine the scholarly significance of the essay and influence the mark you get for the work. Follow simple guidelines and stick to the rules that will guide you to the desired result. Here are the main constituents of a coherent and well-structured paper on sociology. 

Once you have selected a sociology term paper topic, you are ready to proceed to the analysis of the field, research, and conclusion-making. At this point, you should understand that although the abstract is the first part of the term paper, it should be the last to work on. This part of the work highlights the key ideas and perspectives presented in the essay. In short, it is a consistent and quick review of the term paper. 

Introduction

Interesting, appealing, and relevant are the words that should describe the introductory part of the Sociology term paper. The student should start with the question or problem under analysis. The hypothesis should also be included, followed by the relevant and meaningful claim, which will be further discussed. 

Literature Review

There is no way a college student comes up with a relevant sociology term paper without analyzing scientific works and articles. Therefore, the literature review is a must, which will contribute to the relevance of the work. 

Methodology

Next, you should provide readers with information about the methodology used for the achievement of the desired results. What instruments did you use to prove your perspective? What methods did you use to do research? Stay specific to add to the credibility of the paper and make it even more scholarly and influential. 

Outcomes and Findings

Infographics, tables, and other options should be actively used in this part of the paper. The main task here is to provide readers with information about the results of your research. Mention all the conclusions you made during the work and the aspects you wanted to highlight. 

This part of the work serves as a review of the research. Emphasize the difficulties and problems you faced during the process, specifying its weak and strong points, as well as the aspects that can be improved or changed. 

The final paragraph should not include any new information but rather sum up the facts that were mentioned in the previous parts. Reiterate the introductory passage, mention the results of the research, and comment on the topic under discussion. 

Bibliography

The last page of the term paper on sociology is a bibliography that should include detailed and properly formatted information about all the books, articles, and other works used in the essay. 

Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Sociology Term Paper

Once you are aware of the main specifications and peculiarities of the Sociology term paper, you are ready to proceed to the next stage. Following the recommendations specified below, you will get a chance to opt for the best sociology term paper topic, create a well-structured outline and write a meaningful and credible essay.  

Preparatory Stage

The first and most significant point during the preparatory stage is the analysis of valid data sources and the selection of the sociology term paper topic. If you succeed with these undertakings, you advance your chances to thrive with essay creation. 

Take your time to research and analyze the available information, singling out one specific aspect you want to discuss in your work. Narrow down a broad theme and formulate a topic that will be relevant, interesting, and appealing. Avoid trivial themes that are widely discussed, as it will be challenging for you to find authentic data and facts that will be new to readers. 

Sociology Term Paper Outline

The next step of your writing process is creating the outline. In fact, it is a guidebook to flawless essay writing. Apart from the structural parts typical for the Sociology term paper, the student should not forget about the standard division of the text into the introduction, body, and conclusion. Check out a sample outline, which will give you a better understanding of what is expected from you. 

Introduction:

• State the topic of your work.
• Highlight the gaps in the analysis of the theme, which will prove the significance of your work.
• Include a thesis statement to emphasize your perspective on the topic. 
• Start every paragraph with a new idea. 
• Make sure your passages are connected. 
• The more arguments you have on the topic, the more paragraphs you will have to include in the work. 

Conclusion:

• Reiterate the thesis statement. 
• Point out the aspects that can be analyzed and studied in the future. 

Sociology Paper Writing

Are you done with the paper outline? Follow the guidelines to create a coherent and consistent paper that meets all the requirements. Mind the formatting and citation rules, use only relevant data sources and stay specific discussing a certain social phenomenon.

Proofreading and Editing the First Draft

Once your first draft is ready, you should take a few minutes to rest. Then, read the paper once again to detect minor typos and mistakes in the text. Eliminate any inaccuracies and errors that can affect the quality of the work. 

Sociology Term Paper Topics: How to Make the Right Decision

As it has already been mentioned before, striving to create an influential paper on Sociology, the student should make maximum effort to select a relevant and up-to-date theme. Browsing the web, you are likely to detect an unlimited variety of good topics for a sociology term paper. However, you should stay creative to select the one that seems the most relevant and meaningful. 

Do you feel lost among so many sociology research topics? It is the right time to get settled. Check out an extensive list of valid topics that will inspire you and help you detect the aspect you want to discuss.  

At this point, it is fundamental to mention that the choice of topics may be immense, but the principles of its selection remain the same. So, focus on the relevant issues that are important and appealing to you. Choose themes that are narrow, precise, and definite. 

Sociology Term Paper on Family

• The Role of Family in the Development of the Child’s Personality
• Needs and Requirements of the Up-to-Date Family
• Responsible Children: The Role of Parents in Their Development
• Single Parenting and Its Impact on the Future Society
• The Importance of Child Support
• The Outcomes of Divorce on the Children and Their Future Lives
• The Way Infant Mortality Affects a Family
• Religion and Nationality-Related Problems in Modern Families
• Parental Neglect: Problems Caused by the Childhood Trauma
• Domestic Violence and Its Impact on the Future Life of a Child
• Homosexual Marriages: Peculiarities and Problems
• The Role of Every Parent in the Family
• Matriarchy in the Family and the Psychological Health of a Child
• Family Therapy Sessions: Advantages and Downsides
• Infidelity in Marriage: Most Common Reasons
• The Social Difference between Small and Large Families
• The Increase of the Divorce Rate in Recent Years
• Financial Responsibility of a Family: Key Steps to Its Achievement
• Siblings and Their Prominence 
• Depression in a Family Member: Ways to Eliminate the Problem
• Homeschooling: Social Downsides for the Child
• Effective Ways for Parents to Help Their Kids Deal with Psychological Traumas
• Perfect Family: Does It Exist?
• Importance of Mutual Understanding and Help in Family
• The Impact of Formal Education on the Contemporary Family

Term Paper Topics: Crime and Sociology

• Age and Crime: Is There a Link Between Them?
• Crimes Triggered by Substance Abuse
• Childhood Sexual Abuse as a Reason for Teenage Crimes
• Corporate Crime as a Growing Tendency
• The Specifications of the Court Systems in Various Countries
• Cybercrimes: Causes, Effects and Outcomes
• The Concept of the Natural Legal Crime
• Delinquent Subcultures and Their Impact on the Modern Communities
• Criminal Justice System: Its Pros and Cons
• Criminology Research Methods: The Way They Changed over the Years
• Life Course Theory of Crime
• Organized Crime and Punishment
• Illegal Migration and Its Impact on the Crime Rate
• Effective Ways of Youth Crime Prevention
• Psychological Help for Perspective Criminals
• How to Prevent the Increase of the Crime Rate: Tips and Guidelines
• Key Characteristics of Crime and Criminal
• Corporate Crimes: Who Are to Respond?
• Victimless Crime: When Can the Notion Be Applied?
• Capital Punishment and the Justice System
• Aggressive Behavior and Crime: The Way They Are Related
• Psychological Effects of Imprisonment
• Legal Gun Possession and Crime Rate
• Integrating Civil Laws and Decreased Crime Rates
• Criminal Justice System and Race

Read also : Criminal justice term paper topics you may like

Term Paper Ideas for Theory of Sociology

• Sociology: Peculiarities of the Study
• Writing a Sociological Paper: How to Select the Best Topic
• The Role of Sociology in Various Aspects of Human Lives
• Basic Notions of Sociology
• The History of Sociology Development
• Sociological Research and Its Methods
• Environmental Sociology: Features and Peculiarities
• Sociology of Gender, Race, and Ethnical Group
• Sociology and Media: The Connection between the Two
• Methods and Instruments Used for Sociological Research
• Types of Sociological Research
• Top 5 Sociology-Related Myths of All Times
• Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality as the Core Elements of Sociology as a Study
• Class Inequalities as the Basic Topic of Sociological Researches
• Sociological Perspective on the Gender Inequality
• Sociology of Nationality: Why Is It Fundamental to Discuss?
• Human Rights and Sociology: How Are the Notions Related?
• Sociology of Gender: The Up-to-Date Issue
• Branches of Sociology and Their Role in the Modern Society
• Racial, Gender and Nationality Discrimination: The Problems Worth Discussion
• Social Movements and Their Impact on the Advancement of the Study
• Various Phases of Sociology Development
• Social Learning Theory and Its Prominence for Modern People
• Conflict Perspective as the Main Topic of the Recent Years
• Sociological Theories and Their Role in the Study

Race and Ethnicity Sociology Term Paper Topics

• Globalization and Ethnicity: The Connection between the Notions
• Gender-Related Problems in the Modern Society
• The Link between Ethnicity and Substance Abuse
• Ethnicity and Poverty: Is There a Link?
• Race and Ethnicity: What Is the Difference?
• Migration and Unemployment Caused by Ethnicity-Related Issues
• Ethnicity and Education Perspectives
• 21st-Century Ethnicity and Gender Problems
• Migration: Main Causes and Consequences
• Prejudice Based on Religion, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity
• The History of Racial Discrimination
• The Culture, Religion, and Ethnicity of the Chinese 
• Ethnicity: Social, Cultural, and Historical Aspects
• Integration and Ethnicity: Various Aspects of the Question
• Psychological Perspective on Culture and Ethnicity
• Skin Color, Race and Ethnicity: Why Are They Important?
• Islam and Its Concept of Ethnicity and Religion
• Demographic Structure of the Up-to-Date Society
• Socioeconomic, Cultural, and Ethnical Context Influencing Human Wellbeing
• The Way Substance Abuse Is Related to Ethnicity
• Ethnicity and Specifications of the Education around the World
• Ethnicity and Racism: Key Differences and Similarities
• Basic Ethnicity Problems in the US
• The Impact of Race on the US History
• Health Care Inequality Caused by Racial and Ethnicity Issues

Read also: Great topics and writing tips for your anthropology term paper

Medical Sociology Term Paper Topics

• Challenges and Problems of Health Care in Urban Societies
• Preferential Treatment: Causes, Peculiarities, and Consequences
• The Attitude of the Society of Mental Health Patients
• The Instances of Medical Negligence in Different Countries
• The Cases of Sexual Harassment of Medical Staff on Patients
• The Perception of Female Doctors
• Rural Hospitals: The Challenges on the Medical System in the Areas
• Innovative Approaches to Mental Health Treatment
• Maternal Mortality Rate in Poor Countries
• Vaccination and the Attitude of Society to It
• Inequalities in Healthcare System: Preferred and Neglected Patients
• Effective Ways to Purify Water
• COVID-19 and Its Impact on Disabled People
• Air Pollution and Cancer: The Link between Notions
• Social Health Workers and Their Prominence for Different Types of Patients
• Postpartum Depression and Its Impact on the Interaction with the Community
• Euthanasia: Ethical Aspect of the Question
• Effective Ways to Contribute to the Care for the Elderly
• Top 10 Tips for Healthy Living
• Teenage Pregnancy and Abortion
• Effective Ways to Deal with Stress
• Immunization and the Attitude of Society to It
• Alcohol and Drug Abuse: The Problems Societies Suffer From
• The Main Cause of Fast Aging
• Obesity as the Aggravating Problem in the Modern Society

Urban Sociology Term Paper Topics

• Urban People and Their Aura
• The Innocence of the Villagers and Urban People Compared
• The Discrepancy in the Parenting Model of Urban and Rural People
• Money and Its Impact on the Mindset and Thinking Patterns of Urban People
• Social Media and Its Influence on the Lives and Development of Urban Kids
• The Role of Communities in Human Lives
• Urban Sociology: The Basics of the Study and Its Peculiarities
• Urban Poverty: Key Reasons and Outcomes
• Most Critical Urban Problems in the Developing Society
• Sociological Issues in Urban Life
• The Link Between Urban Health and Lifestyle
• Various Perspectives on Globalization
• Neighborhood Environment and Its Impact on the Human Wellbeing
• Neighborhood Context as a Reason for Aggression 
• The Impact of Community on the Self-Esteem
• The Basic Factors that Lead to the Drug Abuse
• Types of Neighborhood and Its Role in the Personality Growth and Development
• Community Change: Fundamental Factors to Mind
• Emotional and Psychological Disorders Caused by Community Attitude
• Neighborhood Effects: Problems and Issues Triggered by Them
• Social Status and Its Role in the Human Development
• Socioeconomic Status and Wellbeing of Youth
• The Impact of Place on the Emotional Health
• Advantages and Downsides of Urban Citizens
• Socioeconomic Status and Its Peculiarities

Following simple guidelines and effective tips writing a sociology term paper will be much easier. However, it is still indispensable to mind the peculiarities of the term paper as academic work and its requirements. Excellent formatting, perfect structure, profound research, and excellent grammar may be overwhelming for most learners, especially the ones who are short of time. 

Is there a way to succeed with a sociology term paper writing stress-free? We are always here to provide you with the best term paper writing services to help you with the most complicated assignments. Browse the website to learn more about the custom essay writing service and its peculiarities. Our writers know how to write a sociology term paper that will stand out from the crowd. Make sure you provide as many details and requirements as possible so that the final result will meet your expectations. 

No matter if you have problems choosing a relevant sociology research paper topic or struggle with one of the essay parts, qualified writers will give you a helping hand, so you can entrust your college success to them and focus on other projects. Contact the representatives of the support team to learn more about how to order your term paper and find answers to other questions.

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An term paper examples on sociology is a prosaic composition of a small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and obviously not claiming a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.

Some signs of sociology term paper:

• the presence of a specific topic or question. A work devoted to the analysis of a wide range of problems in biology, by definition, cannot be performed in the genre of sociology term paper topic.
• The term paper expresses individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue, in this case, on sociology and does not knowingly pretend to a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.
• As a rule, an essay suggests a new, subjectively colored word about something, such a work may have a philosophical, historical, biographical, journalistic, literary, critical, popular scientific or purely fiction character.
• in the content of an term paper samples on sociology , first of all, the author’s personality is assessed - his worldview, thoughts and feelings.

The goal of an term paper in sociology is to develop such skills as independent creative thinking and writing out your own thoughts.

Writing an term paper is extremely useful, because it allows the author to learn to clearly and correctly formulate thoughts, structure information, use basic concepts, highlight causal relationships, illustrate experience with relevant examples, and substantiate his conclusions.

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Sociology Research Paper

Last updated on: May 13, 2024

Sociology Research Papers: Format, Outline, and Topics

By: Barbara P.

Reviewed By:

Published on: Mar 26, 2024

Understanding sociology research papers can be tricky. Many people find them confusing and don't know where to start.

Not knowing how to structure your research paper or what topics to explore can be frustrating! But don't worry! In this blog, we're here to help you. We'll break down sociology research papers into easy-to-understand parts.

By the end, you'll feel confident and ready to tackle your sociology research paper. Let's get started!

On this Page

What is a Sociology Research Paper?

Among the many types of research papers , a sociology paper is a written document that explores different aspects of human societies. These research papers help us understand how people interact, behave, and organize themselves in groups. 

In this type of paper, researchers investigate social issues, relationships, and patterns by looking at real-life examples and data. They might study topics like family dynamics, education systems, or cultural norms to learn more about how society works. 

Sociology papers often ask questions about why things are the way they are and how they might change over time. They're important because they help us make sense of the world around us and address social challenges. 

The Optimal Sociology Paper Format

Here’s how you should format your sociology research paper:

A sociology paper typically follows standard citation requirements, similar to other academic papers. Professors often request the use of the APA (American Psychological Association) format, while others may prefer the ASA (American Sociological Association) style. 

Typically, sociology papers are formatted in: 

• Times New Roman font
• 12-point size
• Entire document should be double-spaced 
• Margins should be set to at least 1 inch on all sides. 

How to Structure a Sociology Research Paper?  

The sociology research paper outline may vary depending on the specific requirements of your assignment or the nature of your research. However, a general outline includes the following sections:

Introduction 

For the research paper introduction , you will begin by providing background information to give context to your research topic. This context helps readers understand the significance of your study. Following this, you will clearly state the main research question or hypothesis that guides your investigation. 

This serves as the focal point around which your research revolves. Moreover, you will explain the purpose of your study, articulating why your research is important and what you aim to achieve through your inquiry.

Typically, you will include your thesis statement at the end of your research paper’s introduction. 

Literature Review

In the literature review section, you will review existing research related to your topic. This involves summarizing relevant studies and theories that have been previously explored by scholars. 

By synthesizing existing knowledge, you aim to identify gaps in the literature, areas where further research is needed, or where your study contributes new insights. This critical examination of prior work forms the foundation which your result is built upon.

Theoretical Framework 

Your research will be guided by a sociological theory or theories that inform your study. In this section, you will choose the theoretical framework that best aligns with your research question and explain how it relates to your investigation. 

This theoretical foundation provides a lens through which you interpret your findings and understand the social phenomena under study.

Methodology

The methodology section outlines the approach and rationale for your study. Here, you describe the research design, whether qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both, and justify your choice. 

Additionally, you provide detailed information about your participants, including relevant demographic data. You also specify the methods and tools used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations. Finally, you describe the techniques you will employ to analyze the collected data.

Findings 

In the findings section, you present your research findings in a clear and organized manner. This involves presenting quantitative data using tables, graphs, or charts to enhance understanding. 

For qualitative data, you may include direct quotes or examples to illustrate key themes or patterns that emerged from your analysis.

Discussion 

Your research paper discussion section is where you interpret your results in relation to your research question and existing literature. Here, you analyze and interpret your findings, considering their implications for the field of sociology. 

Additionally, you acknowledge any limitations in your study and suggest areas for future research to address these limitations.

Now coming to the final section, the research paper conclusion is where you summarize the main findings of your study and restate their significance. You emphasize the importance of your research and its contribution to sociological knowledge, which reaffirms the value of your study.

Finally, in the references section, you cite all the research paper sources you used following a consistent citation style throughout. This ensures proper attribution of ideas and information borrowed from other scholars and preserves academic confidentiality.

Sociology Research Paper Examples

Take a look at these sociology paper examples. This will help you understand sociological papers better:

Sociology Research Paper Example PDF

If you want to expand your practical knowledge of sociology research more, you can read this sociology research paper on Generational Divide in India . 

For those who are interested in social science theories, you can read this well-received sociological theory research paper . 

Here is another sociology research paper on family for you to have a look at. 

Sociology Research Paper Topics

Take a look at the following sociology research paper ideas our experts have picked just for you: 

• Exploring the impact of algorithmic bias on social inequality in online platforms.
• Investigating the complexities of transnational migration and its effects on identity formation.
• Analyzing the intersection of disability studies and sociology in understanding social exclusion.
• Examining the role of environmental racism in shaping urban communities and public health outcomes.
• Understanding the cultural nuances of mental health stigma within immigrant populations.
• Investigating the social implications of artificial intelligence and automation on labor markets.
• Exploring the dynamics of food insecurity and its relationship to socioeconomic status.
• Analyzing the social construction of masculinity and its impact on mental health outcomes for men.
• Investigating the role of social movements in promoting environmental justice and sustainability.
• Understanding the complexities of reproductive rights and access to healthcare for marginalized communities.

In summary , writing a sociology research paper involves thorough planning, clear analysis, and thoughtful discussion of social issues. By following the format and guidelines outlined in this blog, you can write a good sociological research paper with ease. 

Also with the help of the sociology research paper topics we included, you can have it easy trying to figure out the research topic for your next sociology research project.  

If you find yourself needing help with your research paper, SharkPapers.com is here for you. As a trusted paper writing service online , our experts are dedicated to providing tailored assistance to meet your academic needs.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What are some good sociology research questions.

• How does social media usage influence self-esteem and body image perception among adolescents?
• What factors contribute to the persistence of gender wage gaps in the workplace?
• How does gentrification impact the social fabric and cultural identity of urban neighborhoods?
• What are the social and psychological effects of long-term unemployment on individuals and their families?
• How do cultural beliefs and practices shape attitudes towards mental health treatment in different societies?

What is a research project in sociology?

A research project in sociology is a structured investigation into social behaviors, patterns, and phenomena. It involves gathering and analyzing data to understand different aspects of human societies. These projects explore topics like family dynamics, cultural norms, inequality, and social change, using methods such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis.

Barbara has a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university and extensive experience working in the medical field. With her practical experience conducting research on various health issues, she is skilled in writing innovative papers on healthcare. Her many works have been published in multiple publications.

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Tips for Writing Analytical Sociology Papers

This document is intended as an additional resource for undergraduate students taking sociology courses at UW. It is not intended to replace instructions from your professors and TAs. In all cases follow course-specific assignment instructions, and consult your TA or professor if you have questions.

• DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!  You must cite all sources you use—not only for direct quotations, but also for data, for facts that are not common knowledge, and very importantly for ideas that are not your own.  The UW policy on academic honest explains what plagiarism is, but also the consequences for students found to have committed it: http://www.washington.edu/uaa/advising/help/academichonesty.php
• It is generally expected that you state your argument (usually called a "thesis statement") in the first couple paragraphs (preferably the first). For theory application papers, this would include mention of the theory or argument you are applying and the case or empirical phenomenon to which you are applying it.
• Introductions and conclusions are important: they are the first and last impression given to your readers. A good introduction summarizes what the author does in the paper, and sets up ("motivates") the analytical problem or question. It is sometimes referred to as a "roadmap" for the paper.  Some writers find it effective to present an interesting or controversial statement or a quote in the introduction to gain the reader's attention. However, you should make certain that the quote or information is actually relevant to your thesis (your main argument)!
• A good conclusion almost always restates the argument and the evidence brought to bear.  This is not a place to introduce new evidence or make new claims.  However, you might address unresolved issues, why we should care about the topic of the paper, directions for future research, etc.
• Once you have completed the paper, you should revisit the introduction and conclusion to make sure that they "match" each other, and that they reflect the argument you make in the body of the paper.
• Most analytical sociology assignments should not rely upon personal anecdotes, experiences, or opinions as "data" to make an argument.  This varies by assignment—for example, some ask you to incorporate personal experiences and opinions.  If you are unsure, check with your instructor or TA.
• It is considered appropriate to use subject headers in longer analytical papers, as it helps guide the reader and organize your argument.
• Unless you are instructed otherwise, it can be helpful to write analytical papers in first person (using "I statements"): this helps you avoid passive constructions, wordiness, and confusion about voice (who is arguing what).  If your instructor prefers that you avoid the first person in your papers, you can write "This paper argues…" in order to distinguish your voice from that of the authors/theories/articles you discuss.
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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Examples

Free Sociology Paper Samples

Negative impacts of media.

The world is coming closer to a global village, strongly influenced by media. There are many forms of media. Mass media is a communication whether written, broadcast, or spoken that reaches a large audience, has a significant influence in modern culture all over the world, particularly in America. On the other hand in social media which can be defined as...

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Impact of Social Media on Body Image Research Paper

It is crucial to note some of the ways that social media influence the perception of body image considering the high rate of online presence of young adults, especially women and their dependency on social media. Media exposure on Cosmetic surgery, where the surgery features in advertising and reality TV shows, play an outsized role in influencing young adults particularly,...

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Gender and Genocide

Introduction Human engage in conflicts which are usually resolved by dialogue or otherwise escalate to unprecedented war levels. Prolonged wars and conflicts have negative effects on the people involved directly or indirectly (Bock, 2008). The mass killings and persecution of vulnerable persons constitutes to genocide. The 1948 Geneva convention after the second world war described genocide as mass killing of...

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Global Citizenship

During the past years, students have had interests in international studies and this concept has expanded from just a national focus to one of a global focus on civic education with students wanting to engage in responsibilities extended beyond their national boarder. The idea of global citizenship is not new and it bases its origin to ancient Greece although the...

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Cross-Cultural Communications: The Difference in Nonverbal Behaviors between Spaniards and Americans

Abstract Communication entails non-verbal cues in addition to exchange of words (Verbal). The main purpose of communication is to pass information from one person to another. However, people experience different barriers such as language and poor understanding of gestures. In this paper, the communication across different cultures will be studied. The cultures of interests are Spaniards and Americans. The common...

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Negative Impact of Media

The influence of media on the world is currently bringing it closer to becoming a global village. Media has many forms making it more influential in the world. Various types of media include broadcast, spoken or written as long as it can reach a broad audience making it have a significant influence in the world's modern culture. Social media involves...

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Informative Speech about Friendship

The common task of the course of public speaking is to prepare the informative speech about friendship. But sometimes it seems that everything that could be said about friendship was already said by someone else. The definition of friendship, the comparison of love and friendship, the best friendship examples from personal experience… Just imagining that you are the last one in the class to...

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Research a Societal Advancement Started or Advanced by One Person

Several individuals have made significant efforts and decisions that helped them to accomplish various missions in the development of the society. Different societal advancements observed on the planet today emerged as a result of the human effort that aimed at influencing human development in different social settings. This essay will focus on Kailash Satyarthi as one of the individuals that...

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Emile Durkheim on Suicide

Introduction Emile Durkheim is one of the founding fathers of sociology that is widely used in the modern era. He is famous for one of his classical texts, suicide, which up to date focuses on the modern social pathologies that are seen to be indicated by the extraordinarily high rates of suicide whose causes are social. Durkheim drew various conclusions...

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The Impact of Social Media on Business Communication

Breed-specific legislation Breed-specific legislation refers to a type of laws and regulations that are passed by a legislative body and is concerned with a particular breed or breeds of domestic animals. This law restricts or bans certain breeds of mongrels depending on their physical appearance, generally because they are perceived to be dangerous types or breeds of dogs such as...

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Sociology Term Papers Samples For Students

723 samples of this type

Do you feel the need to examine some previously written Term Papers on Sociology before you get down to writing an own piece? In this open-access directory of Sociology Term Paper examples, you are granted a thrilling opportunity to discover meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Exploiting them while crafting your own Sociology Term Paper will definitely allow you to finish the piece faster.

Presenting superb samples isn't the only way our free essays service can help students in their writing efforts – our experts can also compose from scratch a fully customized Term Paper on Sociology that would make a genuine basis for your own academic work.

Example Of Social Network Exploitation Term Paper

Analysis of social network exploitation, good term paper about the blacker the berry.

Despite the fact that the United States history has serious experience gained from the American Civil War till the famous speech of Martin Luther King, our society is still harmed by presence of destructive ideas of social inequality and division not by the social position or character, but by ethnicity and therefore skin color. This problem is one of the most painful for the contemporary American nation as it is the boundary on the way to social progress and development. It divides our society and creates imaginary warfare and the set of senseless conflicts.

Sample Term Paper On Anger

Anger is a physiological, emotional response when an individual feels threatened, or when one’s space, relatives and properties get violated. It is a normal emotion experienced by all individuals acting as an alarm to warn people when something seems wrong.

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Burke vs. paine: comparing & contrasting the views of edmund burke & thomas paine term paper sample.

The debate of Edmund Burke and Thomas Paine regarding the human nature and psychology is of great interest due to the opposing views presented by both the experts. The human nature debate of these two experts is of critical importance in forming the pillars of a society. The government policies are based on similar concepts related to human nature and actions.

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Government intervention in the private market good or bad term papers examples, executive summary.

This paper will aim to gauge the costs and the benefits of the government intervention in a market. We will comprehensively analyze the situations in which it’s essential for the government to intervene and maximize the societal benefit. We will also discuss the limitations posed by the government intervention to the free market forces and its impact on economic welfare.

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Terrorism is violence at large. Terrorists are motivated to believe at all times that their actions are just and their struggle to instill fear is the only way to assert their demands. However, such singular behavior requires strong causes to be formed in the first place. There can be many causes for terrorism. Some these causes may be instantaneous while others may be historical, some beginning from a certain group of people while others targeted specifically towards a group of people. This paper is discusses various causes of terrorism Keywords: Terrorism, causes, terrorists, rights

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How to Write Sociology Papers

Writing Sociology Papers

Writing is one of the most difficult and most rewarding of all scholarly activities. Few of us, students or professors, find it easy to do. The pain of writing comes largely as a result of bad writing habits. No one can write a good paper in one draft on the night before the paper is due. The following steps will not guarantee a good paper, but they will eliminate the most common problems encountered in bad papers.

1. Select a topic early. Start thinking about topics as soon as the paper is assigned and get approval of your topic choice from the professor before starting the research on the paper. When choosing a topic, think critically. Remember that writing a good sociology paper starts with asking a good sociological question.

2. Give yourself adequate time to do the research. You will need time to think through the things you read or to explore the data you analyze. Also, things will go wrong and you will need time to recover. The one book or article which will help make your paper the best one you've ever done will be unavailable in the library and you have to wait for it to be recalled or to be found through interlibrary loan. Or perhaps the computer will crash and destroy a whole afternoon's work. These things happen to all writers. Allow enough time to finish your paper even if such things happen.

3. Work from an outline. Making an outline breaks the task down into smaller bits which do not seem as daunting. This allows you to keep an image of the whole in mind even while you work on the parts. You can show the outline to your professor and get advice while you are writing a paper rather than after you turn it in for a final grade.

4. Stick to the point. Each paper should contain one key idea which you can state in a sentence or paragraph. The paper will provide the argument and evidence to support that point. Papers should be compact with a strong thesis and a clear line of argument. Avoid digressions and padding.

5. Make more than one draft. First drafts are plagued with confusion, bad writing, omissions, and other errors. So are second drafts, but not to the same extent. Get someone else to read it. Even your roommate who has never had a sociology course may be able to point out unclear parts or mistakes you have missed. The best papers have been rewritten, in part or in whole, several times. Few first draft papers will receive high grades.

6. Proofread the final copy, correcting any typographical errors. A sloppily written, uncorrected paper sends a message that the writer does not care about his or her work. If the writer does not care about the paper, why should the reader?

Such rules may seem demanding and constricting, but they provide the liberation of self discipline. By choosing a topic, doing the research, and writing the paper you take control over a vital part of your own education. What you learn in the process, if you do it conscientiously, is far greater that what shows up in the paper or what is reflected in the grade.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PAPERS

Some papers have an empirical content that needs to be handled differently than a library research paper. Empirical papers report some original research. It may be based on participant observation, on secondary analysis of social surveys, or some other source. The outline below presents a general form that most articles published in sociology journals follow. You should get specific instructions from professors who assign empirical research papers.

1. Introduction and statement of the research question.

2. Review of previous research and theory.

3. Description of data collection including sample characteristics and the reliability and validity of techniques employed.

4. Presentation of the results of data analysis including explicit reference to the implications the data have for the research question.

5. Conclusion which ties the loose ends of the analysis back to the research question.

6. End notes (if any).

7. References cited in the paper.

Tables and displays of quantitative information should follow the rules set down by Tufte in the work listed below.

Tufte, Edward. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information . Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. (lib QA 90 T93 1983)

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Sociology Term Papers Samples That Help You Write Better, Faster & with Gusto

Crafting Term Papers is quite an arduous task on its own. Crafting outstanding Term Papers is an even more pressing exercise. Crafting a first-rate Sociology Term Paper is, well, something supernatural. Yet, with the WePapers.com free catalog of expertly written Sociology Term Paper examples, the job is entirely manageable. Browse our directory, find a piece that satisfies your underlying requirements and use it as a source of content presentation and structuring ideas in order to compose your own original Term Paper on Sociology .

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Sociology of Sport Research Paper Topics

The sociology of sport began to emerge as a formally recognized subdiscipline of sociology in the second half of the twentieth century. There were a number of earlier examples of sociological attention to the field of sport. In the United States, Veblen (1899) referred to sports as “marks of an arrested spiritual development” (1934:253) and to college sports as “manifestations of the predatory temperament” (p. 255) in his The Theory of the Leisure Class . W. I. Thomas (1901) and G. E. Howard (1912) dealt with “the gaming instinct” and the “social psychology of the spectator,” respectively in articles published in the American Journal of Sociology. Spencer, Simmel, Weber, Piaget, Hall, Sumner, Huizinga, and Mead all made reference to play, games, and/or sport in their work, but it was probably the German, Heinz Risse (1921) who first characterized sport as a sociological field of study in his book Soziologie des Sports .

30 Sociology of Sport Research Paper Topics

• Alternative Sports
• Amateur Sports
• Consumption of Sport
• Deviance in Sport
• Disability Sport
• Ethnicity in Sport
• Exercise and Fitness
• Figurational Sociology
• Gambling on Sports
• Gender and Sports
• Health and Sports
• Ideology and Sports
• Professional Sports
• Race and Sports
• Social Theory and Sport
• Sport and Culture
• Sport and Identity
• Sport and Social Capital
• Sport and the Body
• Sport and the City
• Sport and the Environment
• Sport Culture and Subcultures
• Sports and Nationalism
• Sports and Religion
• Sports and Socialization
• Sports in Sociology
• Sport and the State
• Sports Industry
• Virtual Sports
• Youth Sports

Following World War II, there was growing interest in sport from a sociological perspective. By the 1960s, television was beginning to devote significant amounts of time to sport, professional leagues were developing and expanding, organized youth sports in communities and educational institutions were beginning to proliferate, and the Cold War was being fought at the Olympics and other international competitions. In the United States, social scientists such as Gregory Stone, David Riesman, Erving Goffman, Eric Berne, James Coleman, and Charles Page all produced works referring to sport. Their interests were reflected internationally in the emergence of the first academic association in the field in 1964. The International Committee for the Sociology of Sport (now named the International Sociology of Sport Association) was comprised of both sociologists and physical educators from East and West Germany, France, Switzerland, Finland, England, the Soviet Union, Poland, the United States, and Japan. The Committee/Association, which is affiliated with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization through the International Council of Sport Sciences and Physical Education and the International Sociological Association, has held annual conferences since 1966 and began to produce a journal (the International Review for the Sociology of Sport, now published by Sage) in that same year.

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The first English language books in the field also began to appear in the 1960s (e.g., McIntosh 1963; Jokl 1964). Kenyon and Loy’s (1965) call for a sociology of sport is considered to be a key programmatic statement, and the same authors produced the first anthology in the field, Sport, Culture, and Society: A Reader on the Sociology of Sport (Loy and Kenyon 1969).

Sports as Cultural Practices

People in all cultures have always engaged in playful physical activities and used human movement as part of their everyday routines and collective rituals (Huizinga 1955). The first examples of organized games in societies worldwide probably emerged in the form of various combinations of physical activities and religious rituals (Guttmann 1978). Those games were connected closely with the social structures, social relations, and belief systems in their societies. Although they often recreated and reaffirmed existing systems of power relations and dominant ideologies, they sometimes served as sites for resistant or oppositional behaviors (Guttmann 1994; Sage 1998). Variations in the forms and dynamics of physical activities and games indicate that they are cultural practices that serve different social purposes and take on different meanings from time to time and place to place. Research on these variations has provided valuable insights into social processes, structures, and ideologies (Gruneau 1999; Sage 1998).

The physical activities that most sociologists identify as ”modern sports” emerged in connection with a combination of rationalization, industrialization, democratization, and urbanization processes in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. As various forms of physical activities and play were constructed as institutionalized, competitive, rule-governed challenges and games, they became associated with a range of processes and structures in societies. To varying degrees in different settings, ”organized sports” were implicated in processes of social development and the structure of family life, socialization and education, identity formation and government policy, commodification and the economy, and globalization and the media. Today, sports constitute a significant part of the social, cultural, political, and economic fabric of most societies.

As cultural practices, organized sports constitute an increasingly important part of people’s lives and collective life in groups, organizations, communities, and societies. In addition to capturing individual and collective attention, they are implicated in power relations and ideological formation associated with social class, gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, and physical ability. Because sports are social constructions, they may develop around particular ideas about the body and human nature, how people should relate to one another, expression and competence, human abilities and potential, manhood and womanhood, and what is important and unimportant in life. These ideas usually support and reproduce the dominant ideology in a society, but this is not always the case. Ideology is complex; therefore, the relationship between sports and ideological formation and transformation is sometimes inconsistent or even contradictory. Furthermore, sports come in many forms, and those forms can have many different associated social meanings.

Although sports continue to exist for the enjoyment of the participants, commercialized forms are planned, promoted, and presented for the entertainment of vast numbers of spectators. Sport events such as the Olympic Games, soccer’s World Cup (men’s and women’s), the Tour de France, the tennis championships at Wimbledon, American football’s Super Bowl, and championship boxing bouts capture the interest of billions of people when they are televised by satellite in over 200 countries around the world. These and other formally organized sports events are national and global industries. They are implicated in processes of state formation and capitalist expansion and are organized and presented as consumer activities for both participants and spectators. Although sport programs, events, and organizations may be subsidized directly or indirectly by local or national governments, support increasingly comes from corporations eager to associate their products and images with cultural activities and events that are a primary source of pleasure for people all over the world. Corporate executives have come to realize, as did Gramsci (1971) when he discussed hegemony and consensus-generating processes, that sponsoring people’s pleasures can be crucial in creating a consensus to support corporate expansion. At the same time, most sport organizations have sought corporate support.

People of all ages connect with sports through the media. Newspapers in many cities devote entire sections of their daily editions to sports, especially in North America, where the space devoted to sports frequently surpasses that given to the economy, politics, or any other single topic of interest (Lever and Wheeler 1993). Major magazines and dozens of specialty magazines cater to a wide range of interests among participants and fans. Radio coverage of sporting events and sports talk shows capture the attention of millions of listeners every day in some countries. Television coverage of sports, together with commentary about sports, is the most prevalent category of video programming in many countries. First the transistor radio and more recently satellites and Internet technology have enabled millions of people around the world to share their interest in sports. As Internet technology expands, these media-facilitated connections that revolve around sports will take new forms with unpredictable social implications.

Worldwide, many people recognize high-profile teams and athletes, and this recognition fuels everything from product consumption to tourism. Sports images are a pervasive part of life in many cultures, and the attention given to certain athletes today has turned them into celebrities, if not cultural heroes. In cultures in which there have been assumed connections between participation in sports and character formation, there has been a tendency to expect highly visible and popular athletes to become role models of dominant values and lifestyles, especially for impressionable young people. This has created a paradoxical situation in which athletes often are held to a higher degree of moral accountability than are other celebrities while at the same time being permitted or led to assume permission to act in ways that go beyond traditional normative boundaries.

People around the world increasingly talk about sports. Relationships often revolve around sports, especially among men but also among a growing number of women. Some people identify with teams and athletes so closely that what happens in sports influences their moods and overall sense of well-being. In fact, people’s identities as athletes and fans may be more important to them than their identities related to education, religion, work, and family.

Overall, sports and sports images have become a pervasive part of people’s everyday lives, especially among those who live in countries where resources are relatively plentiful and the media are widespread. For this reason, sports are logical topics for the attention of sociologists and others concerned with social life.

Using Sociology to Study Sports

Although play and games received attention from various European and North American behavioral and social scientists between the 1880s and the middle of the 20th century, sports received scarce attention in that period (Loy and Kenyon 1969). Of course, there were notable exceptions. Thorstein Veblen wrote about college sports in the United States in 1899 in Theory of the Leisure Class. Max Weber mentioned English Puritan opposition to sports in the 1904 and 1905 volumes of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, and William Graham Sumner discussed ”popular sports” in his 1906 Folkways. Willard Waller devoted attention to the ”integrative functions” of sports in U.S. high schools in The Sociology of Teaching in 1932.

The first analyst to refer to a ”sociology of sport” was Theodor Adorno’s student Heinz Risse, who published Sociologie des Sports in 1921. Sports received little or no further analytic attention from social scientists until after World War II. Then, in the mid-1950s, there was a slow but steady accumulation of analyses of sports done by scholars in Europe and North America (Loy and Kenyon 1969; Dunning 1971).

The origins of the sociology of sport can be traced to both sociology and physical education (Ingham and Donnelly 1997; Sage 1997). The field initially was institutionalized in academic terms through the formation of the International Committee for Sport Sociology (ICSS) and the publication of the International Review for Sport Sociology (IRSS) in the mid-1960s. The ICSS was a subcommittee of the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education and the International Sociological Association, and it sponsored the publication of the IRSS. Other publications in the 1960s and 1970s provided examples of the research and conceptual issues discussed by scholars who claimed an affiliation with the sociology of sport (Kenyon 1969; Krotee 1979; Luschen 1970). In addition to meeting at the annual conferences of the ICSS beginning in the mid-1960s, many scholars in the sociology of sport also met at the annual conferences of the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport (NASSS). This organization was founded in 1978. It has sponsored conferences every year since then, and its membership has been as high as 326 in 1998. In 1984, the Sociology of Sport Journal was published under the sponsorship of the NASSS.

Although the sociology of sport involves scholars from many countries and has its foundations in traditional academic disciplines, its early growth was fueled partly by the radical and reform-oriented work of social activists trained in a variety of social sciences. That work attracted the attention of a number of young scholars in both sociology and physical education. For example, in U.S. universities, many courses devoted to the analysis of sport in society in the 1970s highlighted sport as a social institution, but many also used sports as a focal point for critical analyses of U.S. society as a whole. Objections to the war in Vietnam inspired analyses of autocratic and militaristic forms of social organization in sports and other spheres of social life. Critiques of capitalism were tied to research on the role of competition in social life and the rise of highly competitive youth and inter-scholastic sports. Concern with high rates of aggression and violence in society was tied to an analysis of contact sports that emphasize the physical domination of opponents. Analyses of racial and civil rights issues were tied to discussions of racism in sports and to issues that precipitated the boycott of the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games by some black American athletes (Edwards 1969). Analyses of gender relations were inspired by the widespread failure of U.S. high schools and universities to comply with Title IX legislation that, among other things, mandated gender equity in all sport programs sponsored by schools that received federal funds.

Today, those who are dedicated to studying sports as social and cultural phenomena constitute a small but active, diverse, and steadily expanding collection of scholars from sociology, physical education and kinesiology, sport studies, and cultural studies departments. This has made the field unique because many of these scholars have realized that to maintain the field they must engage each other despite differences in the research questions they ask and the theoretical perspectives and methodologies they use.

Mainstream sociology has been slow at the institutional level to acknowledge the growing social and cultural significance of sports and sports participation. The tendency among sociologists to give priority to studies of work over studies of play, sports, or leisure accounts for much of this disciplinary inertia. Furthermore, sports have been seen by many sociologists as nonserious, nonproductive dimensions of society and culture that do not merit scholarly attention. Consequently, the sociology of sport has continued to exist on the fringes of sociology, and studying sports generally does not forward to a scholar’s career in sociology departments. For example, in 1998-1999, only 149 (1.3 percent) of the 11,247 members of the American Sociological Association (ASA) declared ”Leisure/Sport/Recreation” as one of their three major areas of interest, and over half those scholars focused primarily on leisure rather than sports. Only thirty-seven ASA members identified ”Leisure/Sports Recreation” as their primary research and/or teaching topic (0.3 percent of ASA members), and only two Canadian and two U.S. sociology departments offer a graduate program in the sociology of sport, according to the 1998 Guide to Graduate Departments of Sociology. At the 1998 annual ASA meeting, there were approximately 3,800 presenters and copresenters, and only 20 dealt with sport-related topics in their presentations; only 2 of the 525 sessions were devoted to the sociology of sport. Patterns are similar in Canada, Great Britain, and Australia (Rowe et al. 1997).

In physical education and kinesiology, the primary focus of most scholars has been on motor learning, exercise physiology, biomechanics, and physical performance rather than the social dimensions of sports (see Sage 1997). Social and cultural issues have not been given a high priority in the discipline except when research has had practical implications for those who teach physical education, coach athletes, or administer sport programs. As the legitimacy and role of physical education departments have been questioned in many universities, the scholars in those departments have been slow to embrace the frequently critical analyses of sports done by those who use sociological theories and perspectives. Therefore, studying sports as social phenomena has not earned many scholars high status among their peers in physical education and kinesiology departments. However, the majority of sociology of sport scholars with doctorates have earned their degrees and now have options in departments of physical education or kinesiology and departments of sport studies and human movement studies.

There have been noteworthy indications of change. For example, there are a number of journals devoted to social analyses of sports (Sociology of Sport Journal, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Journal of Sport & Social Issues, Culture, Sport, Society). Many mainstream journals in sociology and physical education now accept and publish research that uses sociological perspectives to study sports. National and regional professional associations in sociology and physical education in many countries sponsor regular sessions in the sociology of sport at their annual conferences. Annual conferences also are held by a number of national and regional sociology of sport associations around the world, including those in Japan, Korea, and Brazil as well as the countries of North America and Europe. The International Sociology of Sport Association (ISSA, formerly the ICSS) holds annual conferences and meets regularly with the International Sociological Association. Attendance at many of these conferences has been consistent, and the quality of the programs has been impressive. The existence of such organizational endorsement and support, along with continued growth in the pervasiveness and visibility of sports in society, suggests that the discipline will continue to grow.

Among other indications of growth, articles in the Sociology of Sport Journal are cited regularly in social science literature. Scholars in the field are recognized as ”public intellectuals” by journalists and reporters associated with the mass media. Quotes and references to sociology of sport research appear increasingly in the popular print and electronic media. Amazon.com, the world’s major Internet bookseller, listed over 260 books in its ”Sociology of Sport” reference category in March 1999.

Complicating the issue of future growth is the fact that scholars in this field regularly disagree about how to ”do” the sociology of sport. Some prefer to see themselves as scientific experts who do research on questions of organization and efficiency, while others prefer to see themselves as facilitators or even agents of cultural transformation whose research gives a voice to and empowers people who lack resources or have been pushed to the margins of society. This and other disagreements raise important questions about the production and use of scientific knowledge, and many scholars in the sociology of sport are debating those questions. As in sociology as a whole, the sociology of sport is now a site for theoretical and paradigmatic debates that some scholars fear will fragment the field and subvert the maintenance of an institutionalized professional community (Ingham and Donnelly 1997). Of course, this is a challenge faced in many disciplines and their associated professional organizations.

Conceptual and Theoretical Issues in the Sociology of Sport

Through the mid-1980s, most research in the sociology of sport was based on two assumptions. First, sport was assumed to be a social institution similar to other major social institutions (Luschen and Sage 1981). Second, sports were assumed to be institutionalized competitive activities that involve physical exertion and the use of physical skills by individuals motivated by a combination of personal enjoyment and external rewards (Coakley 1990). These conceptual assumptions identified the focus of the sociology of sport and placed theory and research on sports within the traditional parameters of sociological theory and research.

Theory and research based on these assumptions were informative. However, many scholars in the field came to realize that when analytic attention is focused on institutionalized and competitive activities, there is a tendency to overlook the lives of people who have neither the resources to formally organize their physical activities nor the desire to make them competitive. Scholars became sensitive to the possibility that this tendency can reinforce the ideologies and forms of social organization that have disadvantaged certain categories and collections of people in contemporary societies (Coakley 1998). This encouraged some scholars to ask critical questions about sports as contested activities in societies. Consequently, their research has come to focus more on the connections between sports and systems of power and privilege and the changes needed to involve more people in the determination of what sports can and should be in society.

These scholars used an alternative approach to defining sports that revolved around two questions: What gets to count as a sport in a group or society? and Whose sports count the most? These questions forced them to focus more directly on the social and cultural contexts in which ideas are formed about physical activities and the social processes that privilege some forms of physical activities. Those who have used this approach also note numerous cultural differences in how people identify sports and include them in their lives. In cultures that emphasize cooperative relationships, the idea that people should compete for rewards may be defined as disruptive, if not immoral, and for people in cultures that emphasize competition, physical activities and games that have no winners may seem pointless. These cultural differences are important because there is no universal agreement about the meaning, purpose, and organization of sports. Similarly, there is no general agreement about who will participate in sports, the circumstances in which participation will occur, or who will sponsor sports or the reasons for sponsorship. It is now assumed widely by scholars who study sports that these factors have varied over time from group to group and society to society and that sociological research should focus on the struggle over whose ideas about sports become dominant at any particular time in particular groups or societies. This in turn has highlighted issues of culture and power relations in theory and research in the sociology of sport.

Before the mid-1980s, most research and conceptual discussions in the sociology of sport were inspired or informed by structural functionalist theories and conflict theories (Luschen and Sage 1981; Coakley 1990), and in parts of western Europe, figurational sociology was used by some scholars who studied sports (see Dunning 1992). Those with structural functionalist perspectives often focused on questions about sports and issues of socialization and character development, social integration, achievement motivation, and structural adaptations to change in society. The connections between sports and other major social institutions and between sports and the satisfaction of social system needs were the major topics of concern.

Those who used conflict theories viewed sports as an expression of class conflict and market forces and a structure linked to societal and state institutions. Their work was inspired by various interpretations of Marxist theory and research focused generally on connections between capitalist forms of production and consumption and social behaviors in sports and on the ways in which sports promote an ideological consciousness that is consistent with the needs and interests of capital. Specifically, they studied the role of sports in processes of alienation, capitalist expansion, nationalism and militarism, and racism and sexism (Brohm 1978; Hoch 1972).

Figurational, or ”process,” sociology was and continues to be inspired by the work of Elias (Elias 1978; Elias and Dunning 1986;Jarvie and Maguire 1994). Figurational sociologists have focused on issues of interdependence and interaction in social life and have identified historical linkages between the structure of interpersonal conduct and the overall structure of society. Unlike other theoretical approaches, figurational sociology traditionally has given a high priority to the study of sport. Figurational analyses have emphasized sports as a sphere of social life in which the dichotomies between seriousness and pleasure, work and leisure, economic and noneconomic phenomena, and mind and body can be shown to be false and misleading. Before the mid-1980s, research done by figurational sociologists focused primarily on the historical development of modern sport and the interrelated historical processes of state formation, functional democratization, and expanding networks of international interdependencies. Their best known early work focused on linkages between the emergence of modern sports and the dynamics of civilizing processes, especially those associated with the control of violence in society (Elias and Dunning 1986).

Since the mid-1980s, the sociology of sport has been characterized by theoretical and methodological diversity. Fewer scholars use general theories of social life such as structural functionalism and conflict theories. The theories more often used are various forms of critical theories, including feminist theories and hegemony theory; also used are interpretive sociology (especially symbolic interactionism), cultural studies perspectives, and various forms of poststructuralism (Rail 1998). Figurational sociology still is widely used, especially by scholars outside North America. A few scholars have done research informed by the reflexive sociology of Pierre Bourdieu (Laberge and Sankoff 1988; Wacquant 1995a, 1995b) and the structuration theory of Anthony Giddens (Gruneau 1999).

Methodological approaches also vary. Quantitative data and statistical analyses remain popular, although various qualitative methods and interpretive analyses have become increasingly popular, if not the dominant research approaches in the field (Donnelly 2000). Ethnography and in-depth interviewing, along with textual and discourse analysis, have emerged as common methodologies among many scholars studying sports and sport participation (Coakley and Donnelly 1999). Quantitative methods have been used most often to study issues and questions related to sport participation patterns, the attitudinal and behavioral correlates of participation, and the distribution of sports-related resources in society. Both quantitative and interpretive methods have been used to study questions and issues related to socialization, identity, sexuality, subcultures, the body, pain and injury, disability, deviance, violence, emotions, the media, gender relations, homophobia, race and ethnic relations, new and alternative sports forms, and ideological formation and transformation (Coakley and Dunning 2000).

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