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Write Abstracts, Literature Reviews, and Annotated Bibliographies: Home

• Abstract Guides & Examples
• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliographies & Examples
• Student Research

What is an Abstract?

An abstract is a summary of points (as of a writing) usually presented in skeletal form ; also : something that summarizes or concentrates the essentials of a larger thing or several things. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online)  

An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given scientific paper or patent application. Abstraction and indexing services are available for a number of academic disciplines, aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject. (Wikipedia)

An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article. It allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly. Readers often decide on the basis of the abstract whether to read the entire article. A good abstract should be: ACCURATE --it should reflect the purpose and content of the manuscript. COHERENT --write in clear and concise language. Use the active rather than the passive voice (e.g., investigated instead of investigation of). CONCISE --be brief but make each sentence maximally informative, especially the lead sentence. Begin the abstract with the most important points. The abstract should be dense with information. ( Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association)

Abstract Guidelines

An abstract of a report of an empirical study should describe: (1) the problem under investigation (2) the participants with specific characteristics such as age, sex, ethnic group (3) essential features of the study method (4) basic findings (5) conclusions and implications or applications. An abstract for a literature review or meta-analysis should describe: (1) the problem or relations under investigation (2) study eligibility criteria (3) types of participants (4) main results, including the most important effect sizes, and any important moderators of these effect sizes (5) conclusions, including limitations (6) implications for theory, policy, and practice. An abstract for a theory-oriented paper should describe (1) how the theory or model works and the principles on which it is based and (2) what phenomena the theory or model accounts for and linkages to empirical results. An abstract for a methodological paper should describe (1) the general class of methods being discussed (2) the essential features of the proposed method (3) the range of application of the proposed method (4) in the case of statistical procedures, some of its essential features such as robustness or power efficiency. An abstract for a case study should describe (1) the subject and relevant characteristics of the individual, group, community, or organization presented (2) the nature of or solution to a problem illustrated by the case example (3) questions raised for additional research or theory.

• What is a Literature Review?

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work.Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic. (Wikipedia)

Literature Review: An extensive search of the information available on a topic which results in a list of references to books, periodicals, and other materials on the topic. ( Online Library Learning Center Glossary )

"... a literature review uses as its database reports of primary or original scholarship, and does not report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in the literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases reports are written documents. The types of scholarship may be empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological in nature. Second a literature review seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of primary reports."

Cooper, H. M. (1988), "The structure of knowledge synthesis", Knowledge in Society , Vol. 1, pp. 104-126

• Literature Review Guide
• Literature Review Defined

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An abstract is a summary of points (as of a writing) usually presented in skeletal form ; also : something that summarizes or concentrates the essentials of a larger thing or several things. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online)  

An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given scientific paper or patent application. Abstraction and indexing services are available for a number of academic disciplines, aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject. (Wikipedia)

An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article. It allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly. Readers often decide on the basis of the abstract whether to read the entire article. A good abstract should be: ACCURATE --it should reflect the purpose and content of the manuscript. COHERENT --write in clear and concise language. Use the active rather than the passive voice (e.g., investigated instead of investigation of). CONCISE --be brief but make each sentence maximally informative, especially the lead sentence. Begin the abstract with the most important points. The abstract should be dense with information. ( Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association)

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Writing an abstract

What is an abstract.

• An abstract is a brief SUMMARY of a scientific paper. It gives information about the authors, the hypotheses tested, a brief description of the methods used, and the conclusions obtained.
• An abstract is a summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper’s purpose.
• An abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic paper.

How to Write an Effective Abstract

Clarify your objective of the paper: what you are going to tell

Identify the themes of the conference and formulate your paper accordingly.

Understand the submission procedure and the abstract format. For example:

Title, Name of presenter, Contact details, Category of presentation paper, poster etc. and the Keywords

Stick closely to the length given. (Ex. 250-words)

Ask yourself the following questions: (When writing an abstract)

a. What is the purpose of my paper? b. What approach am I using? c. What are my findings? d. Why are my findings so important?

How to Identify a Good Abstract?

Uses one or more well developed paragraphs: these are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone.

Uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure which presents the article, paper, or report’s purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations in that order.

Follows strictly the chronology of the article, paper, or report.

Provides logical connections (or transitions) between the information included.

Adds no new information, but simply summarizes the report.

Understandable to a wide audience.

Privacy Overview

How to Write an Abstract | Orvium

An abstract summarizes a research paper, article, or thesis and briefly overviews the study’s key points, purpose, methodology, and results. Writing an abstract can be daunting for novice and experienced researchers. This article will discuss how to write a concise, clear, and informative abstract.

What is an Abstract?

The abstract is one of the most critical components of a research paper , as it represents the entire study. An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding , or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper’s purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the entry point for any academic article or patent application .

Why Write an Abstract?

Writing an abstract is important because it provides readers with a brief overview of the study and its main findings . This allows readers to determine if the study is relevant to their interests and whether they should read the entire paper. Additionally, abstracts are often used in databases and search engines , which means that a well-written abstract can increase the visibility of the research and attract more readers.

Types of Abstracts

There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative . A descriptive abstract is a brief summary of the main points of a research paper that provides a general overview of the study. It describes the study but doesn’t give any details on the methodology or the results. Descriptive abstracts are often used for shorter papers or for papers that are not research-based, such as essays or opinion pieces.

Informative abstracts, such as research articles or theses, are often used for longer papers. An informative abstract, on the other hand, provides a more detailed summary of the study and includes information on the purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. It gives readers a clear idea of what the study is about and what the main findings are.

Informative abstracts can be further categorized into two types : structured and unstructured. Structured abstracts have a specific format that includes headings for each section, such as purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. This format makes it easier for readers to quickly find the information they need. Unstructured abstracts, however, do not have a specific format and are written in a paragraph format.

In addition to these types of abstracts, there are also graphical and visual abstracts . These types of abstracts use images or diagrams to summarize the main points of the study. They are often used in fields such as science or medicine, where complex concepts can be challenging to explain in words alone.

Overall, the type of abstract used depends on the type of paper and the intended audience. Descriptive abstracts are appropriate for shorter articles or articles that are not research-based, while informative abstracts are more appropriate for longer papers or research articles. Structured abstracts are helpful for readers who want to quickly find specific information, while unstructured abstracts are more narrative. Graphical and visual abstracts can be helpful in fields where complex concepts are best communicated through images.

How to Write an Abstract

Writing an abstract can be challenging, but researchers must master this skill. Here are some tips on how to write an effective abstract:

Step 1: Understand the Requirements

Before you start writing your abstract, it’s essential to understand the requirements. Refer to the journal or conference guidelines and ensure your abstract meets the required word count, formatting, and content guidelines.

Step 2: Identify the Key Points

Identify the key points of your research paper or article. These may include the purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. Make sure that these key points are clear and concise.

Step 3: Write the First Draft

Write the first draft of your abstract. Begin with a brief introduction that provides background information on the topic. Then, summarize the key points of your research paper or article. Make sure that your abstract is concise and easy to read.

Step 4: Edit and Revise

Edit and revise your abstract. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Make sure that your abstract is clear, concise, and informative.

Step 5: Get Feedback

Get feedback on your abstract. Ask a colleague or mentor to review your abstract and provide feedback. Make any necessary changes based on their feedback.

Tips for Writing an Effective Abstract

Here are some additional tips that can help you write an effective abstract:

• Keep it concise : your abstract should be no more than 250 words.
• Be clear : use clear and concise language to summarize your research.
• Use keywords : include relevant keywords to help readers find your research.
• Be specific : provide details on the purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions of your study.
• Follow the guidelines : ensure your abstract meets the guidelines provided by the journal or conference.

Writing an abstract is an essential skill for researchers. An effective abstract is concise and informative and summarizes the research paper’s or article’s key points. By following the tips outlined in this article, researchers can write an abstract that effectively communicates the purpose of their research.

If you’re in need for inspiration, why not take a look at the research articles published on Orvium? Here, you can see what other researchers are writing about and connect with likeminded individuals over subjectcs that matter to you.

If you want to learn more about Orvium and how we support the academic publishing industry, make sure to visit our website and platform . And also, make sure to follow us on Twitter , Facebook , Linkedin , or Instagram to keep up with the latest news and product features

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Abstract (summary)

An abstract is a brief summary, generally from 100 to 200 words, of the contents of a document such as a research paper, journal article, thesis, review, conference proceeding, and other academic or legal document. The primary purpose of an abstract is to facilitate a selection of documents. A reader can grasp the essential points of the document without reading a full document. A reader can decide what to read and what not to read. Abstracts thus expedite the process of selection and saves time. An abstract, together with index, is a key finding aid of information in today's overabundance of information.

There are mainly two types of abstracts—indicative (descriptive) and informative. Indicative abstracts describe only a metadata (data about the data) of a document, which includes the key research components such as purpose, scope, and research methodology. Indicative abstract simply describes what kind of research or writing the document is about and it does not contain any material content of the document such as conclusions. Informative abstracts , on the other hand, explain both material contents as well as its metadata. Other types of abstracts include critical abstracts which are "condensed critical reviews". [1] A critical abstract is an evaluative summary of the document and the abstractor describes the strength and weakness of the paper often comparing with other works in the field.

• 1.1 Indicative Abstract and Informative Abstract
• 1.2 Critical abstract
• 1.3 Other types of abstract
• 2 Length of abstracts
• 3.1 Example
• 4.1 Abstract of Title
• 4.2 Clear Title
• 4.3 Patent law
• 4.4 Administrative process
• 4.5 Property abstract
• 5 Graphical abstracts
• 7 References
• 8 External links

Authors are often asked to submit abstracts when they submit research papers. Abstractors are required to have both a professional training and general knowledge about the subject area.

Abstracts are also an important element for indexing . Indexers and search engines use abstract to find metadata of the contents the document for the purpose of compiling indexes.

Types of abstracts

Indicative abstract and informative abstract.

An abstract is not only a brief summary of a document but it also must be an "accurate representation of the contents of a document." [2] To create an abstract, an abstractor or a writer needs to identify two kinds of information about the document, metadata (data about the data) and the essence of its informative contents. Metadata is a description of what kind of information it is, which includes the purpose, scope, and research methodology. Informative contents are material contents of the document, which includes conclusions, suggestions, and recommendations. Depending on which information it contains, an abstract can be classified into two types: indicative (or descriptive) abstract and informative abstract. [3]

Indicative abstracts contain only metadata of the document and does not include informative contents. Whereas, informative abstract includes both metadata and informative contents. While indicative abstract is short in length and common in abstraction services, author produced abstracts such as those of thesis, journal essays, and articles are usually informative ones.

Telephone interviews were conducted in 1985 with 655 Americans sampled probabilistically. Opinions are expressed on whether: (1) the establishment of a Palestinian state is essential for peace in the region; (2) U.S. aid to Israel and to Egypt should be reduced; (3) the U.S. should (a) participate in a peace conference that includes the PLO,(b) favor neither Israel nor the Arab nations, (c) maintain friendly relations with both. Respondents indicated whether or not they had sufficient information concerning various national groups in the region. [1]

Telephone interviews conducted in 1985 with 655 Americans, sampled probabilistically, brought these results: most (54-56%) think U.S. aid to Israel and Egypt should be reduced; most (65%) favor U.S. participation in a peace conference that includes the PLO; more than 80% consider it important that the U.S. should maintain friendly relations with both Israel and the Arab countries; 70% believe that the U.S. should favor neither side; most (55%) think that the establishment of a Palestinian state is essential to peace in the region. The Israelis are the best known of the national groups and the Syrians the least known. The Arab-Israeli situation is second only to the conflict in Central America among the most serious international problems faced by the U.S. [4]

Critical abstract

A critical abstract is a critical evaluation of the document. An abstractor evaluates the document and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstract is a "condensed critical review." [1]

Other types of abstract

A modular abstract is a full content description of a document, consisting of five components: Citation , Annotation, Indicative abstract, Informative abstract, and Critical abstract. An abstracting service can use it for various purposes and needs.

Length of abstracts

An abstract is generally between 100 and 200 words. Some are, however, longer than 200 words and some are shorter than 100 words. In Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practise , W.L. Lancaster lists seven factors that affect the length of an abstract. [2]

• The length of the document
• The complexity of the subject matter
• The diversity of the subject matter
• The importance of the item to the organization preparing the abstract
• The accessibility of the subject matter. If the item is a rare material and is not easily accessible, the abstract tends to be longer.
• Cost of abstracting

Abstracts in scientific literature

Scientific literature takes widespread advantage of the abstract as the abbreviated style of choice in order to aptly communicate complex research. In science, an abstract may act as a stand-alone entity in lieu of the paper as well. As such, an abstract is used by many organizations as the basis for selecting research that is proposed for presentation in the form of a poster, podium/lecture, or workshop presentation at an academic conference . Most literature database search engines index abstracts only as opposed to providing the entire text of the paper. Full-texts of scientific papers must often be purchased because of copyright and/or publisher fees, and therefore the abstract is a significant selling point for the reprint or electronic version of the full-text.

Abstracts are not public domain or open-source unless stated by the publisher. Therefore, abstracts are afforded protections under copyright law in many states just as any other form of written speech is protected. However, publishers of scientific articles invariably make abstracts publicly available, even when the article itself is protected by a toll barrier. For example, articles in the biomedical literature are available publicly from MEDLINE which is accessible through PubMed. It is a common misconception that the abstracts in MEDLINE provide sufficient information for medical practitioners, students, scholars and patients. The abstract can convey the main results and conclusions of a scientific article but the full text article must be consulted for details of the methodology, the full experimental results, and a critical discussion of the interpretations and conclusions. Consulting the abstract alone is inadequate for scholarship and may lead to inappropriate medical decisions.

Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements. Typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but very rarely more than a page. An abstract may or may not have the section title of "abstract" explicitly listed as an antecedent to content, however, they are typically sectioned logically as an overview of what appears in the paper (e.g. any one of the following: Background, Introduction, Objectives, Methods, Results, Conclusions).

In journal articles, research papers, published patent applications and patents , an abstract is a short summary placed prior to the introduction, often set apart from the body of the text, sometimes with different line justification (as a block or pull quote) from the rest of the article.

An abstract allows one to sift through copious amounts of papers for ones in which the researcher can have more confidence that they will be relevant to his research. Abstracts help one decide which papers might be relevant to his or her own research. Once papers are chosen based on the abstract, they must be read carefully to be evaluated for relevance. It is commonly surmised that one must not base reference citations on the abstract alone, but the entire merits of a paper.

Example taken from the Journal of Biology, Volume 3, Issue 2 . The electronic version of this article is listed as Open Access as of March 30, 2005, and can be found online. [5]

The hydrodynamics of dolphin drafting by Daniel Weihs, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.

Drafting in cetaceans is defined as the transfer of forces between individuals without actual physical contact between them. This behavior has long been surmised to explain how young dolphin calves keep up with their rapidly moving mothers. It has recently been observed that a significant number of calves become permanently separated from their mothers during chases by tuna vessels. A study of the hydrodynamics of drafting, initiated in the hope of understanding the mechanisms causing the separation of mothers and calves during fishing-related activities, is reported here.

Quantitative results are shown for the forces and moments around a pair of unequally sized dolphin-like slender bodies. These include two major effects. First, the so-called Bernoulli suction, which stems from the fact that the local pressure drops in areas of high speed, results in an attractive force between mother and calf. Second is the displacement effect, in which the motion of the mother causes the water in front to move forwards and radially outwards, and water behind the body to move forwards to replace the animal's mass. Thus, the calf can gain a 'free ride' in the forward-moving areas. Utilizing these effects, the neonate can gain up to 90% of the thrust needed to move alongside the mother at speeds of up to 2.4 m/s. A comparison with observations of eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) is presented, showing savings of up to 60% in the thrust that calves require if they are to keep up with their mothers.

A theoretical analysis, backed by observations of free-swimming dolphin schools, indicates that hydrodynamic interactions with mothers play an important role in enabling dolphin calves to keep up with rapidly moving adult school members.

© 2004 Weihs; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL

Abstract in law

In law, an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers.

Abstract of Title

The Abstract of Title, used in real estate transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds, wills, mortgages, and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.

Clear Title

A Clear Title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary.

In the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step (or non-obviousness in United States patent law) of an invention. Under United States patent law, the abstract may be called "Abstract of the Disclosure." [6]

Administrative process

Certain government bureaucracies, such as a department of motor vehicles will issue an abstract of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents.

Property abstract

A property abstract is a collection of legal documents which chronicles activities associated with a particular parcel of land. Generally included are references to deeds, mortgages, wills, probate records, court litigations and tax sales. Basically, any essential legal documents that affect the property. The abstract will also show the names of all property owners and how long a particular holder owned it for as well as showing the price the land was exchanged for when it changed owners. Rarely an abstract will mention capital improvements to the property.

Graphical abstracts

Recently, due to the influence of computer storage and retrieval systems such as the Internet , many scientific publications have started including graphical abstracts alongside the text abstracts. The graphic is intended to summarize or be an examplar for the main thrust of the article. It is not intended to be as exhaustive a summary as the text abstract, rather it is supposed to indicate the type, scope, and technical coverage of the article at a glance.

• ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Wilfrid F. Lancaster, Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, 1991), 88.
• ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lancaster, 86.
• ↑ Lancaster, 86-96.
• ↑ Lancaster, 89.
• ↑ The hydrodynamics of dolphin drafting, Journal of Biology .
• ↑ United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) web site, 608.01(b) Abstract of the Disclosure Retrieved March 21, 2018.

References ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Borko, Harold, and Charles L. Bernier. Abstracting Concepts and Methods . New York: Academic Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0874360790
• Cleveland, Donald B., and Ana D. Cleveland. Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting . Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1983. ISBN 978-0872873469
• Collison, Robert Lewis. Abstracts and Abstracting Services. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1971. ISBN 978-0874360790
• Lancaster, F. Wilfrid. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, 1991. ISBN 978-0878450831
• Neufeld, M. Lynne, Martha Cornog, and Inez L. Sperr. Abstracting and Indexing Services in Perspective: Miles Conrad Memorial Lectures, 1969-1983, Commemorating the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the National Federation of Abstracting and Information Services. Arlington, VA: Information Resources Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0878150434
• Rowley, J. E. Abstracting and Indexing. London: C. Bingley, 1988. ISBN 978-0851574110
• University of Arizona, Pamela P. Brown, and Sylvia Faibisoff. Abstracts and Abstracting Services: A Manual for Students. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Graduate Library School, 1977.

External links

All links retrieved June 14, 2023.

• Abstracts , The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
• Writing Report Abstracts , The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. OWL provides other helpful hints and tools for writing.
• Philip Koopman. How to Write an Abstract , Carnegie Mellon University.
• Rule 8 PCT, defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT).

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