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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

How Operant Conditioning Differs from Classical Conditioning

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Classical Conditioning

Operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. There are similarities between classical and operant conditioning. Both types of conditioning result in learning and both suggest that a subject can adapt to their environment.

However, the processes are also quite different. What are the main differences between operant vs. classical conditioning? To understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical and operant conditioning differ from one another.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

Let's take a look at some of the most basic differences in operant vs. classical conditioning.

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex

First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist

Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior

Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about  Pavlov's dogs . In his famous experiment,  Ivan Pavlov  noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had repeatedly been paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process.

Classical conditioning is a process that involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral one. Sounds confusing, but let's break it down:

The classical conditioning process involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).

This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as the unconditioned response . After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response.

The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned response .

A dog doesn't need to be trained to salivate when it sees food; this occurs naturally. The food is the naturally occurring stimulus. If you ring a bell every time you presented the dog with food, an association would be formed between the food and the bell. Eventually, the bell alone, a.k.a. the conditioned stimulus would come to evoke the salivation response.

Classical conditioning is much more than just a basic term used to describe a method of learning; it can also explain how many behaviors form that can impact your health. Consider how a bad habit might form. Even though you have been working out and eating healthy, nighttime overeating keeps tripping up your dieting efforts.

Thanks to classical conditioning, you might have developed the habit of heading to the kitchen for a snack every time a commercial comes on when watching your favorite television program.

While commercial breaks were once a neutral stimulus, repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (having a delicious snack) has turned the commercials into a conditioned stimulus. Now every time you see a commercial, you crave a sweet treat.

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning ) focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

Imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball. When the dog successfully chases and picks up the ball, the dog receives praise as a reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually, the dog forms an association between the behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired reward.

In another example, imagine that a schoolteacher punishes a student for talking out of turn by not letting the student go outside for recess. The student forms an association between the behavior (talking out of turn) and the consequence (not being able to go outside for recess). As a result, the problematic behavior decreases.

A number of factors can influence how quickly a response is learned and the strength of the response. How often the response is reinforced, known as a schedule of reinforcement , can play an important role in how quickly the behavior is learned and how strong the response becomes.

The type of reinforcer used can also have an impact on the response. For example, while a variable-ratio schedule will result in a high and steady rate of response, a variable-interval schedule will lead to a slow and steady response rate.

In addition to being used to train people and animals to engage in new behaviors, operant conditioning can also be used to help people eliminate unwanted ones. Using a system of rewards and punishments, people can learn to overcome bad habits that might have a negative impact on their health such as smoking or overeating.

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, and operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.

For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.  

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Examples

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others.

• Example of classical conditioning : In animal training, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response as the taste of food.
• Example of operant conditioning : In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward, such as a treat or extra playtime.

In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior .

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both important learning concepts that originated in behavioral psychology. While these two types of conditioning share some similarities, it is important to understand some of the key differences in operant vs. classical conditioning to determine which approach is best for certain learning situations.

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Segers E, Beckers T, Geurts H, Claes L, Danckaerts M, Van der oord S. Working memory and reinforcement schedule jointly determine reinforcement learning in children: Potential implications for behavioral parent training. Front Psychol . 2018;9:394. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394

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Boutelle KN, Bouton ME. Implications of learning theory for developing programs to decrease overeating. Appetite . 2015;93:62-74. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.013

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Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith MC, Shervey SW. Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples . J Educ Res Prac . 2016;6(1):90–96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Categories Behavior

Both classical conditioning and operant are central to behaviorism , but students often get confused about the differences between the two. Classical and operant conditioning are both types of learning that involve learning by association. However, there are important differences between the two.

The main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing voluntary behaviors to either increase or decrease their frequency.

Table of Contents

Classical vs Operant Conditioning: Understanding the Differences

For many students, remembering what makes classical conditioning and operant conditioning different can be a real challenge. Fortunately, there are some handy tricks for remembering and identifying each type of conditioning process.

Classical conditioning:

• Involves involuntary behaviors that occur automatically
• Involves a neutral stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Involves placing a previously neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex

Operant conditioning:

• Involves voluntary behaviors
• Requires the use of reinforcement or punishment
• Involves placing a consequence after a behavior

What Is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is formed between a naturally existing and neutral stimulus. Once an association has been formed, the neutral stimulus will come to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus.

Sounds confusing, but let’s break it down:

• A dog will salivate when it sees food. The food is a naturally occurring stimulus that automatically triggers a response.
• Now imagine that you begin to wear a white coat every time you present the food to the dog.
• Eventually, the animal forms an association between the natural stimulus (the food) and the previously neutral stimulus (the white coat).
• Once this association has been established, the dog will begin to salivate when it sees the white coat, even in the absence of the food.

This process was discovered by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov and has become a vital concept within the field of behavioral psychology. The classical conditioning process often occurs in the real world, and can also be used to purposefully alter behaviors and teach new behaviors.

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, but his most famous discovery had a significant effect on the field of psychology. If Pavlov’s name rings a bell, then you have probably heard of his famous experiments with dogs. Pavlov experimented on 40 dogs during the course of his experiments.

Pavlov was conducting experiments on the digestive systems of dogs when he noticed something interesting. Whenever a lab assistant would enter the room, the animals would begin to salivate.

Pavlov’s digestive experiments involved introducing both food and non-food items to the animals and then measuring the salivary response. Why were the animals salivating whenever they saw the lab assistant?

Pavlov quickly realized that salivating had actually become a learned response . The animals had grown to associate the sight of the assistant’s white lab coat with the presentation of food. Eventually, simply the sight of the assistant could trigger this response, even in the absence of food.

Pavlov’s discovery became known as classical conditioning. In this process, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus or something that naturally and automatically triggers a response. In Pavlov’s experiments, he paired the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.

After several pairings, an association is formed and the neutral stimulus will also trigger the response. At this point, the neutral stimulus is known as the conditioned stimulus and the response becomes known as the conditioned response . In Pavlov’s experiments, the sound of the bell eventually began to provoke the drooling response, even when no food was present.

The Influence of Classical Conditioning

The discovery of classical conditioning had an enormous impact on the school of thought known as behaviorism. Advocates of behaviorism included the psychologist John B. Watson, who utilized classical conditioning in an experiment to demonstrate how fear could be a conditioned response.

The behaviorist John B. Watson also utilized this process in his famous Little Albert experiment. In the experiment, a child known as Little Albert was exposed to a white lab rat. The child initially showed no fear of the animal, but Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner then paired the presentation of the rat with a loud clanging sound.

After several pairings, the child eventually began to cry whenever he saw the white rat. By associating the sight of a white rat with a loud, clanging sound, Watson was able to classically condition a young boy to fear the white rat. Little Albert’s fear even bled over to other white, furry objects including stuffed toys, Rayner’s white fur coat, and the sight of Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

What Is Operant Conditioning?

Another psychologist named B.F. Skinner realized that while classical conditioning was powerful, it could not account for all types of learning. He suggested that intentional behaviors and the consequences that follow were also important.

Skinner described a process known as operant conditioning in which actions followed by reinforcement become more likely to occur again. If a child cleans her room and her parents give her a treat as a reward, she will become more likely to clean her room in the future.

Actions immediately followed by punishment will make the behavior less likely to occur.  If you talk out of turn in class and the teacher reprimands you, chances are you will be less likely to speak out again without first raising your hand.

Operant conditioning is often used by parents, teachers, and behavioral therapists to help teach new behaviors and discourage undesirable ones.

A teacher, for example, might utilize praise and reward systems to encourage good classroom behavior, while also using punishments to minimize disruptive actions. Kids who behave appropriately might be awarded tokens, which they can then turn in to receive a reward. Those who disrupt class, on the other hand, might have to miss recess or some other desired activity.

Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to create associations between behaviors and the consequences for those behaviors.

For example, imagine that a parent punishes a child for throwing a toy. Because of this punishment, the child forms an association between the action (throwing) and a result (getting punished). As a result of this consequence, the child becomes less likely to throw the toy again in the future. Once this association is learned, the problematic behavior decreases.

There are a few different factors that can influence how quickly and how strongly a response is learned.

• The salience of the consequence can play a role, as well as the timing and frequency of the consequence.
• The timing and frequency of consequences in operant conditioning are known as schedules of reinforcement .

Key Terms and Definitions

The following are a few of the key terms that you should know and understand related to classical conditioning and operant conditioning:

• Conditioned Response
• Conditioned Stimulus
• Discrimination
• Fixed-Interval Schedule
• Fixed Ratio Schedule
• Habituation
• Negative Punishment
• Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Punishment
• Positive Reinforcement
• Stimulus Generalization
• Unconditioned Response
• Unconditioned Stimulus
• Variable-Interval Schedule
• Variable-Ratio Schedule

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: Study Questions

As you study classical conditioning and operant conditioning, be sure that you are able to answer the following questions.

• What effect do schedules of reinforcement have on acquiring a new behavior?
• What are reinforcement and punishment? How do they differ?
• What are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?
• What are positive punishment and negative punishment?
• People often confuse punishment with negative reinforcement. How are they different?
• What are the differences between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical and operant conditioning can be powerful learning tools and have many real-world applications. Pavlov’s discovery may have occurred by accident, but it has influenced our understanding of how behaviors are learned.

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Similarities and Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Last updated 22 Mar 2021

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Classical and operant conditioning are both similar because they involve making association between behaviour and events in an organism’s environment and are governed by several general laws of association - for example, it is easier to associate stimuli that are similar to each other and that occur at similar times. However there are several important differences.

These include:

• In CC, the response is a reflex and involuntary. In OC, the response is voluntary behaviour.
• In CC, the stimulus is new to the animal. In OC, the behaviour is new to the animal.
• In CC, the reflex (response) follows the stimulus. In OC, the behaviour (response) precedes the reward or punishment (stimulus).
• In CC, association occurs whether the stimulus is pleasurable or aversive. In OC pleasurable reward leads to repetition while aversion leads to extinction.
• In CC, strength of conditioning is measured by speed or amount of response. In OC, strength is measured by rate of production of behaviour.

Strengths of the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourism provides simple, easily testable predictions about behaviour. For example, the effect of reinforcement on behaviour can be easily quantified.

Treatments based on classical or operant conditioning have been effective in treating some disorders. For example, systematic desensitisation can be used to treat Phobias (Wolpe, 1958).

Behaviourism played a key role in making psychology more scientific. For example, most researchers now accept that laboratory experiments with measurable variables are the best form of research.

Limitations of the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourism’s assumption of a general process of learning does not account for biological predispositions. For example, it is easier to learn phobias of some objects than others (Seligman, 1971).

Behaviourism's assumption that learning takes place through gradual S-R association cannot explain how animals can learn without reinforcement. Tolman & Honzik (1930) showed that rats could learn maps of mazes without operant conditioning.

Behaviourism finds it difficult to explain how humans construct new solutions to problems. For example, children can generate the plural forms of nouns they have never encountered before and could not have learned (Berko, 1958).

• Classical conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Behaviourist Approach
• Reinforcement
• Systematic Desensitisation

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