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Conceptual analysis article, research about inclusive education: are the scope, reach and limits empirical and methodological and/or conceptual and evaluative.

research proposals inclusive education

  • Graduate School of Education, University of Exeter, Exeter, England

This paper argues for a broader conception about research into inclusive education, one that extends beyond a focus on empirical factors associated with inclusive education and the effects of inclusive education. It starts with a recent summary of international research into the effects of inclusive education on students with SEN/disabilities and those without. On the basis of this review, it examines a model showing the complexity of factors involved in asking questions about the effects of inclusive education. This complexity reflects the ambiguity and complexity of inclusive education, which is discussed in terms of varied contemporary positions about inclusive education. The analysis illustrates how there has been more focus on thin concepts of inclusion (as setting placement or in general terms) rather than its normative and value basis, which reflects a thick concept of inclusion. The paper concludes by illustrating with the use of a version of the capability approach how there are value tensions implicit in inclusion about difference and about personal vs. public choice. This requires value clarification and some settlement about the balance of values, which is where deliberative democratic principles and processes have a crucial role. The proposed answer to the paper’s question about the scope, reach and limits of research in inclusive education is that such research involves both empirical, methodological, and evaluative matters. Educational research about inclusive education is not just empirical, it also involves value and norm clarification, a process which has been too often ignored.

Introduction

In asking about the scope, reach and limits of research in inclusive education in this paper, the aim is to examine some contemporary findings in one area of research in inclusive education and how value positions are implicated. Policy makers are interested in the effects of inclusive education and researchers are keen to provide evidence that bears on policy making. The paper will start off with a research review which was conducted as a specific response to a policy maker’s request. However, this kind of research, which can be described as treating inclusion as a technical matter, has been widely criticized. For example, Slee and Weiner (2001) identify two groups of researchers; (i) those who work within, what they call the “positivist paradigm,” accept the way things are, attempt to make marginal reforms and who criticize “full inclusion” as ideological and (ii) those who see inclusive education as cultural politics and call for educational reconstruction. Though these authors align with the second group, it is interesting that the first author subsequently uses research which treats inclusive education as a technical matter to support a position about inclusive education. Subsequently, Slee (2018) has referred to a review by Hehir et al. (2016) that depends on a systematic review of technical style studies to support his claims about how: “adjustments made to classrooms, to curriculum and to pedagogy to render classrooms more inclusive and enabling also benefit students without disabilities” (p. 69).

In discussing what this review of Inclusive Education Effects (IE) can tell us and what it cannot, the paper will examine a model showing the complexity of factors involved in asking questions about the effects of inclusive education. It then moves on to consider what other kinds of questions might be asked in research about inclusive education that cannot be addressed through effects-focussed methodologies. At this point in the paper, the issue arises about how the results from empirical studies relate to what is called inclusion or inclusive education. So, varied perspectives on inclusive education are summarized, including those of some parents, based on a recent study of parents’ experiences of deciding to opt for special schooling. These perspectives reflect the ambiguity and complexity of inclusive education, illustrating how the concept is often used in a thin way in empirical studies by focusing more on its empirical identification and causal relationships than its more expanded normative and value basis, a thick concept of inclusion. The paper concludes by using a version of the capability approach to examine issues about “full inclusion” and what can be called a more balanced or reasoned inclusion. This reveals two key dilemmas about difference and about personal vs. public choice that are relevant to providing inclusion with a well-founded value basis. The paper concludes with the claim that research into inclusive education involves technical, methodological, and evaluative matters. It proposes a role for public deliberation in clarifying and settling these value and norm clarification, process which have been largely ignored.

Review of inclusive education effects

The aims of this review were to (i) identify and summarize contemporary international research on IE effects and (ii) draw implications for policy, practice and future research in IE field. The context of this review was that it was undertaken in 2019 by three members of the Lead Group of the SEN Policy Research Forum (SENPRF) 1 following informal communications with the Government Department for Education (DfE) about national SEN and inclusion policy. The Forum was asked to summarize relevant research which was then presented as well to the national SEN Review ( Gray et al., 2020 ).

Ten sources were identified coming from a 2 stage process. Firstly, the authors identified relevant papers already known to them (4 papers). This was then supplemented, secondly, by a data base search using ERIC and ERC databases for the period 2009–2019. Search terms involved all variations of inclusion/inclusive education/mainstreaming × achievement/social emotional X effects. For the ERIC database 630 articles were retrieved with only 5 identified as relevant; for the ERC database 544 articles were retrieved with only one identified as relevant. In this way 10 papers were identified (see Gray et al., 2020 for more details). Five of the papers were reviews of international studies ( Ruijs and Peetsma, 2009 ; Dyssegaard and Larsen, 2013 ; Oh-Young and Filler, 2015 ; Hehir et al., 2016 ; Szumski et al., 2017 ). Some of these reviews included studies conducted before the 2009 cut-off date used for this review. Three involved a quasi-experimental designs, two with collected data and one using national administrative data. Four involved multi-variate statistical analyses of longitudinal data; with 2 using cohort studies. The papers were either from the United States or European countries, with none from the United Kingdom. Inclusion was mostly defined in the studies covered in terms of a mainstream class setting compared to a special class/school setting. Few gave details about the setting. Where they did, the proportion of time in the mainstream class was reported (e.g., greater or less than 80% of time). In one example, an inclusive setting was defined as being in general classrooms with several hours support per week and receiving therapy support too. Special school was described as small classes (5–8 children) taught by a specialist teacher with an assistant and therapy support ( Sermier Dessemontet et al., 2012 ).

The review was organized into four broad areas: (i) academic effects on students with SEN/disabilities and (ii) social-emotional effects on students with SEN/disabilities, (iii) academic effects on students without SEN/disabilities, and (iv) social-emotional effects on students without SEN/disabilities. For the first area, five sources were used with the balance of findings showing more academic gains of students with a range of SEN in ordinary rather than separate settings. These students were broadly characterized as having mild to moderate SEN/disabilities with the gains being in mostly literacy, but some in maths. One of the review papers reminded readers that this evidence did not show that “full” or “complete” inclusion had higher gains to special education settings for students with mild disabilities.

For the review area, academic effects for non-disabled students, the reviews of older studies, done before 2010 presented a mixed overall picture. However, on balance most studies showed more neutral or positive than negative effects for non-disabled students. However, some more recent individual studies rather than reviews indicated specific weak to moderate negative academic effects on non-disabled students, e.g., having classmates with emotional/behavior difficulties ( Fletcher, 2010 ) or special school returners ( Gottfried and Harven, 2015 ). Other studies indicated some small positive effects, associated with positive teacher attitudes, their training, strategies geared to diverse needs and problem-solving oriented schools ( Hehir et al., 2016 ). In addition, reviews were mixed about the negative academic effects of students with emotional and behavior difficulties on students without SEN/disabilities.

For the review area about social-emotional effects on SEN/disabled students, there were fewer studies than for academic effects. Here the sources showed mixed results. While one review referred to mostly positive outcomes ( Hehir et al., 2016 ), the other significant review reported that no conclusions can be drawn ( Ruijs and Peetsma, 2009 ). One specific recent study found no adaptive behavior differences across settings ( Sermier Dessemontet et al., 2012 ). For the fourth review area about social emotional effects for non-disabled students, there were also relatively few studies. These were recorded in review papers and showed some positive effects, e.g., less discriminating attitudes, increased acceptance, and understanding.

Research limitations and some relevant conclusion

As in other educational research focussed on effects, there are various design limitations to these inclusion effect studies. These studies use a range of approaches from quasi-experimental designs (QED) to multi-variate statistical analyses of longitudinal data and administrative data sets. With QED, as there is no randomized group allocation, there can be some “participant bias,” e.g., students in inclusive settings might have higher starting levels of functioning. Many of these papers refer to a series of limitations. Studies often use differing definitions of the compared settings. Comparisons are also often defined in terms of placements, e.g., special school v. ordinary school or special class/unit vs. ordinary class, not in terms of school-level (e.g., school ethos), or class level factors (e.g., quality of teaching). Findings relate to specific student age groups and areas of SEN/disability and not others. There is also the risk that other areas of SEN/impairment may not be controlled for in comparisons. Sometimes SEN/disability is also used generically to cover a range of areas and so the comparison becomes between SEN v non-SEN or disabled vs. non-disabled. How these terms are used can also vary internationally. In terms of statistical analyses, sample sizes may be under-powered to draw confident conclusions. Some effect measures, especially for the social-emotional effects could have improved measurement characteristics (e.g., reliability and validity).

For the purposes of this paper three main concluding points can be drawn from this review of inclusive education effects. The first point is that the basic typology of effects (academic and socio-emotional inclusion effects for SEN/disabled students and non-SEN/disabled children) needs to take account of other factors. These include the kinds of SEN/disability, phases of schooling, quality of support for learning and structural class and school factors. Some of these factors might moderate the effects. These are illustrated in Table 1 .

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Table 1. Framework of focus and interacting factors relevant to the effects of inclusive education.

What this framework indicates is the multi-dimensionality of inclusive education and the complexity of factors that relate to their varied effects. This implies that there is a need for more nuanced policy and practice questions about inclusive education and consequently more nuanced kinds of studies about inclusive education. This would counter the commonly found preferences that look for simple generalized empirical relationships to confirm pre-existing positions; avoiding what has been called the pervasive confirmation bias ( Wason, 1960 ).

The second main point to make from this review is that the balance of evidence finds neutral or small positive effects as opposed to negative effects. This means that adopting an “on balance” position is the wise way to summarize the review outcome. Both positive and negative effects need to be understood in terms of the complex interaction of individual, class and school factors, on one hand, and what counts as inclusive education and the specific types of effects, on the other. The value of a framework like in Table 1 is that it reflects points from research findings about factors in those interactions that are more or less alterable, with this having policy implications. The third main point of conclusion from this review is that it is useful to develop this kind of mapping of the kinds of interacting factors related to questions about inclusion effects. This is relevant both to the design of further studies and to drawing conclusions for policy.

Unaddressed questions about inclusive education

The kinds of effectiveness research discussed above still leave some crucial questions about inclusive education unaddressed. Although there is scope for more sophisticated research designs to evaluate the effects of inclusive education, the use of multivariate statistical techniques involves large samples which are often not available, especially in some areas of SEN/disability, e.g., severe and profound and multiple learning difficulties SLD/PMLD). So, there are questions still to be asked about the inclusion of students with SLD/PMLD and those with significant emotional and behavior difficulties. These are difficult to address partly because of the relatively low incidence of these areas of difficulties but also the scarcity of practices involving these students in what would be called inclusive settings ( Agran et al., 2020 ). In a rare US quasi-experimental study, for example, 15 pairs of early years and primary aged children with “extensive support needs,” were matched across 12 characteristics based on their first complete Individual Education Program (IEP). One child in each pair was included in general education for 80% or more of their day, while the other was in a separate special education class ( Gee et al., 2020 ). Extensive analyses were shown to indicate more engagement and higher outcomes in general classrooms. But, in terms of what this study implies for inclusive education, there are no details of the students’ level of intellectual disability in these pairs and so we do not know if they had severe/profound intellectual disabilities or in United Kingdom terms SLD or PMLD. Nor does the report indicate details about the type of support and adaptations that were made for those in the general class or whether they spent 20% of their time in a separate class setting.

In the United Kingdom by comparison, reports about inclusive practices are in the form of cases or demonstration models of inclusive practice. For example, an illustration of inclusive practice with students with PMLD involved a common interactive music program for learners with PMLD and those from a mainstream primary school that enabled learning for all involved ( Education Wales, 2020 ). Though this inclusive program took place in a special school setting, it could have also been in an ordinary school setting. Both the primary school and special school children benefitted in their own ways from the joint activities, which seemed to enable its inclusiveness through it focus on the expressive arts.

The implication is that effectiveness research about inclusive education does not bear directly on the basic questions about the future of special classes and schools, settings which have been interpreted as being inconsistent with “full inclusion” ( UNICEF, 2017 ). The uses of terms like “full inclusion” or an “inclusive system at all levels” are unclear about whether they can involve some part-time separate settings (e.g., 20% of class time) or not. They are also unclear about whether fixed term (e.g., 1 year) placements in separate settings are compatible with an inclusive system and whether an “inclusive system at all levels” implies the closure of all special schools in the foreseeable future.

Critiques of “full inclusion” over many years have been about the position representing a “moral absolute” that requires the elimination of any alternative placements or settings to ordinary class placements ( Kauffman et al., 2021 , p. 20). For Kauffman and colleagues, the “full inclusion” focus on place rather than instruction or teaching is deeply problematic. They question those interpretations of Article 24 of the CRPD ( UN, 2006 ) that the Convention implies “full inclusion” without attention to the quality of teaching and alternative placements. However, what both advocates of “full inclusion” and these above critics have in common is that they both use false oppositions or dichotomies; with one pole being favored and the other pole rejected. They mirror each other in this kind of thinking.

There have, however, also been more nuanced arguments about inclusion over the years. Fuchs and Fuchs (1998) , for example, identified strengths and limitations in arguments of both “full inclusionists” and “inclusionists.” They see the former group (full inclusionists) as focussed more on children with more severe disabilities (low incidence needs), prioritizing social attitude and interaction learning, while the latter (inclusionists) are focussed more on children with high incidence needs, prioritizing academic learning and accepting a continuum of provision. Fuchs and Fuchs (1998) raise the question of whether “full inclusionists” are willing to “sacrifice children’s academic or vocational skills” for their social priorities ( Fuchs and Fuchs, 1998 , p. 312). This identifies the differences over inclusive education as one of value priorities, a point to be returned to later in this paper.

One way to take a broader perspective is to consider the practice and theory of a “full inclusive education” commitment. From the practice perspective, we can examine the Canadian New Brunswick system, which is cited as an example of “full inclusion” ( National Council for Special Education [NCSE], 2019 ). In a statement by the Porter et al. (2012) , a core inclusive principle is that:

“… public education is universal—the provincial curriculum is provided equitably to all students and this is done in an inclusive, common learning environment shared among age-appropriate, neighborhood peers” (p. 184).

However, in this publication evidence is given of the use of part-time and full-time “streaming” in primary and secondary schools and some alternative settings (0.4–1.5% across Francophone districts: p. 91). The reference in the above core principle to “common learning environments” is central to the definition of inclusive education. This phrase was introduced as an expansive definition:

“to dispel the misperception that inclusion is having every learner in a regular classroom all the time, no matter what the circumstances” ( AuCoin et al., 2020 , p. 321).

By using this term “common learning environment” in this way and not referring to ordinary/mainstream class environments, the New Brunswick conception of inclusive education is open to use of some alternative settings which is inconsistent with “full inclusion” and compatible with the concept of a flexible continuum of provision.

Inclusive education: concept, theory, and ambiguity

Given these ambiguities, on one hand, and the passions associated with inclusion and inclusive education, on the other hand, the analysis needs to consider the value of inclusion as this might inform some of the applied questions about inclusive education. In this regard, Felder (2018) has identified that inclusion tends to be a thin concept in empirical studies, like those discussed above. This is illustrated in the way the terms inclusion/inclusive are used in these studies. It is also why “what counts as inclusion” is an important part of the framework in Table 1 about the focus and interacting factors relevant to the effects of inclusive education. What these empirical studies do is focus more on matters related to how to realize inclusive education than consider and justify its expanded normative and value basis, what Felder (2018) called a thick concept of inclusion.

For Felder, an important distinction here is between communal inclusion (gemeinschaft) and societal inclusion (gesellschaft), to use the German terms from the social theorist Tonnies. Societal inclusion is about social relationships formed through instrumental rationality, while communal inclusion is about social relationships found in friendships, love relationships and interpersonal ties. In this analysis, the structures of societal inclusion can influence what make communal inclusion possible. However, communal inclusion sets some limits to the extent to which this form of communal inclusion can be secured through human rights. Felder’s analysis implies that human rights are not able to fully secure the social freedom and recognition, esteem or solidarity that are often neglected aspects of inclusion. In Felder’s analysis inclusive education which ultimately depends on social inclusion depends on social intentionality or agents acting collectively. People need to be integrated in a cooperative societal context to use their freedoms and basic rights. This underlines the importance of people having a degree of freedom to decide where they want to be included and be associated with. And, if disabled people are to have similar freedoms as other people in positive terms, they require more goods than others, because of the problem of converting these resources into practical opportunities. This is the basic assumption deriving from the capability approach ( Sen, 1979 ), which will discussed further below.

This thick concept on inclusion can also be contrasted with some current concepts of what inclusion means in inclusive education. Two leading concepts will be discussed and contrasted with a third which relates directly to students with more severe/profound disabilities. The first perspective, proposed by Warnock (2005) emphasizes that inclusion means the entitlement of everyone to learning in a personally relevant way, wherever this takes place. This concept of inclusion can imply and be used to justify separate settings for learning, e.g., special schools and classes in general schools, while overlooking the social effects and significance of separation, especially if it is imposed. Another leading concept of inclusion in inclusive education, associated with the Inclusion Index ( Booth and Ainscow, 2011 ) focuses on increasing student participation and reducing exclusion from “the cultures, curricula and communities of local schools” (p. 6). This concept implies that “all are under same roof,” a phrase used by Warnock (2005) , with the onus on local ordinary schools to accommodate diversity. This concept says little about how much diversity can be accommodated nor whether restructuring local schools could include some internal school separation.

It is also useful to contrast these two leading concepts with a 40 year old concept of partial inclusion that relates specifically to students with more severe/profound disabilities ( Baumgart et al., 1982 ). The basic premise of the principle of partial participation is that all severely disabled students have “a right to educational services that allow them to be the most that they can be” (p. 4). This implies engaging in as many different activities in as many different environments as instructionally possible. Baumgart et al. (1982) clarify that such partial participation requires individualized adjustments or modifications of typical environmental conditions. They also note that observing severely disabled and non-disabled students will show that they do not participate in activities to the same degree and in the same ways. This concept is characterized by its strong focus on what is pedagogically possible, going beyond the generalities of the two more prominent recent concepts.

Different policy positions

The leading international policy position on inclusive education is in Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD; UNICEF, 2017 ). The CRPD stresses that inclusive education is a fundamental human right for every child with a disability. It defines an inclusive education system as one that “accommodates all students whatever their abilities or requirements, and at all levels.” This position is justified in various terms: the educational case is that all children learn more effectively in an inclusive system; the social case is that this contributes to more inclusive societies and the economic case that it is more cost-effective.

However, not all countries accept Article 24 as shown by the United Kingdom Government having ratified the UNCRPD but stating specific reservations about preserving parents right to choose a special school education. This position has been United Kingdom (England) policy for over a decade. For example, the results of the consultation about the Green Paper that preceded 2014 revised SEN and disability legislation, were interpreted as showing widespread support. The public consultation was interpreted as showing support for parents to have the right to express a preference for any state funded mainstream or special school ( Department for Education [DFE], 2011 ).

It is revealing to compare these policy perspectives on inclusive education with those of parents who have selected special schools for their children with SEN/disabilities. A recent United Kingdom study examined the views of parents of pupils in special schools in the South West of England: their reasons for choosing special school, the extent to which they felt they had an independent choice, their views on alternative provision and their concepts of inclusive education ( Satherley and Norwich, 2021 ). Analysis showed that the top three reported factors as influencing decisions were school atmosphere, caring approach to pupils and class size, a finding that connected with their concepts of inclusive education. Not only does this small-scale study show distinctive parental perspectives on schooling and the dilemmas they experienced in choosing provision for their children, but concepts of inclusive education that depart from some of those discussed above. Over half considered that high quality inclusive education provision meant a sense of belonging to a class and school and social acceptance by peers, on one hand, and a more individualized curriculum, on the other. In addition, for many parents the belonging, social acceptance and Individualized curriculum was found only in special schools. By contrast, quality inclusive education rarely meant a resource base or specialist unit attached to mainstream school (28%), joint placement (21%), co-located schools (19%) or mainstream provision only (8.8%). What characterizes these parents’ perspectives was that they did not refer to placement, where provision is made. The UNCRP assumes that inclusion means placing students with disabilities within mainstream classes with appropriate adaptations ( UNCRPD, 2016 , p. 3). So, these parents mostly held different views from the dominant UNCRPD concept of inclusive education, discussed above.

The capability approach

A thick concept of inclusion in inclusive education, as discussed above, implies the importance of people having a degree of freedom to decide where they want to be included and with whom they associate. It was also suggested above that if disabled people are to have similar freedoms as other people, they require more resources than others, because of the problem of converting these resources into practical opportunities. This is where the capability approach developed by Sen (1979) can act as rich conceptual and value resource for thinking about inclusive education. Its discussion in this paper is not as a complete approach to the field, 2 but as the kind of framework that assists in thinking about what is involved in a just education system.

For Sen (1979) , the capability approach is about evaluating someone’s advantages in terms of his or her actual ability to achieve various valuable functionings as a part of living. Terzi (2014) expresses what a capability represents in terms of the “genuine, effective opportunities that people have to achieve valued functionings” (p. 124). What is distinctive about the capability approach is how it answers the political-ethical question about equality of what? Unlike perspectives which either focus on equality of resources or opportunities, the capability approach focuses on genuine opportunities. For Terzi, capabilities as genuine opportunities are important because they ensure that individuals can choose the kind of life they have reason to value. This also implies a fundamental role for agency in realizing the valued plans in one’s life. This has implications for the balance of choice, especially where it concerns children and young people. It has also been argued that a capability-oriented approach needs to acknowledge children’s agency in determining their own valued functionings and not just be determined by adults ( Dalkilic and Vadeboncoeur, 2016 ). This introduces some nuance into how a capability approach might work in relation to education, but this is not the paper to discuss these matters further. There are also issues about determining the capability set to be equalized. In considering whether there are basic universal capabilities there are also questions about opting for adequacy rather than equality in capabilities and whether some capabilities require equality. These matters will also not be addressed here.

Where the capabilities approach is incomplete is in considering the design questions of how to equalize capabilities; how to organize education to achieve this goal? Two key questions will be considered in relation to this question:

i how are “valuable functionings” identified? This is about the balance between personal preferences (agency) vs. public choice (democracy);

ii how to address the dilemmas of difference? This is about recognition of difference as either enabling vs. stigmatizing ( Norwich, 2013 ).

The second question about differences and differentiation will be dealt with first. In the capability approach thinking about equalizing capabilities is in terms of dignity. In these terms two ways of equalizing dignity can be considered from an educational perspective. One way of equalizing dignity is to respond to the individual functioning of all; this can be seen as about enabling learning for all. Another way is to avoid marking out students as different; this can be seen as avoiding the risk of stigma/humiliation. For example, some parents of children and young people are reluctant to seek out a diagnosis for their children, e.g., autism of ADHD, while others seek them out. These two ways of equalizing dignity can lead to a tension: differentiation as enabling but also risking stigma and devaluation, which can present a dilemma about difference/differentiation.

One way to connect how to address the dilemma of difference to conceptions of inclusion is in terms of the distinction which Cigman (2007) has made between “universal” and “moderate” inclusion. For Cigman, in “universal” inclusion, any marking out through separation of some children is to be avoided—through identification, different curricula, teaching and settings along a continuum of provision. This separation is regarded as a mark of devaluation and stigma; its avoidance is presented as a way of promoting respect. She contrasted this with “moderate” inclusion, that recognizes that promoting respect is also about identifying pupils’ personal strengths, difficulties and circumstances in a way that is enabling and not just stigmatizing. Based on this thinking there can be two broad responses to dilemmas of difference:

• it is possible to respond to the individual functional requirements (enabling route) and to avoid separation (avoid stigmatizing route); there are no dilemmas of difference representing a “universal” inclusion perspective.

• It is possible to some extent to respond to the individual functional requirements (enabling route) and to avoid separation (avoid stigmatizing route), but not fully: there are some dilemmas of difference which can be resolved to some extent. This represents a “moderate” inclusion perspective, what might better be represented as a reasoned and balanced inclusion.

This line of thinking shows how political-ethical questions about equalizing capabilities implicate dilemmas of difference in concepts of inclusion in inclusive education.

Deliberative democracy and citizens’ assemblies: personal vs. public choice

The second question arising from issues linked to the capability approach is how are “valuable functionings” identified? This has been framed as about the balance between personal preferences (agency) and public or social choice (democracy). In the United Kingdom (English) SEN/disability policy context, there has been over several decades a strong adoption of a “parental choice—provision diversity” approach—or what has also been called a neo-liberal approach ( Runswick-Cole, 2011 ). Here the choice is placed firmly with the individual. However, there has also been a persistent concern about United Kingdom (England) policy failure, which has been interpreted as reflecting an over-emphasis on personal preference rather than public choice ( Lehane, 2017 ). This has even been recognized more recently by policy makers, including the contemporary Department for Education Review of SEN/disability policy and practice ( Department for Education [DFE], 2022 ). This is a case of a Government having to confront the results of decades of policy which have not supported inclusive practices in a strategic way:

“…the need to restore families” trust and confidence in an inclusive education system with excellent mainstream provision that puts children and young people first; and the need to create a system that is financially sustainable and built for long-term success ( Department for Education [DFE], 2022 , p. 5).

However, this is not just about persistent policy failure over SEN/disability, it can be seen to also illustrate the democratic deficits in general educational and general social policy-making processes. SEN/disability inclusion cannot be detached from these other systems within the wider education system, such as school accountability, curriculum focus, and design, behavior management etc., because of their strong inter-connections. This is where Crouch’s (2011) Post-Democracy analysis is relevant in identifying how policy-making could better reflect stakeholder’s perspectives. This also connects to Felder’s (2018) examination of the meaning of inclusion, as encompassing communal and societal aspects and as being inherently social in its links to social intentions and actions. Felder goes onto to argue that the inclusion in inclusive education involves all stakeholders at all levels, from individuals to structural levels.

The implication of this analysis is that there needs to be more public deliberation and choice about inclusive education and a better balance between personal preferences and public choice. Following this argument Norwich (2019) has argued for an Educational Framework Commission, as a non-governmental policy initiative that uses representative citizen assemblies and other approaches to seek informed common ground between different stakeholders in policy making. This is one way to consider what is involved in a thick concept of inclusion in its links to democracy and as setting the context for research into inclusive education.

Several conclusions can be drawn from the above analysis about the scope, reach and limits of research on inclusive education. First, inclusive education is multi-dimensional, ambiguous and normative. This is related to the discussion about using inclusion as a thick or thin concept. The thick—thin distinction has been associated with the philosopher Williams (1985) in relation to ethical evaluations. Both thin and thick concepts involve evaluations, but thick concepts also have more complexity and descriptive content, while with thin concepts there is little sense of what is evaluated positively or negatively. In the case of inclusive education, the characteristic qualified by the term inclusive is positive without knowing much about the characteristic. For example, describing some education practice as “inclusive” reflects a thin use of the term, while qualifying the term “inclusive” as in “societal inclusion” or “curriculum inclusion in a separate setting” reflects more content and veers toward a thicker use of the concept. Kirchin (2013) has suggested that this thin-thick distinction is better represented as a continuum from thin to thick, which fits the use of the term “inclusive,” in these three examples, “inclusive practice,” “societal inclusion” to “curriculum inclusion in a separate setting.”

What makes inclusion in inclusive education a thick term is its multi-dimensionality which can also engender value tensions that need to be resolved. As argued above, this requires value clarification and some settlement about the balance of values, which is where deliberative democratic principles and processes have a crucial role. However, these processes can be Informed by empirical research, such as those summarized above. So, the answer in this paper to the question about the scope, reach and limits of research in inclusive education is that such research involves both empirical, methodological and evaluative matters. Educational research about inclusive education is not just empirical, it also involves value and norm clarification, a process which has been too often ignored. However, some empirical research in the field, such as the effects type summarized above, requires thin concepts of inclusion, as this is the only way that systematic empirical metrics can be set up for the kinds of large scale linking of variables. So, there is a place for both thin and thick concepts of inclusion in which they can interact. Thick concepts of inclusion can inform the foci for empirical research, while thin concepts used in empirical conclusions can inform how thick concepts develop through deliberative processes.

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Conflict of interest

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  • ^ SEN Policy Research Forum, an independent network based in the United Kingdom, that aims to contribute intelligent analysis and the use of knowledge and experience to promote the development of policy and practice for children and young people with special educational needs and disabilities.
  • ^ Sen indicated himself that the capability approach is an incomplete approach as it requires local democratic social choice in defining capabilities ( Sen, 2017 ).

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Keywords : inclusive education, inclusion, research, effects, evaluations, thin and thick concepts

Citation: Norwich B (2022) Research about inclusive education: Are the scope, reach and limits empirical and methodological and/or conceptual and evaluative? Front. Educ. 7:937929. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.937929

Received: 06 May 2022; Accepted: 29 June 2022; Published: 15 July 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Norwich. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Brahm Norwich, [email protected]

Inclusive Education Research & Practice

Profile image of Carol Quirk

Over 20 years of research has consistently demonstrated that the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms results in favorable outcomes. Positive outcomes have been shown for both students with high incidence disabilities (learning disabilities and other “mild” disabilities) and those with low incidence disabilities (intellectual, multiple, and “severe” disabilities). This body of research includes quantitative studies where the standard is replication as well as qualitative studies that aim for complete, detailed descriptions in order to answer ‘how’ questions.

Related Papers

international journal of research in special education

Avinash V Aneraye

The transformational goal of inclusive education is to provide for the varied needs of all students, including those with disabilities, in regular classroom environments. This essay explores the complex topic of inclusive education, looking at the methods used, the advantages realized, and the difficulties faced in providing a fair learning environment for people with disabilities. The methods section thoroughly examines the many tactics and procedures used to carry out inclusive education. These tactics include modified curricula, differentiated education, assistive technology, and teacher professional development. Teachers may establish an inclusive classroom that provides the best possible learning environment for children with disabilities by combining these several approaches. Academic, social, and emotional aspects of the advantages of inclusive education are examined. The benefits of inclusive practices for students with disabilities' social integration, cognitive growth, and academic success are highlighted by research findings. Additionally, inclusive education fosters empathy and understanding in all students by promoting a culture of diversity and inclusion. The path to inclusive education is not without difficulties, though. This study examines the obstacles that hinder the effective execution of inclusive practices, such as inadequate resources, hurdles related to attitudes, and the requirement for continuous professional growth. Additionally, methods for resolving these issues are covered, focusing on the value of community, legislator, and educator cooperation. This thorough investigation adds to the current conversation on inclusive education by offering information to educators, scholars, and decision-makers who want to improve educational opportunities for people with disabilities. Through collective knowledge and resolution of the tactics, advantages, and obstacles related to inclusive education, involved parties may jointly establish an educational environment that is both inclusive and easily accessible to all.

research proposals inclusive education

The Journal of The Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps

Diane Ryndak

. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development

This article addresses the inclusion mandate of students with disabilities through a case study. It begins with a review of debates concerning inclusive education and this current qualitative research aims to observe the extend of implementing inclusive education among students with mild learning disabilities in integration programs also known as the Special Education Integration Program for Students with Learning Disabilities. To address the issue, four Special Education teachers were selected as participants in this single site single case study. Data was collected through classroom observations, interviews and document analysis to investigate (1) the pedagogical aspects involve in implementing inclusive education among students with mild learning disabilities and (2) the adaptation made by the teacher in the curriculum prior implementing inclusive education. Result demonstrated that students were involved in both full and partial inclusion. Students with mild learning disabilities were not accompanied by special education teachers and they were fully taught by mainstream teachers who has never undergone any training on special education. The study recommends that students with learning disabilities who attend inclusive program should be accompanied by special education teachers or student management assistant/teacher assistant. It is also suggested that the mainstream teachers should be given appropriate training so that they too have knowledge to assist students to a better and meaningful life.

Duska Fields

A major premise of inclusive education for students with mild-severe disabilities is to provide skills, which enable them to live, work, and participate in an integrated community of life-long learners. Inclusive education would lead these students to greater independence and opportunity to be educated together in age appropriate general education classrooms. Three inclusion models were compared to determine which model would produce higher gains, both academically and socially in a high school multi-disability classroom. All three groups were their own control groups. Students were assigned to groups based on intellectual functioning and individual needs. Each group consisted of students that were relatively higher functioning, relatively lower functioning and students with severe needs. The settings included a general education classroom with adult/paraprofessional interaction, a general education setting with peer interactions or a small group instructional classroom with peer di...

Education Sciences

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY

Todd Grindal

International Journal of Special Education

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Joanne DEPPELER , Dianne Chambers

Yolanda Moran

With the special education reform in full swing, many of us teachers — especially general education teachers —find ourselves teaching students with disabilities and possibly collaborating with special education teachers. It is almost certain that more students with disabilities are included in classrooms with their nondisabled peers, and we need to understand how we can support them. First, examine your own beliefs and assumptions about inclusion. Before true inclusion can take place, we must first understand our own beliefs and assumptions about it and acknowledge where we stand on the issue. In order for us to truly support students with disabilities in the inclusion classroom, we must determine the potential benefits of inclusivity. I discuss with my co-teacher my expectations about co-teaching and supporting students with disabilities.

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  • Teachers’ readiness in supporting learners with learning impairments in mainstream secondary schools in rural areas  Madiba, Sewela Ruth ( 2023-05-10 ) Teachers’ skills and knowledge in supporting learners with learning impairments in Inclusive mainstream schools remain a perquisite without which learners with learning impairments can be placed at risk of being marginalised. ...
  • Support for grade 9 learners with reading difficulties in secondary schools of Leribe District in Lesotho  Mohleleng, Mookho Marianna ( 2023-03-29 ) Supporting Grade 9 learners who have reading difficulties in secondary school is important for the inclusion and academic success of these learners. This support requires teachers to employ a variety of learner-centred ...
  • Factors affecting the inclusion of children with disabilities in early childhood development centres in Masvingo primary schools, Zimbabwe  Musengi, Esther ( 2021-11 ) The study investigated factors affecting the inclusion of children with disabilities in early childhood development centres in primary schools in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. This was utilized as a basis for strategizing ...
  • Student teachers’ experiences in implementing inclusive education during teaching practice in Zimbabwean primary schools  Khumalo, Christin ( 2021-02 ) The study sought to investigate student teachers’ experiences in implementing inclusive education during teaching practice in Zimbabwean primary schools. The investigation serves as a springboard to establishing a teacher ...
  • Parental involvement in special schools of Gauteng east district as experienced by school principals and parents  Thwala, Fisokuhle Bernice ( 2023-03-09 ) The significance of Parental Involvement (PI) in the education of all children irrespective of their learning disabilities/abilities is crucial to enhance their scholastic performance, extra-curricular, skills development, ...
  • An exploratory case study of an online mindset programme with grade four learners who experience learning disabilities in KwaZulu-Natal  Goodrick, Penny Lynne ( 2020-08-11 ) The purpose of the current qualitative study sought to investigate how grade four learners with learning disabilities understand themselves as learners following Brainology instruction. The provision of various interventions ...
  • Graduate pre-service primary school teacher preparation for inclusion in education in Zimbabwe  Chipika, Charles Govero ( 2021-02-25 ) Proficient and appropriate preparation of pre-service teachers is a decisive milestone in guaranteeing inclusion in education in addressing Zimbabwe’s teacher education challenges as pitfalls in this service by its ...
  • Teaching strategies for learners with autism spectrum disorder in Johannesburg : a case study  Nyatanga, Sitembile ( 2020-08 ) The current study explored teaching strategies for learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) at a purposefully sampled special school in Johannesburg East District in the Gauteng Province of South Africa as the context ...
  • Professional preparation of primary school teachers for inclusive education in Nigeria  Daniyan, Olatope Oladunni ( 2020-02-20 ) Since Nigeria adopted inclusive education in compliance with the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994), other global human rights instruments, and in alignment with several ...
  • The inclusion of students with visual impairment in tertiary institutions : a case study of teachers’ training college at Machakos, Kenya  Adongo, Joshua Odhiambo ( 2023-04-22 ) The study investigated the inclusion of students with visual impairments (VI) at tertiary institutions in Kenya. It mainly focused on the role played by inclusive education policy, educational resources, environmental ...
  • Inclusion challenges faced by learners with physical impairments in Mamelodi East primary schools  Sekhwela, Mosibudi Phillipine ( 2022-08-31 ) The study: inclusion challenges faced by learners with physical impairments in Mamelodi East Primary schools, aims to highlight acceleration of education opportunities for LWPI in inclusive settings in order to transform ...
  • Assessment of the education of deaf students in the integrated primary schools of Amhara national regional state : practices, opportunities and challenges  Mengistu Yitayal Alemu ( 2023-02 ) The purpose of this study was to assess the educational practices, opportunities and challenges of deaf learners in Amhara National Regional State Integrated Primary Schools. Both qualitative and quantitative research ...
  • Teachers’ attitudes towards the use of Information and Communication Technology in inclusive primary schools  Nyathi, Dumisiwe Dorcas ( 2022-10-07 ) The integration of ICT remains a major barrier in education, negatively affecting the teaching and learning process in inclusive schools in South Africa. The purpose of the study therefore was to provide a deep understanding ...
  • Support for learners with reading difficulties in foundation phase in Magakala circuit  Makonko, Rebiditswe Caroline ( 2022-09-30 ) The study aimed to explore how teachers support learners with reading difficulties in the Foundation Phase. This qualitative study was conducted in five primary schools. In each school, three foundation phase teachers were ...
  • The inclusiveness of grouping practices in regular primary schools in the Johannesburg Metropolitan region of South Africa  Hove, Nilford ( 2019-05 ) Learner grouping is one of the classroom instructional pedagogies that can facilitate inclusion of all learners in the regular classrooms. This research sought to establish the inclusiveness of grouping practices in regular ...
  • The genealogical analysis of the implementation of inclusive education in Kwazulu-Natal full-service schools  Mbelu, Sifiso Emmanuel ( 2020-11-09 ) The implementation of inclusive education is stalling in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province. Full-service schools do not have capacity to implement the inclusive education policy, despite the commitment by the Department of ...
  • Communication support for learners with autism : a case of special schools in Umlazi district, Kwazulu-Natal province  Sekererayi, Chinyanga Grace ( 2022-01-23 ) The aim of this study was to investigate ways of providing communication support for learners with autism and to determine the challenges the teachers faced in special schools in Umlazi District in the province of ...
  • Challenges faced by teachers of dyslexic learners in public schools in the senior phase at Ekurhuleni District in Gauteng Province in South Africa  Thebe, Sifanele ( 2022-01 ) This study was conducted to determine the challenges faced by the Senior Phase teachers of dyslexic learners at Ekurhuleni district, to prevent inequalities, discrimination and inconsistencies in education. For this study, ...
  • Strategies to enhance performance of foundation phase grade 3 learners in diverse mathematics classrooms in the Waterberg District  Sambo, Tinyiko Florence ( 2022-01-18 ) Worldwide, mathematics is regarded as one of the most important subjects, where ithas been recognised that basic mathematical and quantitative skills are becomingincreasingly important in all jobs and life skills, for tasks ...
  • School-based care and support for intellectually disabled learners with a history of sexual abuse  Mdikana, Andile Alfred ( 2019-01-21 ) Sexual abuse of individuals with intellectual disabilities is a worldwide problem. To date, care and support services for learners with intellectual disabilities in South Africa are still a challenge despite robust legislative ...

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Finding home in education: A vision for inclusion and belonging in university spaces

Posted in: Internationalisation and Globalisation , Language and Educational Practices

A group of young people smiling.

This blog is from Mir Abdullah Miri , PhD Research Programme in Education

Earlier this year, I had the pleasure of participating in an art-based workshop, “ Finding Home in Education ,” hosted at King’s College London in collaboration with various Universities of Sanctuary. This event brought together people from asylum-seeking and refugee backgrounds who pursue their higher education across the UK. We used paintings, collages, and digital graphics to explore the concept of home in education. Since the initiative aligns with the theme for Refugee Week 2024, “Our Home,” our artworks were later displayed at different university sanctuaries nationwide.

On April 25th, 2024, the University of Bath, where I am studying for my PhD and a recipient of the Warm Welcome Scholarship, hosted an exhibition named after the workshop. This was a collaborative effort between Student Support and Bath STAR—Student Action for Refugees . Displaying my artwork along with those of other participants was deeply meaningful to me; this demonstrated how universities can build a sense of belonging and inclusion. The art-based expressions shared our personal narratives and visually communicated the broader challenges and aspirations of refugees in educational settings.

As Refugee Week 2024 approaches (June 17-23), it’s important to highlight how transformative education can be for those who have lost their homeland and are finding their feet in a new country. More than just knowledge, education provides a community where refugees feel understood and valued.

Managing expectations in refugee education

A triangular diagram that sums up how 'managing expectations' is influenced by 'volunteers and support workers', 'refugees' and 'educational institutions'.

Finding a way through the challenges of refugee education requires a flexible, compassionate approach that acknowledges the diverse backgrounds and difficulties faced by refugees. I advocate for what I call a triangular approach that corresponds with the expectations of three key groups: refugees themselves, support workers, and educational institutions.

Why a triangular approach? This approach addresses the diverse needs and experiences that refugees bring with them. It’s essential that each angle of the triangle—refugees, support workers, and educational institutions—plays its role effectively.

Refugees often arrive with qualifications that aren’t directly transferrable to their host environments. For example, a pharmacist from Syria might discover that to practice in the UK, additional exams and licensing are required. Refugees need to understand these requirements from the beginning, adjusting their expectations about how quickly they can resume their careers. Educational workshops on qualification conversion and recognition could help manage these expectations and provide a clear roadmap for professional inclusion.

Support workers must also manage their expectations regarding the assistance they can provide to refugees who plan to pursue higher education. They must recognise that while some universities offer specialised support recognising the specific challenges faced by refugees, others might not be as accommodating and may treat refugees similarly to other international students. For example, support workers might expect a university to adapt its requirements for a refugee with a professional background from Syria, only to find the institution adheres strictly to standard protocols. This discrepancy highlights the need for support workers to prepare for varying degrees of flexibility across universities and to advocate for more inclusive educational policies. This awareness enables support workers to guide refugees through potential challenges better and to identify institutions with supportive practices.

An artwork displaying a key with a University mortarboard on top of it. The words 'unlocking sanctuaries of belonging' and 'reimagining refugee education'.

Educational institutions play a crucial role by offering flexible options that acknowledge refugees’ prior learning and professional experience. A practical example could be a university that introduces an assessment programme specifically designed for refugees who had careers in their home country, such as portfolio reviews or competency tests, which assess professional knowledge without requiring full retraining. This approach would help refugees adapt more seamlessly into degree programmes or professional fields.

It is important to highlight that language proficiency is a common barrier. Universities could offer specialised language support classes that help refugees meet general proficiency requirements and cover technical language skills related to their fields of study. For example, a university might develop a targeted English for Healthcare Professionals course to help refugees with medical backgrounds adapt more quickly to the UK’s healthcare system.

Another practical application could involve a university providing bridging courses tailored to refugees’ prior educational backgrounds. For example, an engineer from Afghanistan might benefit from targeted support that recognises their previous experience and only requires them to take courses essential for meeting local professional standards.

By adjusting expectations and refining evaluation practices across these three areas, universities, support workers, and refugees themselves can create an educational environment that supports the unique needs of refugees and enriches the educational community as a whole. This triangular approach doesn’t just solve problems—it transforms challenges into opportunities for growth and learning for everyone involved.

How to support this cause more effectively

Supporting this cause requires combined efforts from multiple stakeholders. Universities can enhance their support by implementing more inclusive policies, such as recognising diverse educational backgrounds and offering tailored language support. Workshops like “Finding Home in Education” are crucial for fostering dialogue and understanding between students from refugee backgrounds and the wider university community. These initiatives raise awareness and help create an environment where every student, regardless of their background, can feel at home.

To further these efforts, higher education institutions, policymakers, community leaders, refugee support organisations, and refugee families must work together to dismantle barriers and cultivate an educational landscape that celebrates diversity and inclusion. By doing so, we ensure that our universities are not just centres of learning but sanctuaries of hope and belonging for all.

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Navigating the language barrier: Innovative strategies for English Medium Instruction lecturers

This blog is from Dr Samantha Curle, Reader in Education (Applied Linguistics) In the ever-evolving landscape of global education, English Medium Instruction (EMI) has emerged as a pivotal element in higher education institutions worldwide (Macaro et al., 2018). However, the...

Two people working together using a laptop.

Advancing sustainable education: A cross-disciplinary framework for environmental literacy integration

This blog is from Afzal Munna, PhD Student in Education In the contemporary landscape of education, the imperative of sustainability stands as a crucial cornerstone. As we navigate complex environmental challenges, integrating environmental literacy into educational frameworks becomes paramount. This...

research proposals inclusive education

Climate Child: Educational responses to a changing earth

This blog is from Charlotte Hankin, PhD Student in Education From 29 January – 2 February 2024, I travelled to Queensland, Australia, to participate in the International Gathering of Climate Child and Youth Research Commission with supervisor and Head of...

A group of people arranging coloured post-it notes on the floor.

Stanford University

Research Development Specialist (Hybrid)

🔍 school of medicine, stanford, california, united states.

The Stanford School of Medicine Proposal Development Office (PDO) is seeking a junior Research Development Specialist to help faculty members and teams develop high-quality grant proposals and secure research funding. Partnering with faculty, staff, and administrators, the mission of the PDO is to: 1)  Train and support assistant professors preparing their first major research grant proposal, 2)  Foster interdisciplinary research among School of Medicine faculty members and ensure the long-term sustainability of collaborations through research funding, 3) Coordinate and support investigative teams preparing center or other complex grant proposals, and 4) Lead initiatives that increase institutional competitiveness and enable strategic research growth. Our vision is to empower growth of the research enterprise of the School of Medicine and to help fuel discovery and innovation that advances human health.

The ideal candidate for this position will have grant writing, editing, and project management skills. The ability to manage multiple projects, work independently, and meet deadlines in a fast-paced academic environment is essential for success in this role. We especially welcome applicants that are self-motivated, detailed-oriented, and committed to continuous improvement. The PDO places high value on a service-oriented approach and a collaborative mindset. The incumbent will join a growing community of Research Development Professionals at Stanford whose members are supportive and collectively dedicated to helping Stanford affiliates at all levels secure funding for their innovative research.

Duties include:

•    Provide comprehensive grant development support and strategic advice to School of Medicine faculty preparing grant applications, with an emphasis on assisting junior faculty and large teams. •    Coordinate and support School of Medicine teams preparing center or other complex grant proposals. Partnering with PIs, administrators, and University central offices, provide project management for the entire lifecycle of proposal development.   •    Serve as a liaison to funding agencies to understand sponsor priorities and submission requirements and advise teams on the development of responsive applications. •    Help faculty identify relevant funding opportunities through personalized funding searches. •    Write high-quality drafts of non-technical proposal components. •    Review, edit, and format proposal documents to ensure the submitted grant meets high quality standards.  •    Contribute to the design and creation of proposal development resources including grant development guides, best practices, checklists, and template text. •    Develop, teach, and evaluate grant writing workshops and seminars relevant to School of Medicine faculty. •    Conduct outreach activities with School of Medicine and University partners to build relationships and identify grant development support needs. •    Identify new funding opportunities to enable strategic growth of the School of Medicine’s research and educational missions.  •    Contribute to process improvement efforts within the Proposal Development Office. •    Actively participate in Research Development communities locally and nationally.

  • - Other duties may also be assigned

The expected pay range for this position is $95,000 to $116,000 per annum. Stanford University provides pay ranges representing its good faith estimate of what the university reasonably expects to pay for a position. The pay offered to a selected candidate will be determined based on factors such as (but not limited to) the scope and responsibilities of the position, the qualifications of the selected candidate, departmental budget availability, internal equity, geographic location and external market pay for comparable jobs.

DESIRED QUALIFICATIONS: •    Advanced degree in biomedical science or related discipline •    Expertise in grant writing and project management in a university setting •    Experience working in research development 

EDUCATION & EXPERIENCE (REQUIRED):

Bachelor's degree and three or more years of relevant experience or combination of education, training, and relevant experience. Advanced degree may be required for some programs. For jobs with financial responsibilities, experience managing a budget and developing financial plans.

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIES (REQUIRED): •    Ability to develop program partnerships and funding sources. •    Excellent oral, written, and analytical skills, exhibiting fluency in area of specialization.  •    Ability to oversee and direct staff. •    Knowledge of grant writing and sponsor guidelines.

CERTIFICATIONS & LICENSES:

•    For teaching jobs, advanced degree or certification may be required for some programs. 

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS*:

•    Frequently stand/walk, sitting, grasp lightly/fine manipulation, perform desk-based computer tasks. •    Occasionally use a telephone, writing by hand, lift/carry/push/pull objects that weigh up to 40 pounds. •    Rarely sort/file paperwork or parts, lift/carry/push/pull objects that weigh >40 pounds. •    Ability to use voice to present information/communicate with others. •    On-campus mobility.

* - Consistent with its obligations under the law, the University will provide reasonable accommodation to any employee with a disability who requires accommodation to perform the essential functions of his or her job.

WORKING CONDITIONS:

•    May work extended hours, evenings or weekends. •    May travel locally.  •    Occasional overnight travel. •    This position is based in Stanford’s Research Park and has the option of a telecommuting/hybrid schedule subject to operational needs.

WORK STANDARDS (from JDL)

•    Interpersonal Skills: Demonstrates the ability to work well with Stanford colleagues and clients and with external organizations. •    Promote Culture of Safety: Demonstrates commitment to personal responsibility and value for safety; communicates safety concerns; uses and promotes safe behaviors based on training and lessons learned. •    Subject to and expected to comply with all applicable University policies and procedures, including but not limited to the personnel policies and other policies found in the University's Administrative Guide, http://adminguide.stanford.edu .

  • Schedule: Full-time
  • Job Code: 4112
  • Employee Status: Regular
  • Requisition ID: 103545
  • Work Arrangement : Hybrid Eligible

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Dcps counters superintendent’s compensation proposal, offers $70k less in yearly pay, no monthly car stipend, dr. chris bernier asked for a $350k salary, $1,000 monthly car stipend, $15,000 in moving expenses.

Travis Gibson , Digital reporter/editor

Anne Maxwell , I-TEAM and general assignment reporter

JACKSONVILLE, Fla. – After backlash over the high salary and perks sought by incoming Duval County superintendent Dr. Chris Bernier , the Duval County School Board has come back with a counteroffer.

The board’s offer, which is significantly less than the offer first put forward by Bernier, comes after his initial proposal garnered strong reactions from the teachers union president and the public.

In his first pay proposal, which is part of ongoing negotiations, Bernier asked for a $350,000 per year salary, the maximum advertised for the job, a $1,000 monthly car stipend, up to $50,000 a year for a paid mentor, and monthly retirement contributions equivalent to 25% of his monthly base salary, which would equal $87,500 a year for a $350,000 per year salary.

MORE: ‘Ridiculous’: Teachers union leader blasts ‘excessive’ compensation requests by new Duval superintendent

In the board’s counterproposal, obtained by News4JAX on Thursday, it is offering Bernier a $280,000 annual salary, but did not offer some perks he proposed, including a car stipend, money for a mentor, and massive monthly retirement contributions. The district’s offer is less than the $300,000 a year the last superintendent, Dr. Diana Greene, was making.

The contract proposed by Bernier included a performance bonus of $30,000 for a rating of “highly effective” or $25,000 for “effective” that Bernier would distribute to his cabinet members at his discretion.

Under the board’s proposal, Bernier would be eligible for up to $20,000 in bonus pay if he meets goals set out by the school board each year.

The board said Bernier can use a district vehicle or get reimbursement for mileage on his car, but the distinct vehicle can’t be used for personal use.

The board said it would also pay $15,000 per year into a voluntary retirement account for Bernier and he can participate in the Florida retirement system like everyone else in the district.

However, the district did agree to offer up to $15,000 in moving and transition expenses, as Bernier had proposed, with the added caveat that it serves as reimbursement.

Tammie Brooks-Evans, president of the local union Duval Teachers United, said she thought the perks Bernier first sought were ridiculous. On Thursday, News4JAX asked her about the district’s offer.

“Parts of the offer are more of what we would expect. [I] have concerns about the amount of life insurance and the double retirement that he would be receiving,” Brooks-Evans said.

The district offered $750,000 in life insurance, which was less than the $900,000 Greene received.

“This is kind of how negotiations go. You come in high, they come in low and you end up someplace in the middle,” Brooks-Evans said.

Bernier would officially start on the date the contract is signed until June 2028, with the possibility of an extension.

Bernier was unanimously approved by the board as the next superintendent last month, but his compensation package has not been settled.

News4JAX was flooded with comments after details of the first contract proposal were first reported on Tuesday.

There were more than 220 comments on News4JAX.com and close to 700 comments on Instagram, where one account posted, “What if actually we raised the salary for teachers and school staff instead.”

The pay negotiations come as the district faces financial difficulties due to rising construction costs, aging infrastructure, and dropping enrollment in the face of expanded school choice options.

Copyright 2024 by WJXT News4JAX - All rights reserved.

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NSF enhances research security with new TRUST proposal assessment process

The U.S. National Science Foundation has announced a new risk mitigation process, the Trusted Research Using Safeguards and Transparency (TRUST) framework, which will guide the agency in assessing grant proposals for potential national security risks. The revised procedures will help safeguard U.S. taxpayer investments in research and innovation while strengthening international collaboration.

Developed by the NSF Office of the Chief of Research Security Strategy and Policy (OCRSSP), the TRUST framework includes three branches. The first focuses on assessing active personnel appointments and positions, while the second focuses on identifying instances of noncompliance with disclosure and other requirements. The third branch — the inclusion of potential foreseeable national security considerations — represents a significant new effort for NSF. The framework is designed to avoid curtailing beneficial research activities due to institutions or individuals in the community being overly cautious, protect the agency's core values of fairness and due process and maintain open lines of communication with the research community. 

"This framework represents a major step in pivoting from a compliance culture to a research security culture," said CRSSP Rebecca Keiser. "But we cannot continue to lead the world in science and innovation if we are fixated on achieving zero risk related to research security. We must be bold and invest in science here at home while continuing to encourage principled, mutually beneficial international collaboration. NSF will work collaboratively with the research community, industry, individual researchers and our partners in the U.S. government to identify, understand and address the potential risks so researchers can continue to do their work." 

The development of the framework was guided by requirements in the "CHIPS and Science Act of 2022" and the Fiscal Year 2023 Appropriations Report. The "CHIPS and Science Act of 2022" directs NSF to identify research areas that may involve access to "controlled unclassified or classified information" and "exercise due diligence in granting access." The FY 2023 Appropriations Report directs NSF to collaborate with the Secretary of Defense and the Director of National Intelligence to compile and maintain a list of all NSF-funded open-source research capabilities that are known or suspected to have an impact on foreign military operations.

NSF also commissioned a report by JASON, an independent scientific advisory group that provides consulting services to the U.S. government on matters of defense, science and technology. The key findings of the Safeguarding the Research Enterprise report included an assertion that "openness and transparency in fundamental research promote scientific discovery, which improves national security" and recommended specific steps NSF could take to identify sensitive areas of research and processes NSF might use to enhance security in those areas of concern. 

The TRUST process will be rolled out in three phases. Beginning in FY 2025, the process will be piloted on quantum-related proposals. The pilot will collect data and assess key metrics, monitor the impact on NSF directorates and build and evaluate NSF's ability to review the potential national security applications of NSF-funded technology. In the second phase, lessons learned from the pilot phase will be implemented and the process will be expanded to include other key "CHIPS and Science Act of 2022"technology areas. In phase 3, NSF will scale up the review process to include all key technology areas and/or the priorities of the NSF Technology, Innovation and Partnerships Directorate's priorities.

IMAGES

  1. Research Proposal

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  2. Inclusive Education Lay Advocacy Project

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  3. 😂 Research proposal in education. How to write a Education Research

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  4. Resources and Strategies for Creating More Inclusive Teaching-Learning

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  5. Conceptual framework of implementation of inclusive education

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  6. Defining the scope of inclusive education: think piece prepared for the

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VIDEO

  1. Effective Research Proposals: Characteristics

  2. New Student Registration

  3. Inclusive Education: The right model of support

  4. Requirements for FY 2024 Proposals: PIER Plans Requirements

  5. You do not have a lot of time to save your academic career

  6. Introduction To Research Proposal Writing 1

COMMENTS

  1. Research about inclusive education in 2020

    Elaborated theory. Whereas, research about, for example, the attitudes to and effectiveness of inclusive education has been largely concerned with relationships between variables, there is a lot of research into inclusive education that has been grounded in very elaborated theories (cf. e.g. Allan Citation 2008).Skrtic (Citation 1991, Citation 1995) is an example of an early theorist who has ...

  2. (PDF) Inclusive Education: A Literature Review on Definitions

    Inclusive Education: A Literature Review on Definitions, Attitudes and Pedagogical Challenges. April 2021. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science V (III):358-365. DOI ...

  3. PDF Teacher Support in The Inclusive Primary School: Addressing Barriers to

    McMillan and Schumacher (2001:63) describe appropriate research methods as methods that are reliable and valid for collecting data and analyzing it, particularly in research. The study sought to investigate teacher support in addressing and reducing barriers to learning, particularly in a primary school setting.

  4. Frontiers

    This paper argues for a broader conception about research into inclusive education, one that extends beyond a focus on empirical factors associated with inclusive education and the effects of inclusive education. It starts with a recent summary of international research into the effects of inclusive education on students with SEN/disabilities and those without.

  5. PDF A REVIEW STUDY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES ON THE BARRIERS TO INCLUSIVE ...

    Barriers to inclusion, educational opportunity, inclusive education (IE), primary school, special educational needs, overview study HOW TO CITE Kurowski M., Černý M., Trapl F. (2022) 'A review study of research articles on the barriers to inclusive education in primary schools', Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education

  6. Full article: Understanding inclusive education

    In their mapping of research on inclusive education after 1994, Hernández-Torrano, Somerton, and Helmer (Citation 2020) defined four schools of research: systems and structures, special education, accessibility and participation, and critical research. In their review, they found a progressive and steady increase in publications on inclusive ...

  7. Full article: Implementation of Inclusive Education: A Systematic

    Introduction. Few concepts have had the same influence on education in the last 30 years, as 'inclusion' of students with disabilities (Chong & Graham, Citation 2017).The merits of inclusive education are no longer debated as they were previously (Artiles & Kozleski, Citation 2016), but the theoretical and practical questions around its implementation persist (Amor et al., Citation 2019 ...

  8. Action Research for Inclusive Education

    Exploring practitioner research and the possibilities it creates for increasing student participation and developing inclusive practices in educational contexts, this insightful text presents a range of original and innovative approaches to Action Research, and highlights the critical relationship between educational theory, research and practice in transformative action.Focussing on social ...

  9. Research about inclusive education in 2020

    a lot of research into inclusive education that has been grounded in very elaborated theories (cf. e.g. Allan 2008 ). Skrtic ( 1991 , 1995 ) is an example of an early theorist who

  10. <em>British Educational Research Journal</em>

    A social justice view of inclusion may suggest that special education provision is a form of discrimination (Norwich, 2009; Thomas & Loxley, 2007) and other countries such as Norway chose to implement the inclusion vision by closing special schools, resulting in over 90% of children with special educational needs attending mainstream classrooms ...

  11. Inclusive Education Research & Practice

    Inclusive Education Research & Practice. Carol Quirk selene almazan. 2010. Over 20 years of research has consistently demonstrated that the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms results in favorable outcomes. Positive outcomes have been shown for both students with high incidence disabilities (learning ...

  12. Inclusive education for children with visual ...

    In the field of inclusive education, ... Changing modalities in international development and research in education: conceptual and ethical issues. Int. J. Educ. Dev., 7 (2019), pp. 1-8. CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar. ... USAID Liberia, 2020. Request for Proposals (RFP) No.: 72066920R00010 Transforming the Education System for Teachers ...

  13. The Inclusion of Students with Special Needs in the General Education

    For the purpose of this. study, Hyunjeong et al. (2014) define inclusion as, "A policy where students with. disabilities are supported in general education classes in their neighborhood schools and. receive specialized instruction in a separate classroom" (p. 12). Inclusion classrooms are a.

  14. PDF Chapter 1: Statement of The Problem and Overview of The

    OF THE RESEARCH 1.1 INTRODUCTION Inclusive education is currently a worldwide phenomenon and in forefront of education systems in different countries. Studies show that inclusive education is echoed worldwide. According to Naicker (1999:14) and Hornby (1999:152) countries worldwide have committed themselves to inclusive education during the World

  15. PDF Programme proposal

    The new MSc Inclusive Education builds on the success of two previous programmes, the MSc in Inclusive and Special Education and the MEd Additional Support for Learning. The first is a longstanding programme aimed at Scottish teachers which has been operating since 2008the second , has been running since 2008.

  16. Theses and Dissertations (Inclusive Education)

    Khumalo, Christin(2021-02) The study sought to investigate student teachers' experiences in implementing inclusive education during teaching practice in Zimbabwean primary schools. The investigation serves as a springboard to establishing a teacher ... Parental involvement in special schools of Gauteng east district as experienced by school ...

  17. PDF Research about inclusive education: Are the scope, reach

    inclusive education, inclusion, research, effects, evaluations, thin and thick concepts Introduction In asking about the scope, reach and limits of research in inclusive education in this paper, the aim is to examine some contemporary findings in one area of research in inclusive education and how value positions are implicated. Policy makers are

  18. (PDF) Inclusive Education

    Introduction. 'Inclusive education' has become a commonly used buzz phrase. Inclusive education. speci cally focuses on inclusion in education and educational institutions. The tw o. most ...

  19. PDF Inclusive Education

    Inclusive education is a process contributing to achieving social inclusion, yet barriers to participation and learning are numerous for many children, particularly ... • A proposal for the revision of the curriculum of the Teacher Training Institute on inclusive education mainstreaming. • A Compendium of Guidelines and texts for reasonable ...

  20. Full article: Inclusive education in South Africa: path dependencies

    The 'novel perspective' is a complexity theory approach to the development of inclusive education in South Africa. Our research process commenced with an overview of South African laws, policy documents and official reports and of published scholarly literature on special and or inclusive education from 1948 to 2021.

  21. PDF Research Proposal Special Education Process-Mona

    EDUC 893-Fall 2008 Educational research has long documented the over representation of culturally, linguistically, and ability diverse (CLAD) children in special education, yet few studies have. investigated parent/family experiences and perceptions of the process. Any research or literature. review of the special education process will require ...

  22. Research Proposal

    Research Proposal - Free download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. This document provides an introduction to a study investigating physically handicapped students' perceptions of inclusive education in selected universities in Region VI of the Philippines. It discusses the background and importance of inclusive education policies from international ...

  23. Finding home in education: A vision for inclusion and belonging in

    This blog is from Mir Abdullah Miri, PhD Research Programme in Education. Earlier this year, I had the pleasure of participating in an art-based workshop, "Finding Home in Education," hosted at King's College London in collaboration with various Universities of Sanctuary.This event brought together people from asylum-seeking and refugee backgrounds who pursue their higher education ...

  24. Stop Requiring DEI Statements From Faculty Applicants

    Both Harvard and MIT have announced that they will no longer require diversity statements from faculty candidates. Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences has substituted a service statement that ...

  25. Research Development Specialist (Hybrid)

    • Write high-quality drafts of non-technical proposal components. • Review, edit, and format proposal documents to ensure the submitted grant meets high quality standards. • Contribute to the design and creation of proposal development resources including grant development guides, best practices, checklists, and template text.

  26. (PDF) The Impact of Inclusive Education on Learners with Disabilities

    Gap in research: Inclusive education as a research area has received at great deal of att ention from researchers such as (Ainscow , 2005 ; Mittl er, 2012).Research conducted by (Ainscow, 2005 ...

  27. DCPS counters superintendent's compensation proposal ...

    DCPS counters superintendent's compensation proposal, offers $70K less in yearly pay, no monthly car stipend Dr. Chris Bernier asked for a $350K salary, $1,000 monthly car stipend, $15,000 in ...

  28. Project 2025

    Project 2025, also known as the Presidential Transition Project, is a collection of right-wing policy proposals from The Heritage Foundation to reshape the U.S. federal government in the event of a Republican victory in the 2024 U.S. presidential election. Established in 2022, the project aims to recruit tens of thousands of conservatives to the District of Columbia to replace existing federal ...

  29. NSF enhances research security with new TRUST proposal assessment

    NSF enhances research security with new TRUST proposal assessment process June 5, 2024 The U.S. National Science Foundation has announced a new risk mitigation process, the Trusted Research Using Safeguards and Transparency (TRUST) framework, which will guide the agency in assessing grant proposals for potential national security risks.