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SOME CROSS REFERENCES IN A RESEARCH PAPER INFORMALLY

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SOME CROSS REFERENCES IN A RESEARCH PAPER INFORMALLY Crossword Answer

• New York Times
• May 21st, 2023

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Some cross-references in a research paper, informally NYT Crossword Clue

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Evaluating Information Sources

• Peer Review

What is Cross Referencing, or Lateral Reading?

Resources for instructors.

• Understanding Scholarly Articles
• Ted-Ed Talk: How False News Can Spread - Circular Reporting

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What is it?

"The technique, modeled after source-evaluation strategies used by fact-checkers who work for news organizations and outlets, is lateral reading—that is..."investigating... the site itself.” The MLA Guide to Digital Literacy suggests calling it “cross-referencing” a source" (The MLA Style Center)

Why should I cross reference?

"One reason digital sources are difficult to evaluate for bias is that the bias is often intentionally hidden in a practice called astroturfing: masking the true intent (be it political, religious, commercial, or social) of the organization by making it appear more widespread and organic in origin."

• MLA Style Center - Lateral Reading

Follow these steps

"Find an article by an organization with a clear bias but one that does not identify its stance, such as “ Bullying at School: Never Acceptable ,” by the American College of Pediatricians, which the SHEG used in its lateral reading study.

• Research the website’s author or organization . Identify any possible bias or messaging associated with the organization.
• Identify keywords in your source and complete your own web search of that topic. Compare the results with your original source.
• Find a quotation attributed to specific people. Conduct your own research to verify the quotation and confirm it has not been taken out of context or misconstrued.
• Look for hyperlinks or citations to other organizations or sources. Conduct an online search of those organizations to determine any possible bias or messaging associated with the organization or sources.
• Look for any advertisements or sponsored content on the website. Conduct a web search to identify possible bias." (The MLA Style Center)
• Instructor Resources for Teaching Research Lesson plans, activities, suggested tutorials, and handouts for each part of the research process. Resources are included for both in person, and online asynchronous classes.
• Neurodiversity Teaching Strategies
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• Last Updated: Mar 19, 2024 8:27 PM
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MLA & APA help

• Informal citations

Citations IRL (in real life)

Examples of informal citations, tips for informally citing sources.

• APA (7th ed.) resources
• MLA (9th ed.) resources
• Get premade citations
• Avoid plagiarism
• Research help This link opens in a new window

Speaking of avoiding plagiarism and attributing where you get information from, have you ever thought about how this practice happens every day around you? It does!

In real life, you're not going to include a formal citation in an email to your cousin. However, you might link to a news article backing up a claim you make in that email. We call these informal citations, or "blog style" citations.

Really, something as simple as a link to an article in an email is an informal citation.

Informal citations allow everyone to cite their sources in less formal forms of writing, like blog posts, emails, news articles, and webpages. Informal citations are how everyday creators of information acknowledge ownership, attribute quotes, check facts, and learn more. The beauty of informal citations is that they force you to think about how your sources fit, and actually say why you're sharing them. (Those are skills that you also need in order to write more formal research papers!!)

News information citation

"'Forever 21 is a powerful retail brand with incredible consumer reach and a wealth of untapped potential,' Jamie Salter, CEO of ABG, said in a statement . Forever 21 currently has 593 stores globally."

Source : NPR Explanation : In the text of their news article, NPR is citing and linking readers to where CEO Salter said the quote.

Infographic informal citation

Screenshot source : Reddit Explanation : Redditor matts41 cited their data-gathering methodology in the image.

Informal citations work well for short papers with a small number of sources, reflection papers, and/or Moodle forum posts.

Check with your instructor first to make sure they don't expect a Works Cited (MLA) or References (APA) page. Make sure you provide enough information for the source so that it can be found in a Google search.

• Google docs - How to turn text into a link without showing the URL
• Word docs - How to turn text into a link without showing the URL
• Moodle forums - How to turn text into a link without showing the URL
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• Last Updated: Apr 10, 2024 3:58 PM
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Cross-referencing

Introduction.

Cross-referencing is a powerful tool that can greatly enhance your work. Good cross-referencing allows readers to link quickly to related material elsewhere in your work, adding significant functionality and value.

Pointing to a specific, relevant target is the key to effective cross-referencing, particularly in digital formats.

Please follow these instructions for effective cross-referencing:

• Limit your cross-referencing to one type of target within your work, e.g. headings or paragraph numbers. Ensure the wording for your cross references are consistent. OUP’s preference is for ‘see [para/section/chapter number or heading]’. This need for consistency is particularly important if you are editing a multi-contributor volume.
• Give a clear target for each cross-reference and do not use terms such as ‘see above/below’, ‘infra’/’supra’, ‘ante/post’, or print-specific language such as ‘see overleaf’/'see opposite’. Instead, reference specific headings (see the section ‘ cross-referencing by heading ’).
• Place cross references within the main body of the text, as marginal references are not visible in digital formats.
• Do not include cross references within headings. Headings and cross references are both treated as hyperlinks, and a single link cannot point to more than one place.
• Your submitted manuscript should include (at least) placeholders for all cross references; new cross references cannot be added during the production process.

Cross-referencing figures, tables, and boxes

All figures, tables, and boxes must have a specific call-out from the main body of the text (e.g. ‘see Figure 1.1’). Layout varies in print and digital versions. When a reader needs to locate an exact figure, table, or box in the text, the direction to ‘see figure above/below’ may not be correct, depending on the format and if a hyperlink is used. This is even more important when viewing a publication on a hand-held device and only limited text is visible at any time.

Please do not include call-outs in headings, footnotes, or captions (there are a few exceptions to this rule, in some reference and trade titles). If you are unsure, please discuss this with your OUP editorial contact.

Cross-referencing by heading

Headings offer a clear and specific point to reference or link to that works well in both print and digital formats.  The more specific the cross reference is, the easier it will be for your reader to locate the information that they need. Drill down to the lowest level of heading available and direct your reader to a targeted point.

Cross-referencing via headings doesn’t work with long streams of unbroken text.  Break it up by placing main headings and sub-headings at regular and appropriate intervals. In addition to facilitating cross-referencing, this practice allows your reader to easily read and navigate your work.

Cross-referencing by numbered heading

Heading numbers can be used to point to cross-referencing targets (e.g. ‘see 4.3.2’). They make short, unobtrusive, and specific targets that are not tied to pagination.  This method is especially useful in textbooks and reference works with a lot of cross-referencing, as well as in digital publications. Completing cross-referencing before submission cuts down on queries during the production process.

Figure 9 : An example of using numbered headings for cross-referencing.

Cross-referencing by unnumbered heading

If your manuscript does not use numbered headings, please use the heading itself for cross-referencing:

• When cross-referencing to a section in the same chapter use the heading name: ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement”’.
• Where the cross reference is to material in another chapter, include the chapter number: ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement” in Chapter 3’.
• Because this method of cross-referencing is more cumbersome than with numbered headings, consider using numbered headings in your text If you anticipate much cross-referencing.

Figure 10 : An example of using unnumbered headings for cross-referencing.

Cross-referencing by heading and page number

If page numbers are important for your print edition, a good option is to cross-reference by both heading and page number. The headings enable cross-referencing in the digital edition. If you are using numbered headings, adding page numbers to cross references is unnecessary. The numbered heading is sufficient to provide a specific target that is easy to locate.

Some tips for cross-referencing by headings and page numbers:

• Because page numbers are completed at proof stage, don’t include page numbers from the manuscript in the final script—this could obscure the need for these to be replaced at proof stage. Use ‘p. 000’ instead.
• Always include the relevant heading as well as the page number in your script (e.g. ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement”, p. 000’).
• When cross-referencing to material in another chapter, also include that chapter name (e.g. ‘see Ch. 3, “An introduction to private enforcement”, p. 000’).
• Where you are referencing a discussion over a series of pages, include the heading that covers that entire discussion to enable an appropriate link in the digital version.

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APA Citation Guide (7th Edition): Informal Citations

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CITATIONS IRL (IN REAL LIFE)

Speaking of avoiding plagiarism and attributing where you get information from, have you ever thought about how this practice happens every day around you? It does!

In real life, you're not going to include a formal citation in an email to your cousin. However, you might link to a news article backing up a claim you make in that email. We call these informal citations, or "blog style" citations.

Really, something as simple as a link to an article in an email is an informal citation.

Informal citations  allow everyone to cite their sources in less formal forms of writing, like blog posts, emails, news articles, and webpages. Informal citations are how everyday creators of information acknowledge ownership, attribute quotes, check facts, and learn more. The beauty of informal citations is that they force you to think about how your sources fit, and actually say why you're sharing them. (Those are skills that you also need in order to write more formal research papers!!)

TIPS FOR INFORMATION CITING

Informal citations work well for short papers with a small number of sources, reflection papers, and/or Canvas forum posts.

Check with your instructor first to make sure they don't expect a Works Cited (MLA) or References (APA) page. Make sure you provide enough information for the source so that it can be found in a Google search.

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Referencing and citations - OSCOLA: Cross referencing

• Legislation
• Other sources
• Cross referencing
• Referencing software
• Help and support

Cross-referencing Contents

In a nutshell.

You will only have to give the full/long citation of a source once in your work.

Providing you have given all the details in a footnote the first time you reference, you can, in subsequent footnotes, briefly refer to the source, and then provide a cross-citation in brackets to the footnote in which the full citation can be found.

If the subsequent citation is in the footnote immediately following the full citation, you can generally use ‘ibid’ instead.

Aside from 'ibid', avoid the use of ‘Latin gadgets’ such as supra , infra , ante, id, op cit , loc cit, and contra , which are not widely understood.

Avoid sending the reader off to another part of the text when a short point could as easily be restated. Never make a cross-reference that will be difficult for the reader to find, such as ‘See above’.

Cross-referencing the immediately preceding footnote

Regardless of material type, if a footnote refers to the same source as the IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING footnote, you can indicate this with 'ibid', including a new pinpoint if necessary. You can continue doing this for several footnotes as long as the source doesn't change, eg

22 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

23 ibid 217-78.

24 ibid 290.

Cross-referencing a case

Give the full citation as per advice for cases the first time you reference it. If you mention the full name of the case in the body of your work you do not need to repeat it in the footnote. If the next citation is to the same case, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, use the short name of the case (usually the first party, or the respondent in criminal cases, or the ship name in some maritime cases) then give the cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Austin v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2009] UKHL5, [2009] AC 564.

7 Austin (n 1).

Cross-referencing legislation

Give the full citation as per advice for legislation the first time you reference it, and indicate the 'short form' in brackets at the end - eg FSMA, e-commerce directive. The title and short form do not need to be repeated if specified in the body of your essay. If the next citation is to the same piece of legislation, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, you can now just use the short form of the legislation without cross referencing, eg

32 Council Directive (EC) 93/104 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time [1993] OJ L307/18 (Working Time Directive).

40 Working Time Directive, art 2.

Cross-referencing secondary sources

Give the full citation the first time you reference it. If the next citation is to the same source, simply put ibid, with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, put the author's surname followed by a cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

26 Stevens (n 1) 110.

27 ibid 271–78.

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Citing Sources

• Citation Basics
• Citing Images in APA
• Citing Lectures in APA
• Citing AI Tools in APA
• Citing Images in Chicago Style
• Citing Lectures in Chicago Style
• Citing AI Tools in Chicago Style
• Citing Images in MLA
• Citing Lectures in MLA
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Informal Citations

• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Feedback for us on this page? Please share it here.

Sometimes you will need to use formal style guidelines to format your citations, such as APA, Chicago, or MLA.

Sometimes it won’t matter  how  you format your citations as long as you  do cite  all your sources; these are informal citations, just like a book recommendation from a friend. An informal citation can be as simple as one of these examples:

Think about what information your audience will need if they want to find one of the sources you use.

• Where you found it

The  title and creator  are the most important pieces of information to include. Remember that a museum, corporation, or other organization can be a “creator”. Below are examples of informal citations of different types of sources.

Magazine or journal article:

Movie, online video, song, podcast, or other type of media:, photograph, chart, illustration, or other graphic:, cite it where you use it.

Every time you use a quotation, a piece of information, or an image from another source,  cite the source right where you use it , whether it’s on your project board or in your paper, job book, or presentation.

Include enough information to allow your audience to figure out which source (from your complete list at the end) you’re citing. For example, if you use the biomimicry web page in the example above, the citation on your board or presentation slide might be “What Is Biomimicry?"

If you want to use someone else’s exact words,  make it clear that you’re quoting  the source exactly. Set the quotation apart from the rest of your text by using quotation marks, a different color or font, or some other visual cue.

And, of course,  cite your source .

Paraphrasing

When you want to use someone else’s idea but put it in your own words,  paraphrase or summarize . To paraphrase or summarize an idea, you need to condense or clarify that idea. It’s  not enough  to take someone else’s sentence and replace some of the words; you need to truly understand the idea and state it in a new way.

List of Sources

When you complete a paper or project, you will have a  list of all the sources you used  in your research. You can call it Sources, References, Works Cited, Works Consulted, Bibliography, Credits, or anything else that makes sense.

This list goes at the end — on the back of your project board, at the end of your paper or job book, or on the last slide of your presentation.

Here's an example that lists the sources in the order that they’re used in a PowerPoint presentation:

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5.6: Libraries, Documentation, and Cross-Referencing

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• Tiffani Reardon, Tammy Powell, Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, & Cassie Race
• Kennesaw State University

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, readers will be able to:

• Explain and apply how to find information in libraries.
• Explain and apply how to indicate sources of borrowed information.
• Explain and apply how to cross-reference.

Information Search

This section focuses on finding information for your technical documentation projects online and in physical libraries. Your job is to get good, specific, up-to-date information for your formal report project. You may not be able to read it all—you're not writing a dissertation, nor is your knowledge about your topic expected to be anywhere close to that level. But at least you know what's out there.

Check out the library system at Kennesaw State University. Here KSU students will find research help 24/7.

How do I get started with research?

Find a topic, narrow it, brainstorm it.

Before you head for the library or its Internet equivalent, you need a topic, some idea of the specific aspect of the topic you want to focus on, and some ideas about what to say about that narrowed topic. Problems fnding a topic and thinking of what to say about it are often called the dreaded writer's block .

Narrowing a topic is that process in which you go from an impossibly huge topic such as nanotechnology to something more manageable such as applications of nanotechnology in brain surgery.

Brainstorming a topic is that process in which you think of everything you can that you might write about in relation to your topic.

Know Your Booleans for Searching Online or in Databases

An important tool to have when you go searching for information—either in libraries or on the Internet—has to do with Booloean operators: AND, OR, NOT and a few esoteric others. The following table will help you become an expert in narrowing search parameters, especially in a huge database such as that provided by the university.

Narrowing Search Parameters

Types of Resources for Information Research

Encyclopedias and other reference works.

If you are beginning at ground zero with your technical report topic, a good strategy would be to read some articles in general encyclopedias. As a researcher, you need to know something about the topic so you will know what kinds of questions to ask and how to organize your data. If you are knowledgeable, the entire research process will be more efficient and even enjoyable.

• Access Science for online access to the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology

Can you build a legitimate technical report based on encyclopedia articles that you summarize and paraphrase? NO! Most college level instructors will not accept encyclopedias as legitimate sources because their information is broad, not specific. You may not be able to gather enough information to create a report of any reasonable length. We could go on about this for a long time, but do not consider using an encyclopedia, not even Wikipedia.com, as part of your cited research data...only as a place for you to begin building a background of knowledge.

You can find reference books like encyclopedias by typing in a couple of words of the title in an online library catalog (for example, mechanical engineer* handbook, "encyclopedia engineering", or "encyclopediaandengineering"), truncating any words that could have variant endings, and eliminating any prepositions or articles ( of, for, the, a, an ).

Here are some examples of what you might find:

• Prentice-Hall Encyclopedia of Information Technology
• McGraw-Hill Dictionary of the Life Sciences
• Robotics Sourcebook and Dictionary
• Energy: A Guide to Organizations and Information Resources in the United States
• McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology

Books can provide excellent background, a historical treatment of your subject and depth. Check a book's table of contents and index to see if it has what you are looking for. For some current research topics, however, books tend to be too general. To obtain more specific information on technological advancements, go to journal articles, technical reports, or other sources discussed later in this chapter.

Try these resources. Search "drone aircraft" on each to see which has the most up to date resources:

• Online Books
• Library of Congress Catalog

Here are some sites that consolidate access to thousands of libraries worldwide:

• The WWW Library Directory

Periodicals

Periodicals is a librarian's word for stuff that comes out periodically—like magazines, journals, newspapers. Magazines, which are by definition for general audiences, are not likely to have much that is useful to your report. At the college level, you will be expected to use scholarly, or peer reviewed, journals for research. You can find these in the university database, or you can borrow from other systems through an system of inter-library loans. When in doubt, pay a visit to your campus library and make friends with the librarians there.

Directory of Open Access Journals. DOAJ offers free access to over 3,500 full-text, quality-controlled scientific and scholarly journals, over 1,200 of which are searchable at the article level.

Most of the following are services you pay for; some offer a free 30-day trial. Your local library may subscribe to some of these, giving you free access:

• Applied Science and Technology
• Academic Search Complete
• ScienceDirect

Technical Reports

• National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
• IEEE Xplore
• NASA Technical Reports Server

Associations and Interest Groups

Organizations like associations, special-interest groups, and advocacy groups are good potential sources for information on your topic—or a terrible ideological swamp. Keep in mind that associations and interest groups generally have agendas or biases about their topics. Encyclopedia of Associations may be a good resource. Ask your librarian for help with this kind of resource.

Library and Subject Guides

Research assistance, subject guides, useful resources and web sites compiled by the friendly librarians at Austin Community College, for example, occupational therapy, business and technical communications, and other department and field names. These are presented here.

Austin Community College Research Guides

Your own library at Kennesaw State University also has awesome resources for you to use.

KSU LibGuides

Other Information Resources

There are certainly other kinds of information sources such as patents, standards, product literature, conference procedings. Again, ask your librarian for help with these kinds of resources.

Evaluate Your Research Findings

The following is a system of evaluating the reliability of Internet information developed by the Cornell University Library. This information is especially important if you are using Internet sources and need to defend their validity and reliability.

Evaluating Research Findings

In addition to the above, if you are looking at Internet sites, pay careful attention to any advertising on page. Online gambling or magic weight loss solutions might not be the kind of company your research needs to keep.

As a rule of thumb, steer clear of any resource that has "wiki" or "about" in the title or url. Your safest bets are sites sponsored by the U.S. government (.gov) or educational institutions (.edu).

Citing Sources of Borrowed Information

When you write a technical report, you can and should borrow information like crazy—to make it legal, all you have to do is "document" it. If your report makes you sound like a rocket scientist but there's not a single source citation in it and you haven't even taken college physics yet, people are going to start wondering. (In Night Court, you'd be guilty of plagiarism. Fine—an F on the paper in question.) However, if you take that same report and load it up properly with source citations (those little indicators that show that you are borrowing information and from whom), everybody is all the more impressed—plus they're not secretly thinking you're a shady character. A documented report (one that has source indicators in it) says to readers that you've done your homework, that you're up on this field, that you approach these things professionally—that you are no slouch. Most importantly, you've shown that you respect the rights of the original authors, the owners of the intellectual property you are using.

The following resources will provide all the guidance you need to correctly document, or give credit to, your sources

• Research and Citation Resources. Overview from the Purdue OWL with links to specific systems.
• APA Documentation. From Austin Community College.
• MLA Documentation. From Austin Community College.
• Turabian Documentation. From Austin Community College
• CSE Documentation: Name-Year Method. From Austin Community College.
• CSE Documentation: Citation-Sequence System. From Austin Community College.
• IEEE Citation Style Guide . From Georgia Tech. (The IEEE system is very similar to the system described in the following.)

Number System of Documentation

If you've taken other college writing courses recently, you have probably been exposed to other documentation systems— specifically the MLA, or works cited system. The problem with that system is that it is rather limited to the literature and humanities field. Unfortunately, it is not widely used outside that field—especially not in technical and scientific fields. One of the more common systems used in technical fields is the number system , a formatting procedure that is easy to learn and use. The citation-sequence version of the CSE (Scientific) Documentation (see the link above) is one of the specific incarnations of the number system. (Notice here that we use brackets , not parentheses, for the source indicators.)

In this number system, you list your information sources alphabetically, number them, and put the list at the back of your report. Then in the body of your report, whenever you borrow information from one of those sources, you put the source number and, optionally, the page number in brackets at that point in the text where the borrowed information occurs. The illustration below shows how this system works. However, in a hypothetical example:

• [4] would refer to source 4 in the list.
• [4:231] would refer to page 231 of source 4.
• [4:231-235] would refer to pages 231 through 235 of source 4.
• [4;7] would indicate that the information was borrowed from source 4 and source 7.

What to Document

This question always comes up: how do I decide when to document information—when, for example, I forgot where I learned it from, or when it really seems like common knowledge? There is no neat, clean answer. You may have heard it said that anything in an encyclopedia or in an introductory textbook is common knowledge and need not be documented. Don't believe it. If it really isn't common knowledge for you, at least not yet, document it! If you just flat can't remember how you came by the information, then it has safely become common knowledge for you. (All that's really going on here is that we're trying to protect the efforts of those poor devils who worked themselves into the ground originating the information we want to borrow—give 'em a break, give 'em their due!) If you know you read it during your research process, you need to document it.

One other question that is often asked: do I document information I find in product brochures or that I get in conversations with knowledgeable people? Yes, most certainly. You document any information you did not create, regardless whether it is in print,in electronic bits, magnetic spots, or in thin air. While you probably studied this in high school, it becomes a very serious issue in a university that expects research to not only be useful, but also to be honest.

How to Place the Source Indicators

It's a bit tricky deciding exactly where to place the source indicators—at the beginning of the passage containing the borrowed information, at the end? If it makes sense to "attribute" the source (cite the name of the author or the title of the information), you can put the attribution at the beginning and the bracketed source indicator at the end (as is shown in in the following).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)

In the number documentation system, the code numbers in the text of the report are keyed to the references page. For example, [6:5] in the middle of the page from the body of the report indicates that the information came from source 6 (in References), page 5. Notice that the attribution of the quotation indicates the beginning of the borrowed information and the bracketed source indicator marks the end.

How to Set up the Sources List

A bit more challenging is setting up the list of information sources—that numbered, alphabetized list you put at the end of the document. (The context here is still the number system.) The best way to learn is to use examples. The following examples show you how to handle books, government reports, articles from magazines and journals, encyclopedia articles, and personal interviews.

Internet and web information sources. For format information regarding citing Internet and web sources, see any of the resources listed above. As you will see, there are quite a few variations. However, a simple functional practice would use this order:

• Author name, last name first. If that's not available, use the organization's name, followed by a period.
• Next, the title of the page.
• After that the publication date of the web page, if available; otherwise, use the "N.d" indicator.
• Next, the full URL of the page.
• And finally an indication of the date you accessed the page, for example, Accessed June 6, 1988.

Books. For books, first put the name of the author (last name first), followed by a period, followed by the title of the book in italics, followed by a period, followed by the city of the publisher, followed by a colon, followed by the publisher's name (but delete all those tacky "Inc.," "Co.," and "Ltd." things), followed by the year of publication, ending with a period. In this style, you don't indicate pages.

Burn, Duncan. Nuclear Power and the Energy Crisis . New York: New York University Press, 1978.

Magazine and journal articles. Start with the author's name first (last name first), followed by a period, then the title of the article in quotation marks and ending with a period, followed by the name of the magazine or journal in italics, followed by a period, followed by the date of issue of the magazine the article occurs in, followed by the beginning and ending page. If the article spread out across the magazine, you can write "33+." or "33(5)." The (5) in the preceding is an estimate of how many pages the article would be if it were continuous.

If there is no author, start with the article or book title. If there are two authors, add "and" and the second author's name, first name first. If there are too many authors, use the first one (last name first), followed by " et al., " which means "and others.

Idso, S. B. "Climate Significance of Doubling CO2 Concentrations." Science (March 28, 1980), 128-134.

Note: You may have seen complex entries indicating volume and issue numbers. While those may be required in some contexts, normally you can simplify things and just include the issue date. But ask!

Encyclopedia articles. Encyclopedia articles are easy! Start with the title of the article in quotation marks ending with a period, followed by the name of the encyclopedia (in italics if you have it; otherwise, underline), followed by the period, then the year of the edition of the encyclopedia.

"Nuclear Reactor." Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia . 1980 ed.

Reports. With reports, you're likely to dealing with government reports or local informally produced reports. With most reports, you may not have an individual author name; in such cases, you use the group name as the author. For government reports, the publisher is often the Government Printing Office; and the city of publication, Washington, D.C. Also, for government documents, you should include the document number, as is shown in the following example.

Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate Hearings on the Effects of Carbon Dioxide Buildup in the Atmosphere . DOA 2.8/NAA 6655.3. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980.

Personal interviews, correspondence, and other nonprint sources. With these sources, you treat the interviewee or the e-mail or letter writer as the author, follow that name with the person's title, followed by a period, then the company name, followed by a period, then the city and state, followed by a period, then what the information was ("Personal interview" or "Personal correspondence") followed by a period, ending with the date.

Smith, Eunice J., Public Relations Director. Fayette Power Facility. Fayetteville, TX. Personal interview. June 6, 1988.

Product brochures. For these kinds of information sources, treat the company name as the author, followed by a period, use something identifying like the product name (including the specific model number), followed by anything that seems like the title of the brochure, followed by a period, ending with a date if you can find one (otherwise, put "N.d.").

Society to Stop Nuclear Power Plants. Stop the Nukes . Political brochure. N.d.

Documenting borrowed graphics. It's certainly legal to copy graphics from other sources and use them in your own work—as long as you document them. You indicate the source of a borrowed graphic in the figure title (caption), which is located just below the graphic. In the figure title, you can show the source of the graphic in two ways—the long traditional way or the shorter way that uses the format of the number system:

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Cross-Referencing

Technical reports and instructions often require cross-references—those pointers to other places in the same document or to other information sources where related information can be found.

A cross-reference can help readers in a number of different ways:

• It can point them toward more basic information if, for example, they have entered into a document more complex than their level of understanding.
• It can point them to more advanced information if, for example, they already know the stuff you're trying to tell them.
• Also, it can point them to related information.

Related information is the hardest area to explain because ultimately everything is related to everything else—there could be no end to the cross-references. But here's an example from DOS—that troll that lurks inside PC-type computers and supposedly helps you. There are several ways you can copy files: the COPY command, the DISKCOPY command, and XCOPY command. Each method offers different advantages. If you were writing about the COPY command, you'd want cross-references to these other two so that readers could do a bit of shopping around.

Of course, the preceding discussion assumed cross-references within the same document. If there is just too much background to cover in your document, you can cross-reference some external website, book, or article that does provide that background. That way, you are off the hook for having to explain it all!

Now, a decent cross-reference consists of several elements:

• Name of the source being referenced—This can either be the title or a general subject reference. If it is a chapter title or a heading, put it in quotation marks; if it is the name of a book, magazine, report, or reference work, put it in italics or underline. (Individual article titles also go in quotation marks.) Choose italics over underlining when possible.
• Page number—Required if it is in the same document; optional if it is to another document.
• Subject matter of the cross-reference—Often, you need to state what's in the cross-referenced material and indicate why the reader should go to the trouble of checking it out. This information may necessitate indicating the subject matter of the cross-referenced material or stating explicitly how it is related to the current discussion.

These guidelines are shown in the following illustration. Notice in that illustration how different the rules are when the cross reference is "internal" (that is, to some other part of the same document) compared to when it is "external" (to information outside of the document).

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)

Activities and Exercises

• Locate several journals in your major field and find the information for writers section. What formatting protocols are expected if you want to be published?
• In small groups, visit the Purdue OWL Research and Citation Section and explore it. What can you learn about the different formatting styles? When would you use APA? MLA? IEEE? Chicago?
• In small groups or a discussion forum, share some of your own research techniques...what has been effective for you in the past? What advice would you offer others in the class for becoming a good researcher?
• Locate your school's policy on plagiarism and academic honesty. How important do you think this is? Find some sources that reveal cases of academic dishonesty...how does lack of integrity in research affect the individuals and the university?