what is outlining important research trends

Penn State University Libraries

Soc 001: introductory sociology.

• Literature Reviews: Strategies for Writing
• Fake News and Evaluating Sources

Literature Reviews

What is a Literature Review? The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that you are carrying out. This overview identifies prominent research trends in addition to assessing the overall strengths and weaknesses of the existing research.

Purpose of the Literature Review

• To provide background information about a research topic.
• To establish the importance of a topic.
• To demonstrate familiarity with a topic/problem.
• To “carve out a space” for further work and allow you to position yourself in a scholarly conversation.

Characteristics of an effective literature review In addition to fulfilling the purposes outlined above, an effective literature review provides a critical overview of existing research by

• Outlining important research trends.
• Assessing strengths and weaknesses (of individual studies as well the existing research as a whole).
• Identifying potential gaps in knowledge.
• Establishing a need for current and/or future research projects.

Steps of the Literature Review Process

1) Planning: identify the focus, type, scope and discipline of the review you intend to write. 2) Reading and Research: collect and read current research on your topic. Select only those sources that are most relevant to your project. 3) Analyzing: summarize, synthesize, critique, and compare your sources in order to assess the field of research as a whole. 4) Drafting: develop a thesis or claim to make about the existing research and decide how to organize your material. 5) Revising: revise and finalize the structural, stylistic, and grammatical issues of your paper.

This process is not always a linear process; depending on the size and scope of your literature review, you may find yourself returning to some of these steps repeatedly as you continue to focus your project.

These steps adapted from the full workshop offered by the Graduate Writing Center at Penn State. 

Literature Review Format

 Introduction

• Provide an overview of the topic, theme, or issue.
• Identify your specific area of focus.
• Describe your methodology and rationale. How did you decide which sources to include and which to exclude? Why? How is your review organized?
• Briefly discuss the overall trends in the published scholarship in this area.
•  Establish your reason for writing the review.
•  Find the best organizational method for your review.
•  Summarize sources by providing the most relevant information.
•  Respectfully and objectively critique and evaluate the studies.
•  Use direct quotations sparingly and only if appropriate.

 Conclusion

•  Summarize the major findings of the sources that you reviewed, remembering to keep the focus on your topic.
•  Evaluate the current state of scholarship in this area (ex. flaws or gaps in the research, inconsistencies in findings) 
•  Identify any areas for further research.
•  Conclude by making a connection between your topic and some larger area of study such as the discipline. 
• << Previous: Home
• Next: Fake News and Evaluating Sources >>
• Last Updated: Oct 20, 2023 10:48 AM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/shenangosoc001

*Research and Writing: Integrated Skills & Strategies*

• Information Literacy
• Information Formats
• Popular, Trade, and Scholarly Sources
• Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources
• Deconstructing an Assignment
• Picking a Topic
• Brainstorming and Prewriting
• Research Question and Thesis
• Choosing Keywords
• Creating Search Statements
• Evaluating Sources
• Literature Reviews
• Source Integration
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Finding Information Gaps
• Citation Styles
• APA, 7th edition
• MLA, 8th edition
• Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition
• Copyright and Fair Use
• "Am I done?"

On This Page

What is Outlining?

Organizing the outline, from outline to draft, still struggling.

Conversing with someone else about your research and writing process can be incredibly helpful.  Contact staff at McKillop Library or the Writing Center using the links below.

• Ask-a-Librarian
• Meet with a Writing Consultant

Outlining Resources

These are the resources included on this page.  See main text for further information.

• Alphanumeric Outline
• Web Outline
• Tree Outline
• Topic Sentence Map

Outlining is the process of laying out the main ideas, key concepts, supporting details, and evidence to be included in the paper. An outline also determines the order in which these pieces will be presented.

You may have created a preliminary outline while prewriting and initially examining the research, but an outline at this step of the writing process begins to exclude unnecessary information, choose specific pieces of the research to integrate and cite, and--most importantly--set the logical order for each of the main ideas in the construction of your overall analysis of the topic.  

There are many different types of outlines, some more visual than others. You will find several options included here, but you may also want to create your own freeform outline. While the formats differ, the general use of all outlines is the same. 

Thesis → key main ideas connected to thesis → details related to each of these main ideas (sub-points) → the evidence and analysis of this evidence 

The number of sub-points for each main idea depends on the scope of your overall research. Below you will find sample outlines with descriptions for how they can be used. Some outlines provide more room for elaboration than others; but remember, you don't need to write much in the blank spaces. 

Alphanumeric Outline:  The most formal of outlines, the alphanumeric outline, is formatted almost like a list. As its name suggests, it uses numbers and letters to structure different levels of information.  

• Alphanumeric Outline Try using the alphanumeric outline for your research.

Web Outline:  The web outline places the thesis in the center and organizes the information from inside out. This format appeals to a more visual writer but is not sequential. Because the order in which the main points are presented are not obvious, numbering the circles can help organize further. 

• Web Outline Try using the web brainstorm for your research.

Tree Outline:  Tree outlines are similar to webs but are organized from top to bottom and left to right. This outline is ideal for tracing the development of a concept or a chronology. The evidence and analysis boxes are limited for space, so it is best to include the source, relevant page or paragraph numbers for the evidence, and key words for the analysis. 

• Tree Outline Try using the tree brainstorm for your research.

Once the outline is complete, the next step is to begin drafting. While the outline provides a road map for the direction of your paper, it does not necessarily establish the exact number or distinct breaks of paragraphs. As you begin to write, the amount of information and analysis you include will shape the length of each paragraph. You may need to elaborate on some points more than others. 

If you don't feel ready to begin writing just yet, try further outlining by drafting the topic sentences for each paragraph. The topic sentence map allows you to develop the main points and support into topic sentences that capture the focus of each paragraph and the connection to the thesis. Including a transition or transitional phrase will also demonstrate to the reader why and how one idea logically connects to or builds on another.  

The rule of thumb is to maintain a balance of analysis (claims) and evidence (sources). A strategy for monitoring this balance is to label, sentence by sentence, the purpose of each sentence. Ask yourself, is this sentence an explanation or presentation of source material (evidence) or is it my commentary on that piece of evidence (analysis)? Once you have marked all sentences, the result will help you recognize if you've maintained a balance.  

• << Previous: Literature Reviews
• Next: Source Integration >>
• Last Updated: Mar 14, 2024 4:40 PM
• URL: https://salve.libguides.com/researchandwriting

• A/B Monadic Test
• A/B Pre-Roll Test
• Key Driver Analysis
• Multiple Implicit
• Penalty Reward
• Price Sensitivity
• Segmentation
• Single Implicit
• Category Exploration
• Competitive Landscape
• Consumer Segmentation
• Innovation & Renovation
• Product Portfolio
• Marketing Creatives
• Advertising
• Shelf Optimization
• Performance Monitoring
• Better Brand Health Tracking
• Ad Tracking
• Trend Tracking
• Satisfaction Tracking
• AI Insights
• Case Studies

quantilope is the Consumer Intelligence Platform for all end-to-end research needs

What Is Trend Analysis in Research? Types, Methods, and Examples

Trends are everywhere. They are central to how businesses craft their product development, marketing, and dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268031">social media strategies, and how consumers go about purchasing decisions.

Trends are sometimes driven by dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268011">external factors (like a shortage of a certain product that creates a trend for something new), and other times trends are driven by internal consumer wants/needs (like plant-based dairy alternatives). Businesses that pay attention to and understand current/evolving trends (through dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis research ) are able to use dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268028">informed dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268003">decision dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-menu-id-param="menu_term_289268003" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268003">-making in their operations. This article looks at different dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">types of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis , how to conduct it, and how to act on emerging trends to stay ahead of the competition.

Table of contents

• What is trend analysis?
• Importance of trend analysis in market research
• Types of trend analysis in research

Advanced methods for trend analysis

• How to do trend analysis

How to identify existing trends from your analysis

• How to use trends analysis for virtually any type of research 
• Example of trend analysis in market research
• Advantages of trend analysis
• Use quantilope for automated trend analysis

What is dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis ?

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">Trend analysis is the process of using dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267999">historical data as well as current dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268001">data sets to determine how consumers behave and how businesses react; the same is true of the inverse: how businesses behave and how consumers react. dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">Trend analysis focuses on dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268004">market trends over a dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268006">period of time and can be used as an ongoing resource to keep ahead of market changes.

Whether it’s used in the dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268010">short term or the long term, dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis can reveal changes in consumer needs as well as changes in industry activity. These aren’t always going to be huge, industry-wide trends; they can be smaller ones too - such as small dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268021">fluctuations in consumer loyalty or satisfaction with a particular product, or dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268042">downtrends and dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268041">uptrends in certain product usage. Trends can also be temporary - around for a while and then gone in a flash, as is often the case with fashion or some hairstyles (unless they make a comeback...like flare jeans and bucket hats). Some trends might gain momentum slowly and grow steadily over time, like tech usage or certain diets. Businesses use dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis findings to act on emerging trends as well as to predict dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268039">future trends and plan dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new products or marketing activity accordingly. Back to table of contents  

Importance of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis in market research

Trend analysis research empowers businesses to unlock valuable insights across various facets of their operations and market landscape. By examining historical and current data patterns, companies can gain a deeper understanding of their own performance over time - be it  financial metrics like revenue and profit margins, operational efficiency, or customer satisfaction trends.

Beyond internal usage, trend analysis research helps grasp the competitive landscape. By tracking rivals' performance and strategies, companies can identify opportunities to differentiate themselves and gain a competitive edge in their category. For instance, analyzing trends around competitive product launches or marketing strategies can point out what captures consumers' interest and what ends up being a 'miss' so that businesses can emulate or avoid those elements in their own initiatives. 

Trend analysis is key to understanding consumers. By examining patterns in purchasing decisions, preferences, and engagement with various brands, businesses can tailor their offerings to meet evolving customer needs and desires. This could involve developing new products or services , refining marketing messages, or optimizing customer experience. Trend analysis might even point out technological advancements that could disrupt entire markets or industries. By staying ahead of these trends, businesses can proactively adapt their strategies and capitalize on new opportunities for growth and innovation. Back to table of contents  

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">Types of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis in research

There are various dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">types of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis available through market research. Below we’ll touch on a few of the most popular types that can guide businesses’ dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268003">decision making for different needs .

Consumer dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

This dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">type of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis relates to how consumers behave, think, and purchase within a certain sphere or market landscape. It could uncover consideration and usage of a product or service, consumer behavior in a specific product category, consumers’ dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268031">social media usage, or how consumers feel about political, social, or environmental issues. Information gathered from consumer dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis helps businesses leverage those consumer preferences in their current business operations and identify new growth opportunities.

Competitor dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Knowing where competitors are winning and losing is crucial information to feed into business decisions. Analyzing how competitors have performed at certain points in time, such as the launch of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new products or advertising campaigns, reveals how positively the target market reacts to those types of business activities. This dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">type of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis helps identify strategies that will encourage consumers to choose your business over competitors, as well as to find new opportunities where competitors are weak.

Historical dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Looking at past dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268000">data points and tracking how consumer attitudes, consumer behaviors, or industry activities have changed in relation can provide valuable context for dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268013">future events . Say for example you sell beauty products and you’ve seen the popularity of vitamins in body cream grow over the past two years; this is a good indication that the trend will continue, which will help shape dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new product development and future marketing messages.

Temporal dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Temporal dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis looks at a specific dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268006">period of time to see how consumer trends have changed in that dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268018">time frame alone. You could take one or more periods of time and compare them, or even analyze based on dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268009">seasonality (e.g. summer, the holiday dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268009">season ). This dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">type of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis helps identify trends at a set time which can be helpful when planning inventory stock, pricing strategies, or product promotions for similar time periods in the future.

Geographic dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Geographic dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis looks at changes within geographical locations and compares them with each other. For example, how have skincare preferences evolved in Asia, and how does this compare with preferences in North America? Trends in one region could give clues as to how trends will develop in another - especially today with global dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268031">social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok that can spread geographical trends in record speed. This dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">type of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis is useful for international businesses looking to shape their offer in each location they operate in.

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268040">Demographic dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Knowing your target market is essential to running a successful business. You need to keep tabs on what your consumers want and need, and how those differ based on factors like age, gender, region, etc. Older consumers may have different dietary needs than younger ones; the same goes for cosmetics, footwear, haircare, technology, and so on. This dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268012">type of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis is great for understanding how a particular dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268040">demographic group has changed over time so brands can appeal to that audience with the right communication and product portfolios.

Economic dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Inflation and the general cost of living are examples of economic trends that give businesses a good idea of current consumer buying power and their likely willingness to spend. Economic trended dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268001">data sets are typically available publicly, along with a company’s own internal dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268008">financial statements . This type of data is helpful to reference when setting new price points or making upcoming production decisions.

Technological dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Technology is continuously evolving, and there’s no doubt it will continue to do so. In recent years alone it seems to be evolving faster than ever with things like self-driving cars, virtual reality, and the rise of AI. Technological dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis empowers organizations to make dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268028">informed decisions and gain a competitive advantage. Businesses can use technology trends to operate more efficiently, foster new innovations, and to understand consumer expectations better. Back to table of contents  

Trends are constantly shifting which can be a challenge for businesses to stay ahead. Those that want to act on (rather than react to) consumer or marketplace trends use advanced methodologies to go beyond standard usage and attitude metrics. Advanced methods provide deeper insights around why trends emerge, which are likely to endure, and how businesses can act on them for future success. 

Below are a few examples of advanced methods used for trend analysis - all of which are available on quantilope's Consumer Intelligence Platform: 

MaxDiff (Maximum Difference Scaling):

Pinpoint the most impactful features or aspects driving a specific trend with MaxDiff . Is it sustainability, convenience, or design that's impacting the way consumers feel currently (and over time)? 

TURF (Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency):

When multiple trends emerge (say a change in feature preferences, marketing message relevancy, etc.) it can be hard to pinpoint which trends to focus the most attention on. TURF analysis helps businesses determine the optimal combination of elements to maximize your reach. Which trends, when paired together, create the most compelling offering for your target audience?

Choice-Based Conjoint analysis:

Quantify the value consumers place on emerging trends relative to existing product attributes. Is the trend worth investing in? How much are consumers willing to pay for products or services that align with that trend (e.g. sustainability, minimalism, personalization, etc.)

Price Sensitivity Meter (PSM):

Understand how much consumers are willing to pay for products or services related to a new or existing trend. Does the trend come with a premium price, or is it rather price-sensitive?

Implicit Association Tests (SIAT and MIAT):

Uncover subconscious connections between consumers and emerging trends. Are there hidden emotional drivers influencing the trend's popularity? What intrinsic associations arise related to the trend in question?

The above advanced methods just touch the surface of what businesses have at their disposal when it comes to leveraging these tools to explore trends. For more on this, check out quantilope's guide on the Importance of Advanced Methodologies in Consumer Research .  Back to table of contents  

How to do dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268025">trend dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-menu-id-param="menu_term_289268005" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268005"> analysis

Below are a few simple steps to getting started with your trend analysis research study : 

1. Define your goals

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268004">Market dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-menu-id-param="menu_term_289267998" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998"> analysis requires a clear starting point and a clear end point. In other words, what do you know already and what do you hope to find out? The latter will determine your end goal(s).

Your goals will guide your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis throughout each stage - from initial survey setup to final analysis. When you start looking through your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268001">data set , your end research goal will help you focus on the trends that actually impact your business.

2. Invest in regular dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trends analysis

Identifying trends doesn’t happen overnight. Trends appear over continuous dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268018">timeframes - known as ‘waves’ in trend research. You need to collect data on an ongoing basis to find those trends, and the best way of doing so is setting up a consistent research tracker. Monthly, quarterly, twice-yearly, or annual tracking surveys are some of the most commonly-used cadences to identify trends over time. The frequency of your tracker will depend on how dynamic your industry is; CPG product preferences can change all the time whereas something like home/car insurance may be less wavering.

3. Find an easy-to-use survey tool

An intuitive survey tool - like an online research platform , can speed up your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268005">data analysis process to act on insights faster. Easy-to-use survey tools offer things like research expert consultation, drag & drop modules, automated advanced methods , real-time reporting, and easily designed dashboard reports that can be shared around without the risk of version control. 

4. Identify your sample

For quality data, you need to find the right people and ask the right questions. This means launching a survey among respondents who accurately reflect your target audience and asking questions that relate to your previously-defined goals; the right survey tool will make sure you can achieve both of these by offering things like survey templates and panel agnostic capabilities.

5. Field and analyze your data

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268005">Data analysis will highlight trends that arise from consumer behavior, competitive behavior, or general industry behavior. A good dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268005">data analysis platform will allow you to review results in real-time, as respondents complete your survey - rather than having to wait until the end of fieldwork for a data processing team to send over a final cross-tab file. As you review your data, you can cut dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268020">metrics by different parameters and dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268040">demographics to understand various trend perspectives. Your final data will go into a dashboard or report to share with dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268016">stakeholders for next steps.

6. Act on your findings

Once you’ve analyzed and reported on your trended data findings, it’s time to take action. This might mean immediate action, like putting a dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new product into market, or waiting for another wave of data to confirm a suspected trend. Regardless, the insights you’ve gained from your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis can feed into future business dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268003">decision-making to stay ‘on trend’ and ahead of competitors. Back to table of contents  

Uncovering trends in your data is a critical step to understand the dynamics of your market, category, or brand. Whether you're starting a new trend analysis study or tracking the evolution of established patterns from an existing tracker, trended insights are invaluable in shaping your strategic decision-making.

The first few waves of your trended insights study are exciting; with these results, focus on identifying emerging trends (i.e. shifts in your data) that hint at changing consumer behavior, preferences, or market forces. Recognizing these early signals can give you a competitive advantage, allowing you to adapt and innovate ahead of the curve. Once you have several waves of trended insights available, your goal might be to delve deeper into the trends you've earlier identified.  

Regardless of where you are in your trend analysis, below are a few key considerations to keep in mind:

Look for patterns: Scrutinize your captured data for recurring patterns. These could be increases or decreases in anything from sales figures, customer demographics, or customer preferences - just to name a few examples. Identifying these general patterns will serve as a starting point for deeper analysis.

Isolate anomalies: Don't dismiss data points that seem unusual or unexpected. These anomalies could be early indicators of emerging trends. Keep an eye on these data points to investigate further once you have new data available to see if it might become a long-term trend.

Compare with benchmarks: Compare any new data with industry benchmarks or historical data. This will help you determine whether any observed patterns are unique to your business or part of a wider industry trend.

Visualize your data: Sometimes the easiest way to identify patterns and shifts is through chart visualizations rather than staring solely at the numbers. Create graphs, charts, or other visual representations of your data to see trends more clearly and even make them easier to communicate/share with others.

Consult with others: Seek input from other team members or research consultants (if applicable). Other viewpoints may be able to identify trends you didn't see or add new context to see things from a different angle. 

By keeping the above steps in mind, you can effectively identify new and existing trends from your analysis and use this information to make informed business decisions.  Back to table of contents  

How to use dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trends analysis for virtually any type of research

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">Trend analysis can be used to uncover almost any trends. Above we’ve already mentioned the benefits in exploring trends amongst consumers, competitors, and dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268040">demographics , along with using dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis to uncover geographic, economic, and technological changes. Other use cases of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis include:

Customer satisfaction. Understanding satisfaction levels with regards to a product or service, and how this relates to a brand’s activity or competitor performance. Part of this measurement might be tracking a brand’s NPS score over time.

Employee satisfaction. Identifying how employee turnover or loyalty relates to the company ethos or other factors.

Customer spend. Tracking how different customer types allocate budget to a product over time reveals trends in disposable cash levels as well as their willingness to spend. This feeds into determining dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new product price points and planning dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268032">new product offers.

Financial dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268021">fluctuations and forecasts. Pinpointing where sales have peaked or dipped, and whether there has been an dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268034">upward trend or downward trend since then, provides crucial information on when businesses should explore new opportunities. It also helps predict how business activity will shape future growth.

The customer experience. Part of understanding your target audience means appreciating how their experience of your brand correlates to prevailing trends. This is separate from overall satisfaction; a customer might be satisfied with the end product or service but not the process in finding or purchasing it. Back to table of contents  

dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268027">Examples of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis in market research

Companies can use dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis to inform their spend, product development, advertising, and just about all other areas of business operations. Below are three examples of trend analysis findings from various quantilope syndicated studies. 

DTC Mattress Trends

quantilope runs an annual direct-to-consumer mattress tracker  that identifies trends around in-store vs. online mattress purchasing, direct-to-consumer mattress buying, the popularity of certain mattress brands, and so on. Over the past few years, consumers’ shopping experiences (in general) have shifted heavily online - and this tracker showed that mattresses were no exception. Between 2019 and 2020 onward, the study showed a significant dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268034">upward trend in online mattress purchasing.

Soda Trends

quantilope's quarterly Better Brand Health Tracking (BBHT) study in the soda category tracks metrics around 10 major soda brands. Aside from standard brand funnel metrics like awareness and usage, the BBHT model leverages Category Entry Points (CEPs) , Mental Availability Metrics, and Mental Advantage analysis to provide modernized, actionable insights at both the category and brand level.  Recently, the study has pointed to seasonal trends around soda - particularly diet varieties. In the warmer months of the year, trends for diet sodas like Diet Coke and Diet Pepsi significantly rise. As of wave 5 (April '24), Diet Coke's Mental Market Share (MMS - one of four major Mental Availability metrics) was the highest it's been since the start of tracking a year ago (9%).

With the simultaneous, statistically-significant rise in Diet Pepsi's MMS (7%), this is trend that soda brands should watch over time to plan for future seasonal campaigns, inventory needs, and more. 

To explore more of this study's data, check out the BBHT soda blog post here . 

Consumer Trends 

quantilope's Consumer NOW Index study ran for two years - from July 2020 to June 2022. Over that time, the study tracked trends around overall consumer well-being, shopping behaviors, social media platforms, consumers' finances, travel insights, food trends, and work environments. 

The study's chart visualizations clearly show where there were changes in trends over time - providing an understanding of the general market and consumer sentiment. As one example, the below chart shows that TikTok usage significantly increased between July '21 and the most recent wave of the study about a year later. The same can't be said for any other platform.  

As another example from this study, we can see the change in consumer trends over time on where they choose to stay when booking travel: 

Back to table of contents

Advantages of dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis

Trend analysis empowers businesses to make informed decisions, stay ahead of the curve, and thrive in a competitive landscape. Below are just a few key advantages of running this type of research. 

Proactive decision making:

Trend analysis helps you spot emerging trends before they become mainstream, giving you a head start in adapting your strategies. By understanding the underlying drivers of trends, you can make better decisions about new product development, marketing, and resource allocation.

Competitive advantage:

Staying ahead of trends allows you to offer innovative products and services that set you apart from competitors. By anticipating shifts in consumer preferences, you can position yourself as a trendsetter (rather than a follower) and gain a competitive edge in your market. 

Risk mitigation:

Trend analysis helps you identify potential risks, such as declining demand for certain products or shifting consumer attitudes. By understanding changing trends, you can proactively adapt your business strategies to mitigate risks and avoid obsolescence.

Improved resource allocation:

Trend analysis guides you in allocating resources effectively, ensuring that your investments align with emerging opportunities. By focusing on trends with the highest potential, you can avoid wasting resources on products or services that are losing relevance.

Enhanced marketing and sales:

Understanding trends enables you to create highly targeted marketing campaigns that resonate with your target audience. By aligning your products and services with emerging trends, you can attract new customers and drive sales growth.

Innovation and growth:

Trend analysis can inspire new product ideas and innovations that cater to evolving consumer needs. Identifying emerging markets or opportunities for growth can help your business expand into new areas.

Customer satisfaction and loyalty:

Use quantilope for automated dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis  .

quantilope offers intuitive and affordable dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis through its tracking solutions.

Choose between a category tracker or quantilope’s new Better brand Health Tracking approach that uses industry-praised concepts such as Category Entry Points and Mental Availability . Either way, quantilope users will start with the option to customize a pre-built survey template or build their own tracking study from scratch. Building your tracker is made easy through a library of pre-programmed questions and advanced dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268033">methodologies that you simply drag & drop into your survey builder. The platform even offers an AI co-pilot, quinn , to assist you in your survey creation, analysis, and reporting processes. Findings are available in real-time, with the option to start building report charts long before fieldwork wraps up. Once it does, all charts are automatically updated with final data and statistical testing. Cut the data any way you like, by any other variable within your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289267998">trend analysis survey. Store all final charts in the reporting tab of the platform to use in a final dashboard deliverable, which is shareable with dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268016">stakeholders through a single link.

Subsequent waves of your dropdown#toggle" data-dropdown-placement-param="top" data-term-id="289268025">trend data research can be set live on the platform with a few clicks of a button, as often as you choose. Trended data is automatically added to existing charts in real-time, so you never have to go back to square one.

For more on how quantilope can help your business ahead of trends (and the competition), get in touch below!

Get in touch to learn more about trend analysis with quantilope!

Related posts, quantilope academy is now open to the broader insights community, quantilope & greenbook webinar: tapping into consumers' subconscious through implicit research, master the art of tracking with quantilope's certification course, van westendorp price sensitivity meter questions.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/

Is this article helpful?

Courtney Gahan

Other students also liked, research paper format | apa, mla, & chicago templates, writing a research paper introduction | step-by-step guide, writing a research paper conclusion | step-by-step guide, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Stephanie Ojeda Ponce

Outlining is a useful pre-writing tool when you know your topic well or at least know the areas you want to explore. An outline can be written before you begin to write, and it can range from formal to informal.

Traditional Outline

A traditional outline uses a numbering and indentation scheme to help organize your thoughts. Generally, you begin with your main claim, perhaps stated as a thesis, and place the supporting claims, usually the main supports for your thesis/main argument, and finally flesh out the evidence underneath each subclaim. Each subclaim is numbered and has the same level of indentation. Details under each subclaim are given a different style of number or letter and are indented further to the right.

Here is a video about outlines made by the STEM Writing Resources for Learning at UBC ( ScWRL ):

Rough Outline

A rough outline is less formal than a traditional outline. Working from a list, a brainstorm, or a freewrite, organize the ideas into the order that makes sense to you. You might try color-coding like items and then grouping the items with the same color together. Another method is to print your prewriting, then cut it up into smaller pieces, and finally put the pieces into piles of related items. Tape the like items together, then put the pieces together into a whole list/outline.

Adaptations

Excerpted from Outlining from Writing Place by Lindsay Cuff is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

UBC Science Writing. (2014, September 19). Creating and Using Outlines. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ZWe3mmLcoA&t=1s

Reading and Writing Research for Undergraduates Copyright © 2023 by Stephanie Ojeda Ponce is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Master Your Homework
• Do My Homework

Outlining a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

The research paper is a fundamental part of academia, and its outline serves as the basis for much of what follows. Writing an effective research paper outline can be challenging; however, it is essential to creating a comprehensive and organized document that provides readers with valuable information. This article offers a step-by-step guide on how to effectively create an outlined research paper, outlining all the necessary elements involved in order to ensure completeness and clarity when presenting your work.

• I. Introduction

A. Definition of Research Paper Outline

B. benefits of an outline for a research paper, ii. steps to creating a research paper outline, a. identifying the purpose and audience of the project, b. selecting appropriate sources, c. taking notes and organizing information, d formulating questions based on results iii analyzing information gathered in resources iv developing working thesis statement v structuring the body of the report vi crafting conclusion vii proofreading and editing.

The Research Aim and Objectives

Research is essential for the progress of any field. The aim of this paper is to investigate how media coverage can affect public opinion in regards to current events. Specifically, we will examine the case study of a political event from 2019 as an example. We have identified three objectives that are central to achieving our research goal:

• To analyze how news articles frame topics concerning contemporary issues.
• To assess whether or not these frames influence people’s perceptions about such matters.
• To provide insight into possible methods for developing more effective communication strategies regarding pertinent social issues.

Methodology

>In order to accomplish our objective, we employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Our primary approach was a survey involving respondents from diverse backgrounds across different countries; responses were then analyzed using statistical software packages. We also conducted focus groups with participants who had varying levels of familiarity with the issue at hand, so as gain further insights into their perspectives on the matter. Ultimately, by combining both types of data-gathering approaches, we hope to form an accurate picture regarding public opinion about particular hot-button subjects today.

Crafting a Research Paper Outline

A research paper outline serves as a roadmap for the direction and focus of your work. By creating an organized structure to compile and analyze data from various sources, it will help you clearly present your findings in an easy-to-follow format. To effectively create one, consider the following steps:

• Understand what is being asked of you by thoroughly reading through the assignment prompt.
• Brainstorm potential topics relevant to your subject area or question.
• Research each topic using reliable online resources and academic databases.

. Once you have gathered enough information, formulate clear ideas about how best to organize that data into sections within the document. An effective way to accomplish this goal is to craft an outline before beginning any formal writing.

The basic components of a research paper outline are threefold; introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Each section should consist of facts supporting key points related back to the main topic or hypothesis. Additionally, every point included must be supported with evidence such as scholarly articles or other reputable sources referenced within in-text citations according to predetermined formatting style (APA 7th edition). Further still; all transitions between sentences need be logical with clear connections established among them.

The benefits of creating an outline prior to beginning a research paper are many. Crafting an organized plan for the written work can help authors focus on their topic, identify relevant sources and arguments, and provide structure for the composition.

When it comes to crafting a research paper, the outline is an invaluable asset. An effective outline gives direction and structure to your project so that you stay focused on the main points of your argument. Here are some steps for creating an effective research paper outline:

The purpose of the project is to provide an overview of research paper outline . By identifying and analyzing both the project’s goal and audience, we can gain valuable insights into how best to structure our paper.

• A clearly stated goal provides a guideline for researching relevant sources.
• Identifying the target readership allows us to tailor language and content specifically towards them.

To ensure that our research paper is effective in achieving its goals, it is necessary first to consider who will be reading it. Are we writing for academics? Will industry professionals or laypeople read this document? Once these questions are answered, then appropriate language and citations must be used throughout the text.

Choosing the right sources for a research paper can be daunting task. To ensure that your project is properly backed up by reliable and authoritative evidence, it’s important to consider both quality and relevance when selecting information. Quality means that you should look for documents written or reviewed by experts in the field; relevance requires that those sources are applicable to the specific topic at hand.

Research Paper Outline

• A. Overview of Topic

Note-Taking Strategies Having an effective system of taking notes is essential to the successful completion of any research paper. Developing a personal process for organizing, reviewing and processing information will ensure that you are able to access all relevant facts and data while creating your paper. Here are some tips on how to take notes efficiently:

• Write down important details, such as key definitions, quotes from sources or statistics.
• Take note of any questions or ideas related to your topic.

In addition, create an outline before beginning the writing process in order to organize thoughts effectively. A good research paper outline should include both primary and secondary sources used in researching the topic at hand. Begin by jotting down main points then go further into detail within each point.

To make sure that all vital information is recorded correctly refer back to source material when taking notes rather than relying solely on memory alone. Once complete be sure review them thoroughly so as not capitalize upon every piece available evidence pertinent towards developing a well informed argumentative essay!

Formulating Questions Based on Results

As part of the research paper writing process, it is important to formulate questions based on the results that have been collected. This will help focus your argument and guide your readers through a clear line of reasoning. To start, think about what you already know or can infer from the data at hand; then consider how this information may lead to new discoveries. A good approach is to use an existing research paper outline as a framework for organizing related concepts and developing meaningful inquiries.

• For example:

If you were exploring health disparities among different racial/ethnic populations in the United States, you could begin by looking at population-level trends in healthcare access across geographic regions. Then consider what factors might be contributing to those differences—socioeconomic status? Immigration policies? Education level? You can create further specific questions such as “What are some potential solutions for addressing health inequity issues faced by minority groups?” or “What are best practices for increasing engagement with public health initiatives among underserved communities?”

Analyzing Information Gathered in Resources

Once questions have been formulated based on results obtained during initial exploration into topics relevant to one’s project, researchers must undertake thorough analysis of pertinent resources so they can accurately explain their findings within their written work. It involves examining sources carefully and questioning assumptions when necessary.

• Some strategies include:

Breaking down source material into its individual components – who was involved (instructors vs students)? What was studied (attitudes toward teaching methods?) When did these studies take place (over several years?) Where did they occur geographically (statewide survey?). With each component identified assess if there are any possible gaps needing more investigation which could be addressed later when formulating conclusions about overall implications arising from resource material gathered thus far..

English: As this guide has demonstrated, outlining a research paper can be an important part of the process for writing a successful academic article. By following these steps and taking the time to create an effective outline before starting the actual writing process, students can save themselves considerable time and effort in developing their research papers. With practice, soon they will find that creating outlines becomes almost second nature when constructing complex written works.

We use cookies and similar technologies to improve your website experience and help us understand how you use our website. By continuing to use this website, you consent to the usage of cookies. Learn more about our Privacy Statement and Cookie Policy .

• Our Mission
• Code of Conduct
• The Consultants
• Hours and Locations
• Apply to Become a Consultant
• Make an Appointment
• Face-to-Face Appointments
• Zoom Appointments
• Written Feedback Appointments
• Support for Writers with Disabilities
• Policies and Restrictions
• Upcoming Workshops
• Class Workshops
• Meet the Consultants
• Writing Guides and Tools
• Schedule an appointment! Login or Register
• Graduate Students
• ESOL Students

An outline is a map of your essay. It shows what information each section or paragraph will contain, and in what order. Most outlines use numbers and/or bullet points to arrange information and convey points.

Why create an outline?

Outlining is a tool we use in the writing process to help organize our ideas, visualize our paper’s potential structure, and to further flesh out and develop points. It allows the writer to understand how he or she will connect information to support the thesis statement and the claims of the paper. An outline provides the writer with a space to consider ideas easily without needing to write complete paragraphs or sentences.

Creating your outline:

Before beginning an outline, it is useful to have a clear thesis statement or clear purpose or argument, as everything else in the outline is going to work to support the thesis. Note: the outline might help inform the thesis, and therefore your thesis might change or develop within the outlining process.

Organize your outline in whatever format fits into the structure needed for the type of paper you are writing. One common outline format uses Roman numerals, letters, and numbers. Other outlines can use bullet points or other symbols. You can use whatever organizational patterns work best for you and your paper, as long as you understand your own organizational tools. Outlines can be written using complete sentences or fragments or a mix of the two.

Remember! After creating your outline, you may decide to reorganize your ideas by putting them in a different order. Furthermore, as you are writing you might make some discoveries and can, of course, always adjust or deviate from the outline as needed.

Sample Outlines:

As you can see in the outline below, the writer chose to separate the outline by topics, but could have utilized a different structure, organizing the outline by separate paragraphs, indicating what each paragraph will do or say.

• Introduction A. Background information B. Thesis
• Reason 1 A. Use quotes from x B. Use evidence from y
• Reason 2 A. Counterargument     1. They might say…     2. But…
• Conclusion A. Connect back to thesis B. Answer the “so what” or “what now” question C. End on a memorable note

Note: The sample outline above illustrates the structure of an outline, but it is quite vague. Your outline should be as specific as possible.

Proposal Outline:

• Summary/ Synopsis of proposed project • Rationale • Specific aims and objectives • Experimental approaches to be used • The potential significance
• Specific Aims • X • Y • Z
• Background and Significance • Background • Significance to current project • Significance to long-term research objectives • Critical evaluations of existing knowledge • Forward progress
• Preliminary Data • Description of prelim data to justify the rationale • Demonstrate feasibility of the project
• Experimental Design and Methods • Details of design and procedures • Protocols • Means of data analysis and interpretation • New methodology and its advantages • Potential technical difficulties or limitations/ alternative approaches
• References • Citations

Note: Outlines can look quite different. You might use Roman numerals to indicate the main point or function of that section, and then letters to indicate separate sub-points, and then even bullet points or numbers to indicate specific information, like using certain quotes, sources, evidence, or examples.

Adapted From: Los Angeles Valley College Writing Center, “How to Make an Outline” 2/2/15

Northwestern University Collaborative Learning and Integrated Mentoring in the Biosciences, “A Basic Proposal Outline”

San Jose State University Writing Center, “Essay Planning: Outlining with a Purpose” Spring 2014

The Writing Center

4400 University Drive, 2G8 Fairfax, VA 22030

• Johnson Center, Room 227E
• +1-703-993-1200
• [email protected]

Quick Links

• Register with us

© Copyright 2024 George Mason University . All Rights Reserved. Privacy Statement | Accessibility

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Making an Outline
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

An outline is a formal system used to develop a framework for thinking about what should be the organization and eventual contents of your paper. An outline helps you predict the overall structure and flow of a paper.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Writing papers in college requires you to come up with sophisticated, complex, and sometimes very creative ways of structuring your ideas . Taking the time to draft an outline can help you determine if your ideas connect to each other, what order of ideas works best, where gaps in your thinking may exist, or whether you have sufficient evidence to support each of your points. It is also an effective way to think about the time you will need to complete each part of your paper before you begin writing.

A good outline is important because :

• You will be much less likely to get writer's block . An outline will show where you're going and how to get there. Use the outline to set goals for completing each section of your paper.
• It will help you stay organized and focused throughout the writing process and help ensure proper coherence [flow of ideas] in your final paper. However, the outline should be viewed as a guide, not a straitjacket. As you review the literature or gather data, the organization of your paper may change; adjust your outline accordingly.
• A clear, detailed outline ensures that you always have something to help re-calibrate your writing should you feel yourself drifting into subject areas unrelated to the research problem. Use your outline to set boundaries around what you will investigate.
• The outline can be key to staying motivated . You can put together an outline when you're excited about the project and everything is clicking; making an outline is never as overwhelming as sitting down and beginning to write a twenty page paper without any sense of where it is going.
• An outline helps you organize multiple ideas about a topic . Most research problems can be analyzed from a variety of perspectives; an outline can help you sort out which modes of analysis are most appropriate to ensure the most robust findings are discovered.
• An outline not only helps you organize your thoughts, but it can also serve as a schedule for when certain aspects of your writing should be accomplished . Review the assignment and highlight the due dates of specific tasks and integrate these into your outline. If your professor has not created specific deadlines, create your own deadlines by thinking about your own writing style and the need to manage your time around other course assignments.

How to Structure and Organize Your Paper. Odegaard Writing & Research Center. University of Washington; Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lietzau, Kathleen. Creating Outlines. Writing Center, University of Richmond.

Structure and Writing Style

I.   General Approaches

There are two general approaches you can take when writing an outline for your paper:

The topic outline consists of short phrases. This approach is useful when you are dealing with a number of different issues that could be arranged in a variety of different ways in your paper. Due to short phrases having more content than using simple sentences, they create better content from which to build your paper.

The sentence outline is done in full sentences. This approach is useful when your paper focuses on complex issues in detail. The sentence outline is also useful because sentences themselves have many of the details in them needed to build a paper and it allows you to include those details in the sentences instead of having to create an outline of short phrases that goes on page after page.

II.   Steps to Making the Outline

A strong outline details each topic and subtopic in your paper, organizing these points so that they build your argument toward an evidence-based conclusion. Writing an outline will also help you focus on the task at hand and avoid unnecessary tangents, logical fallacies, and underdeveloped paragraphs.

• Identify the research problem . The research problem is the focal point from which the rest of the outline flows. Try to sum up the point of your paper in one sentence or phrase. It also can be key to deciding what the title of your paper should be.
• Identify the main categories . What main points will you analyze? The introduction describes all of your main points; the rest of  your paper can be spent developing those points.
• Create the first category . What is the first point you want to cover? If the paper centers around a complicated term, a definition can be a good place to start. For a paper that concerns the application and testing of a particular theory, giving the general background on the theory can be a good place to begin.
• Create subcategories . After you have followed these steps, create points under it that provide support for the main point. The number of categories that you use depends on the amount of information that you are trying to cover. There is no right or wrong number to use.

Once you have developed the basic outline of the paper, organize the contents to match the standard format of a research paper as described in this guide.

III.   Things to Consider When Writing an Outline

• There is no rule dictating which approach is best . Choose either a topic outline or a sentence outline based on which one you believe will work best for you. However, once you begin developing an outline, it's helpful to stick to only one approach.
• Both topic and sentence outlines use Roman and Arabic numerals along with capital and small letters of the alphabet arranged in a consistent and rigid sequence. A rigid format should be used especially if you are required to hand in your outline.
• Although the format of an outline is rigid, it shouldn't make you inflexible about how to write your paper. Often when you start investigating a research problem [i.e., reviewing the research literature], especially if you are unfamiliar with the topic, you should anticipate the likelihood your analysis could go in different directions. If your paper changes focus, or you need to add new sections, then feel free to reorganize the outline.
• If appropriate, organize the main points of your outline in chronological order . In papers where you need to trace the history or chronology of events or issues, it is important to arrange your outline in the same manner, knowing that it's easier to re-arrange things now than when you've almost finished your paper.
• For a standard research paper of 15-20 pages, your outline should be no more than few pages in length . It may be helpful as you are developing your outline to also write down a tentative list of references.

Muirhead, Brent. “Using Outlines to Improve Online Student Writing Skills.” Journal on School Educational Technology 1, (2005): 17-23; Four Main Components for Effective Outlines. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; How to Make an Outline. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Kartawijaya, Sukarta. “Improving Students’ Writing Skill in Writing Paragraph through an Outline Technique.” Curricula: Journal of Teaching and Learning 3 (2018); Organization: Informal Outlines. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Organization: Standard Outline Form. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Outlining. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Plotnic, Jerry. Organizing an Essay. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Reverse Outline. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Reverse Outlines: A Writer's Technique for Examining Organization. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Using Outlines. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

A Disorganized Outline Means a Disorganized Paper!

If, in writing your paper, it begins to diverge from your outline, this is very likely a sign that you've lost your focus. How do you know whether to change the paper to fit the outline, or, that you need to reconsider the outline so that it fits the paper? A good way to check your progress is to use what you have written to recreate the outline. This is an effective strategy for assessing the organization of your paper. If the resulting outline says what you want it to say and it is in an order that is easy to follow, then the organization of your paper has been successful. If you discover that it's difficult to create an outline from what you have written, then you likely need to revise your paper.

• << Previous: Choosing a Title
• Next: Paragraph Development >>
• Last Updated: Jun 17, 2024 9:29 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Korean Med Sci
• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

2.6: Outlining

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 107747

• Kathryn Crowther et al.
• Georgia Perimeter College via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Purpose of an Outline

Once your topic has been chosen, your ideas have been generated through brainstorming techniques, and you’ve developed a working thesis, the next step in the prewriting stage is to create an outline. Sometimes called a “blueprint,” or “plan” for your paper, an outline helps writers organize their thoughts and categorize the main points they wish to make in an order that makes sense.

Creating an outline is an important step in the writing process!

The purpose of an outline is to help you organize your paper by checking to see if and how your ideas connect to each other, or whether you need to flesh out a point or two.

No matter the length of the paper, from a three-page weekly assignment to a 50-page senior thesis, outlines can help you see the overall picture.

Having an outline also helps prevent writers from “getting stuck” when writing the first draft of an essay.

A well-developed outline will show the essential elements of an essay:

• thesis of essay
• main idea of each body paragraph
• evidence/support offered in each paragraph to substantiate the main points

A well-developed outline breaks down the parts of your thesis in a clear, hierarchical manner. Writing an outline before beginning an essay helps the writer organize ideas generated through brainstorming and/or research. In short, a well-developed outline makes your paper easier to write.

The formatting of any outline is not arbitrary; the system of formatting and number/letter designations creates a visual hierarchy of the ideas, or points, being made in the essay.

Major points, in other words, should not be buried in subtopic levels.

Types of Outlines

Alphanumeric outlines.

This is the most common type of outline used and is usually instantly recognizable to most people. The formatting follows these characters, in this order:

Level 1: Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc.)

Level 2: Capitalized Letters (A, B, C, D, E, etc.)

Level 3: Arabic Numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.)

Level 4: Lowercase Letters (a, b, c, d, e, etc.)

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\):

• (Additional explanation/support for supporting detail) Each 5 mph driven over 60 mph is like paying an additional $0.21 per gallon for gas (at $3.00 per gallon).

If the outline needs to subdivide beyond these divisions, use Arabic numerals inside parentheses and then lowercase letters inside parentheses.

Decimal Outlines

The decimal outline follows the same levels of indentation when formatting to indicate the hierarchy of ideas/points as the alphanumeric outline. The added benefit of decimal notation, however, is that it clearly shows, through the decimal breakdown, how each progressive level relates to the larger whole.

Example \(\PageIndex{2}\):

• (Additional explanation/support for supporting detail) According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), “as a rule of thumb, each 5 mph driven over 60 mph is like paying an additional $0.21 per gallon for gas (at $3.00 per gallon).”

Micro and Macro Outlines

The indentation/formatting of a micro (full sentence) or macro (topic) outline is essentially the same as alphanumeric/decimal outlines. The difference between micro and macro outlines lies in the specificity and depth of the content.

Micro outlines focus on the “micro,” the drilled-down specific details of the essay’s content. They are particularly useful when the topic you are discussing is complex in nature. When creating a micro outline, it can also be useful to insert the quotations you plan to include in the essay (with citations) and subsequent analyses of quotes. Taking this extra step helps ensure that you have enough support for your ideas, as well as reminding writers to actually analyze and discuss quotations, rather than simply inserting quotes and moving on. While time-consuming to create, micro outlines can be seen as basically creating the first rough draft of an essay.

Macro outlines, in contrast, focus on the “big picture” of an essay’s main points and support by using short phrases or keywords to indicate the focus and content at each level of the essay’s development. A macro outline is useful when writing about a variety of ideas and issues where the ordering of points is more flexible. Macro outlines are also especially helpful when writing timed essays, or essay exam questions--or any rhetorical situation where writers need to quickly get their ideas down in an organized essay format.

Example \(\PageIndex{3}\): Micro/Full-Sentence Outline

• (Additional explanation/support for supporting detail) According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), “as a rule of thumb, each 5 mph driven over 60 mph is like paying an additional $0.21 per gallon for gas (at $3.00 per gallon)”.

Example \(\PageIndex{4}\): Macro/Topic Outline

• (Additional explanation/support for supporting detail) Amount of money saved

Creating an Outline

Identify your topic : Put the topic in your own words in with a single sentence or phrase to help you stay on topic.

Determine your main points . What are the main points you want to make to convince your audience? Using your brainstorming notes, you should be able to create a working thesis with various supporting ideas.

List your main points/ideas in a logical order . You can always change the order later as you evaluate your outline.

Create sub-points for each major idea . Typically, each time you have a new number or letter, there need to be at least two points (i.e. if you have an A, you need a B; if you have a 1, you need a 2; etc.). Though perhaps frustrating at first, it is indeed useful because it forces you to think hard about each point; if you can’t create two points, then reconsider including the first in your paper, as it may be extraneous information that may detract from your argument.

Evaluate : Review your organizational plan, your blueprint for your paper. Does each paragraph have a controlling idea/topic sentence? Is each point adequately supported? Look over what you have written. Does it make logical sense? Is each point suitably fleshed out? Is there anything included that is unnecessary?

Overview : View the YouTube video on “Outlining” from the University of North Carolina’s Online Writing Lab.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZUr...CWritingCenter  

• Create a sentence outline from the following introductory paragraph in alphanumeric format:

The popularity of knitting is cyclical, rising and falling according to the prevailing opinion of women’s places in society. Though internationally a unisex hobby, knitting is pervasively thought of as a woman’s hobby in the United States. Knitting is currently enjoying a boost in popularity as traditionally minded women pick up the craft while women who enjoy subverting traditional gender roles have also picked up the needles to reclaim “the lost domestic arts” and give traditionally feminine crafts the proper respect. American men are also picking up the needles in greater numbers, with men’s knitting guilds and retreats nationwide. This rise in popularity has made the receiving of hand-knit items special, and many people enjoy receiving these long-lasting, painstakingly crafted items. For any knitters, the perfect gift starts by choosing the perfect yarn. Choosing the perfect yarn for a knitting project relies on the preferences of the person for whom the project is being made, the availability of the yarn, and the type of yarn recommended by the pattern.

What is the thesis? How is the topic introduced? Is there a hierarchy of supporting points?

• Now create your own outline based on your paper topic.

Example \(\PageIndex{5}\): 3-Level Alphanumeric Outline

Thesis: Making the perfect egg omelet requires proper preparation and skillful cooking technique.

• A heavy, Teflon-coated frying pan gives even heat and prevents burning.
• A plastic spatula prevents the cook from scratching the frying pan.
• Fresh eggs make a fluffier omelet than eggs that have aged.
• Sweet milk blends into the egg batter more evenly than sour milk.
• Fresh vegetable oil is necessary to avoid giving the omelet a greasy flavor and texture.
• Newly cracked pepper and sea salt add extra zest to the egg batter.
• The eggs must be beaten with a whisk until they are fluffy.
• The milk and seasonings must be whisked into the egg batter before the eggs go flat.
• The egg batter must be poured into the frying pan as soon as the oil is hot.
• The omelet must be turned in the pan only once as soon as the batter sets on top.

Fostering Integrity in Research (2017)

Chapter: 3 important trends and challenges in the research environment, 3 important trends and challenges in the research environment.

By working collaboratively, researchers can hope to answer questions never addressed before, including those with substantial influence on society. At the same time, today’s international, interdisciplinary, team-oriented, and technology-intensive research has created an environment more fraught with the potential for error and distortion.

— Indira Nath and Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker (2012)

Synopsis: A number of the elements in the research environment that were identified in the early 1990s as perhaps problematic for ensuring research integrity and maintaining good scientific practices have generally continued along their long-term trend lines, including the size and scope of the research enterprise, the complexity of collaboration, the growth of regulatory requirements, and the importance of industry sponsorship and entrepreneurial research. Several important new trends that were not examined in the 1992 Responsible Science report have also emerged, including the pervasive and growing importance of information technology in research, the globalization of research, and the increasing relevance of knowledge generated in certain fields to policy issues and political debates. These changes—the growing importance of information technology in particular—have led to important shifts in the institutions that support and underlie the research enterprise, such as scholarly publishing. They also have important implications for the ability of researchers, research institutions, journals, and sponsors to foster integrity and prevent research misconduct and detrimental research practices.

The 1992 report Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process devoted a chapter to describing the contemporary research environment and outlining the most important changes that had occurred over the previous decades ( NAS-NAE-IOM, 1992 ). Responsible Science also described several additional features of the U.S. research scene of the early 1990s that had become the subject of discussion and concern due to possible negative impacts on the research environment, including research integrity ( NAS-NAE-IOM, 1992 ). This chapter will first explore the research environment issues identified in 1992—except for the reward system in science, which is covered in Chapter 6 —and describe trends over the past two decades. The second part of the chapter will

explore several important shifts in the research environment that have appeared since 1992 and were not considered in Responsible Science . These shifts carry several important implications for research integrity.

HOW RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT ISSUES IDENTIFIED IN RESPONSIBLE SCIENCE HAVE EVOLVED SINCE THE EARLY 1990s

Size and scope of the research enterprise.

The 1992 report’s overview described growth in the size and scope of the research enterprise. The report observed that research in the pre–World War II United States—academic research in particular—was a mostly small-scale avocation of individual scientists, supported by limited funding from industry, government, and foundations. Following the significant wartime contributions of research efforts such as MIT’s Radiation Laboratory, federal support for science and engineering research increased rapidly. By 1991, research and development (R&D) was a $160 billion (current dollars) enterprise in the United States, employing about 744,000 people in industrial, academic, and governmental laboratories and producing more than 140,000 research articles annually ( NSB, 1996 , 2014b ; OECD, 2015 ).

Over the following two decades, the enterprise has continued to grow, with U.S. R&D totaling $456 billion in 2013, R&D employment rising to about 1,252,000, and the number of published research articles reaching more than 412,000 ( NSB, 2014b , 2016 ; OECD, 2015 ). The 1992 report paid particular attention to the growth in academic research and federal support, and this growth has continued. Between 1991 and 2014, academic R&D grew from around $17.5 billion to $67.1 billion, with federal support constituting 60–75 percent of the total ( NSB, 2016 ). 1 The number of science, engineering, and health doctorate holders employed in academia rose from 211,000 in 1991 to almost 309,000 in 2013 ( NSB, 2016 ). The number of PhDs awarded in science and engineering more than doubled, from approximately 19,000 in 1988 to almost 37,000 in 2013, with an increasing percentage of these doctorate recipients going to work outside academia ( NSB, 2016 ).

The 1992 Responsible Science report raised the concern that the increased size of the research enterprise might put stresses on key capabilities, such as the “overall workload associated with critical evaluation” ( NAS-NAE-IOM, 1992 ). The number and capacity of effective peer reviewers might not be keeping pace with the relentless growth in manuscripts and proposals. Concerns also have been raised about the increasing use of bibliometric-based metrics in evaluating

___________________

1 From 2010, the total includes academic R&D outside of science and engineering, which adds several billion dollars.

research as a substitute or replacement for expert judgment ( P. B. Lowry et al., 2012 ).

Complexity of Collaboration

Responsible Science described the growth of collaborative research after World War II, which has continued since the early 1990s. In contrast to earlier times, when articles with more than four co-authors and work involving more than one laboratory or research institution were rare, collaborative research of various types is now very common. The number of authors listed on articles is only one measure of collaboration, but it clearly reveals the overall trend. In an analysis of approximately 20 million research articles published since 1955 and 2 million patents registered since 1975, the number of authors on scientific papers grew from an average of 1.9 in 1955 to 3.5 in 2000 ( Wuchty et al., 2007 ). At the same time, single-author articles are becoming less common, constituting only about 11 percent of the total in 2012 ( King, 2013 ).

Several factors are driving the trend toward larger-scale research in general and in specific fields ( Stephan, 2012a ). These include the need for more elaborate and expensive equipment and the often related requirement for a variety of specialized skills and knowledge. These characteristics of “big science” have long been a given in fields such as high-energy physics and astronomy, in the form of particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider and modern telescopes. They have become more prominent recently in many areas of the life sciences as well. In describing the results of large life sciences research projects such as the Human Genome Project and ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements), former Science editor-in-chief Bruce Alberts (2012) noted that “the increased efficiency of data production by such projects is impressive.” In addition, as will be discussed in more detail below, the information technology revolution has radically lowered the costs of communication and collaboration of all types, including research collaboration.

Another factor contributing to the growth of team research has been an increase in the amount of interdisciplinary research. Interdisciplinary research efforts have continued to grow in importance and are extremely diverse ( Derrick et al., 2012 ). Interdisciplinary teams can range from local and informal to transnational and highly structured. They can be composed largely or entirely of researchers accustomed to working within a disciplinary framework, or they can consist partly or wholly of researchers who have been educated and have worked in interdisciplinary fields. Integration of knowledge from multiple disciplines can occur within the mind of a single person or through the collaborative efforts of a large team. For example, with the advent of “big data” and computational science, statisticians are increasingly included on projects where researchers have collected domain-specific data that they do not have the expertise to analyze. Interdisciplinary research is often focused on problems that have important so-

cietal implications. One current example of a growing interdisciplinary field is synthetic biology, which seeks a fundamental understanding of the workings of living systems along with the capability of re-creating living systems for a variety of applications in areas such as medicine and the environment. Synthetic biology research involves “biologists of many specialties, engineers, physicists, computer scientists, and others” ( NRC, 2010 ).

According to one analysis of trends in interdisciplinary research in six research fields, the growth of interdisciplinarity has been modest—about 5 percent—even as the number of authors per article has grown by 75 percent ( Porter and Rafols, 2009 ). This study found that the number of disciplines cited by papers in these six fields—mathematics, neurosciences, electrical and electronic engineering, biotechnology and applied microbiology, research and experimental medicine, and atomic, molecular, and chemical physics—has increased, but the distribution of citations is within neighboring research areas and has only slightly broadened. According to the authors, “These findings suggest that science is indeed becoming more interdisciplinary, but in small steps—drawing mainly from neighboring fields and only modestly increasing the connections to distant cognitive areas.”

Collaborative science requires that researchers focus at least some attention on coordination and interaction, which in theory might detract from the time and effort devoted to research. Yet Wuchty et al. (2007) found that multiauthor teams produced more highly cited work in each broad area of research and at each point in time. In addition, though solo authors in 1955 were more likely to produce papers that were highly cited, suggesting that these papers reported on the most influential concepts, results, or technologies, teams are more likely to produce highly cited papers today. As the authors wrote, “solo authors did produce the papers of singular distinction in science and engineering and social science in the 1950s, but the mantle of extraordinarily cited work has passed to teams by 2000.”

As more researchers work collaboratively and as the size of teams grows, the relationships among team members can become more complex. Team members can be at different research institutions and have different disciplinary backgrounds. Teams can contain researchers at all stages of their careers, from undergraduate and graduate students involved in research to senior researchers. The diversity and geographic spread of people involved in teams can create opportunities for miscommunication, misunderstandings, unrealistic expectations, and unresolved disputes. Whether these opportunities account for part of the increase in reports of undesirable research practices is unclear, but they can make the research environment more complicated and difficult than when teams were smaller, colocated more regularly, and more homogeneous in terms of discipline or nationality.

As research projects are undertaken by larger groups that bring together a greater diversity of expertise, encompass a broader range of disciplines, and strive for a greater degree of synthesis, the potential for misunderstandings can grow. Coordination of research inevitably becomes more complex, and the members

of a team may have less familiarity with the discipline-specific practices of other team members, making it more difficult for each collaborator to check and verify the work done by others. As the number of collaborators increases, there is more scope for disagreements over the allocation of credit. It becomes much more challenging to reward and recognize individual contributions, which has a big impact on junior researchers in particular. In addition, the mentoring of students in responsible research practices can become more impersonal and generic. The mental model of graduate education and training in which mentors work closely with graduate students and are able to take the time and effort to ensure that mentees understand the rules and can follow them may describe a smaller and smaller part of the research enterprise. Interdisciplinary work increases the possibility that the standards and expectations of different fields may come into conflict.

Regulation and Accountability

The 1992 report also noted that research activities were “increasingly subject to government regulations and guidelines that impose financial and administrative requirements” in areas such as laboratory safety, human subjects protection, drug-free workplace assurance, laboratory animal care, and the research use of recombinant DNA and toxic and radioactive materials. Along with the relatively new requirements and regulations related to research misconduct, the development of which is covered in Chapter 4 of this report, ensuring compliance with these expanding regulatory requirements had resulted in an expansion of administrative and oversight functions and staff at universities and required increasing time and attention from investigators. As an increasing percentage of faculty time goes toward fulfilling the requirements of various regulations and reporting requirements, research-related tasks such as mentoring and checking the work of subordinates may be shortchanged.

The administrative and regulatory compliance burden on research institutions and researchers remains significant. For example, respondents to a 2012 survey of 13,453 principal investigators undertaken by the Federal Demonstration Partnership estimated that, on average, 42 percent of the time they spent working on federally funded research projects was devoted to meeting regulatory and administrative requirements ( Schneider et al., 2012 ). According to the survey results, areas of regulation where compliance is particularly time consuming include those related to finances, personnel, and effort reporting. In 2014 the National Science Board issued a report that analyzes the regulatory compliance burden on faculty and makes recommendations for how it might be reduced ( NSB, 2014c ). A 2016 National Academies report evaluated current approaches to regulating academic research and made recommendations for achieving the goals of regulation while reducing financial and time burdens on institutions and faculty ( National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016 ).

Industry-Sponsored Research and Other Research Aimed at Commercialization

Increasingly, the scientific enterprise has been recognized not only as a place to expand knowledge but also as an engine for the creation of new products, novel therapies for disease, improved technologies, and new industries and jobs. To quote President Obama (2009b) , “scientific innovation offers us a chance to achieve prosperity.” The economic potential of science, however, also offers unique challenges to the responsible conduct of research, which were described in Responsible Science . These challenges can be seen in scientific research conducted in an industrial setting, scientific research conducted in university and research institutions in collaboration with industry, and university research that leads to entrepreneurial efforts by the researchers, requiring that they integrate both within themselves and in their professional behavior often divergent cultural understandings about the nature, purposes, and outcomes of research. These challenges include the potential of economic incentives to introduce scientific bias, the perception of conflict of interest due to economic incentives, and the potential effect of intellectual property protection on the timely dissemination of knowledge.

Industry funds and conducts a substantial amount of research in the United States. For both basic and applied research, as defined by the National Science Foundation, industry conducts 40 percent of the U.S. total ( NSB, 2016 ). Even considering just basic research, industry conducts approximately 24 percent, almost 90 percent of which it funds itself. Unlike academic research, corporate research is often driven by the needs of a company to remain financially solvent and to be accountable to shareholders. Corporate researchers often exist under hierarchical chains of supervision where management maintains greater control over the research process.

Only a fraction of the results of industry-funded research is published in the scientific and engineering literature and is thereby submitted to formal peer review. Of the articles published in 2013, authors from industry accounted for only 6 percent of the total, and that percentage has been declining over the past two decades ( NSB, 2014 ). This can be a product of the need to preserve intellectual property interests for trade secrets and obtaining patents. One consequence is that the knowledge gained in such research may not be widely disseminated or evaluated through the peer review process. This is not to say that such industry research is not of high quality or is not carefully reviewed. Companies can have strict protocols regarding the collection, documentation, and storage of data, particularly when there are strong regulatory or economic reasons to do so. Checking mechanisms may be built into industrial research to verify especially critical results ( Williams, 2012 ). And, as with all research, the use of research results in subsequent activities—including the production of commercial products—provides further checks on the validity of results.

However, both industrial research and industry-sponsored research in aca-

demic settings have been found to occasionally show signs of both unintentional and intentional bias. 2 For example, one might observe bias in the lack of publication of results with negative consequences for the profitability of a product or in the restriction of published findings to those that reflect positively on a product. An extreme case is the tobacco industry, which undertook a systematic effort over the course of decades to obscure the harmful effects of smoking ( Proctor, 2011 ). Other examples include episodes of alleged ghostwriting in some medical research, including the Paxil case described in Appendix D and also discussed in Chapter 7 . Such research tarnishes all other research by demonstrating that research agendas and techniques can be manipulated so severely as to subvert truth to other interests. Many journals have moved to reporting the financial interests of authors, whether the work has an industry sponsor or not, so that readers are made aware of the potential for bias.

In addition to collaborations with established industries, academic institutions have increasingly encouraged entrepreneurship and innovation for commercialization, particularly since the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980, which allowed institutions to hold patents on innovations produced with federal funding. Having seen the success of academic research products such as Gatorade and the Google search algorithm patent in generating revenue, institutions may hope that their researchers can achieve similar results. For fiscal 2011 the Association of University Technology Managers reported that the 186 institutions responding to its annual survey earned a total of $1.5 billion in running royalty income, executed 4,899 licenses, created 591 commercial products, and formed 671 start-up companies from their research (AUTM, 2012).

One result of the commercialization of university-generated technology is that the need to manage possible conflicts of interest has become an important issue in academic settings. A 2009 Institute of Medicine report explores the issue of institutional conflict of interest in more detail ( IOM, 2009 ). Individual conflicts of interest exist if the investigator is also the founder of a company conducting research or has a significant monetary stake in the research. This can also apply to an institution if it owns part of a company or has a financial stake in a faculty member’s research findings. Under the U.S. Financial Conflict of Interest (FCOI) policy, research funded by the Public Health Service requires institutions to maintain and enforce a FCOI policy; manage, reduce, or eliminate identified conflicts; report identified conflicts, the value of the conflicts, and a management plan to the Public Health Service Awarding Component; and publish significant financial interests of any personnel involved in the research on a publicly accessible website ( HHS, 2011b ). Currently, the Department of Health and Human Services does not have institutional regulations in the same manner as investigator FCOI regulations (required disclosure of FCOIs). Strengthened institutional FCOI regulations have been considered, but there is a need for further and separate consideration.

2 This is not meant to imply that research that is not sponsored by industry is necessarily unbiased.

The National Science Foundation policy is consistent with that of the Department of Health and Human Services. Regulations of individual financial conflicts of interest are further discussed in Chapter 7 and are also addressed in the context of best practices in Chapter 9 .

Additional individual conflicts of interest, or secondary interests, can also affect a research study, including political biases, white hat bias, commitment conflicts, career considerations, and favors to others ( IOM, 2009 ; Lesser et al., 2007 ). A political opinion, bias, or long-standing scientific viewpoint toward one position or another may influence the interpretation of findings, despite contradictory evidence ( Lesser et al., 2007 ). Similarly, white hat bias, or “bias leading to distortion of information in the service of what may be perceived to be righteous end,” also has the potential to influence conclusions ( Cope and Allison, 2010 ). An example of a conflict of commitment would be a principal investigator who does not have the time to perform all the duties for which he or she is responsible, such as securing funding, setting the overall direction for research in a lab, administrative responsibilities, and adequately supervising graduate students and postdocs. Secondary interests are rarely regulated, as they are considered a lesser incentive than financial interests.

Closer linkages between research and commercialization have introduced the possibility of financial gain from research more widely across the enterprise. This can pose challenges in terms of defining appropriate behavior and establishing guidelines for dealing with conflicts of interest, and it can complicate collaborations among individual researchers and among organizations.

MAJOR CHANGES IN THE RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT SINCE 1992

Information technologies in research.

The continued exponential rise in the power of information and computing technologies has had a dramatic impact on research across many disciplines. These technologies have not only increased the speed and scope of research but have made it possible to conduct investigations that were not possible before. Information technology advances have enabled new forms of inquiry such as those based on numerical simulation of physical and biological systems and the analysis of massive datasets to detect and assess the nature of relationships that otherwise would go unseen.

The contrast in computing capabilities since the publication of Responsible Science is especially stark. In 1992, use of e-mail was less than a decade old, and the World Wide Web had just been invented and was not widely known. Three-and-a-half-inch floppy disks for data storage had replaced 5-1/4-inch disks just a few years before. People made telephone calls on landlines, used letters to communicate in writing, and circulated preprints via the postal system. For

young researchers, the circumstances in which research was conducted in 1992 are almost entirely foreign.

One effect of information technologies in many areas of research has been to introduce intermediate analyses of considerable complexity between the “raw” data gathered by sensors and observations, and produced by data-creating devices such as DNA sequencers, and the results of research. Re-creating the steps from data to results can be impossible without a detailed knowledge of data production and analyzing software, which sometimes is dependent on the particular computer on which the software runs. This intermediate analysis complicates the replication of scientific results and can create opportunities to manipulate analyses so as to achieve desired results, as well as undermine the ability of others to validate findings.

Digital technologies can pose other temptations for researchers to violate the standards of scientific practice. For example, the manipulation of images using image-processing software has caused many journals to implement spot checks and other procedures to guard against falsification. The inappropriate application of statistical packages can lead to greater confidence in the results than is warranted. Data-mining techniques can generate false positives and spurious correlations. In many fields, the development of standards governing the application of technology in the derivation of research results remains incomplete even as continuing technological advances raise new issues. In a recent paper, two prominent biologists wrote, “Although scientists have always comforted themselves with the thought that science is self-correcting, the immediacy and rapidity with which knowledge disseminates today means that incorrect information can have a profound impact before any corrective process can take place” ( Casadevall and Fang, 2012 ).

The widespread utilization of information technologies in research may also introduce new sources of unintentional error and irreproducibility of results. A survey of researchers who utilize species distribution modeling software found that only 8 percent had validated the software they had chosen against other methods, with higher percentages relying on recommendations from colleagues or the reputation of the developer ( Joppa et al., 2013 ). The latter approaches pose risks of incorrect implementation and error for the research being pursued, particularly if software is not shared or subjected to critical review. Issues surrounding irreproducibility and information technologies are discussed further in Chapter 5 .

Besides affecting the conduct of research, information and communication technologies have transformed the communication of scientific results and interactions among researchers. In theory, if not always in practice, all the data contributing to a research result can now be stored electronically and communicated to interested researchers. This capability has contributed to a growing movement for much more open forms of research in which researchers work collectively on problems, often through electronic media ( Nielsen, 2012 ). However, this trend toward greater transparency has created tasks and responsibilities for research-

ers and the research enterprise that did not previously exist, such as creating, documenting, storing, and sharing scientific software and immense databases and providing guidance in the use of these new digital objects. For example, software produced by scientists in the course of analyzing the data is often carried out as a collaborative online process. This digitization makes it easier than ever to perform very complex analyses that not only lead to new discoveries but create new problems of opacity for the peer review process. And while technology is making many aspects of research more efficient, it may also create new tasks and responsibilities that are burdensome for researchers and that they may find difficult or impossible to fulfill.

The movement toward open science has encouraged the efforts of citizen scientists who are eager to monitor, contribute to, and in some cases criticize scientific advances ( Stodden, 2010 ). Review of scientific results from outside a research discipline can provide another check on the accuracy of results, but it also can introduce questions about the validity of findings that are not adequately grounded in knowledge of the research. Moreover, it can alter the relationship between researchers and the public in ways that require new levels of effort and sophistication among researchers involved in public outreach.

Advances in information technology are transforming the research enterprise, discipline by discipline, by changing the sorts of questions that can be addressed and the methods used to address them. There may be more opportunities to fabricate, falsify, or plagiarize, but there are also more tools to uncover such behavior. Issues related to research reproducibility and related practices are covered in Chapter 5 .

The Globalization of Research

Because knowledge passes freely across national borders, scientific research has always been an international endeavor. But this internationalization has intensified over the past two decades. Nations have realized that they cannot expect to benefit from the global research enterprise without national research systems that can absorb and build on that knowledge. As a result, they have incorporated science and technology into national plans and have established goals for increased R&D investments. They also have encouraged their own students and researchers to travel to other countries to study and work and have welcomed researchers from other countries. At the same time, private-sector companies have increased their R&D investments in other countries to take advantage of local talent, gain access to local markets, and in some cases lower their costs for labor and facilities. These and other trends, including cheaper transportation, better communications, and the spread of English as the worldwide language of science, are producing a new golden age of global science.

Once again, the trend is apparent in the author lists of scientific and engineering articles. Between 1988 and 2013, the percentage of science and engineer-

ing articles published worldwide with coauthors from more than one country increased from 8 percent to 19 percent ( NSB, 2016 ). Also, some countries have dramatically increased their representation in the science and engineering literature. Between 1999 and 2013, the average number of science and engineering articles published by Chinese authors rose 18.9 percent annually, so that by 2013 China, with 18 percent of the total, was the world’s second-largest national producer of science and engineering articles. Authors from China also increased their share of internationally coauthored articles from 5 percent to 13 percent between 2000 and 2010. Other countries that dramatically expanded their number of articles published included South Korea, India, Taiwan, Brazil, Turkey, Iran, Greece, Singapore, Portugal, Ireland, Thailand, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Tunisia, though some of these countries started from very low bases.

Another measure of the increasing internationalization of research is the number of foreign-born researchers studying and working in the United States. More than 193,000 foreign students were enrolled in U.S. graduate programs in science and engineering in 2013, and foreign-born U.S. science and engineering doctorate holders held 48 percent of postdoctoral positions in 2013 ( NSB, 2016 ). Science and engineering doctorate holders employed in U.S. colleges and universities who were born outside the United States increased from 12 percent in 1973 to nearly 27 percent in 2013. The United States remains the destination for the largest number of foreign students at the graduate and undergraduate levels, though its share of foreign students worldwide declined from 25 percent in 2000 to 19 percent in 2013.

Internationalization offers many benefits to the research enterprise. It can speed the advance of knowledge and permit projects that could not be done by any one country working alone. It increases cooperation across borders and can contribute to a reduction in tensions between nations. It enhances the use of resources by reducing duplication of effort and by combining disparate skills and viewpoints. The experiences students and researchers gain by working in other countries are irreplaceable.

But globalization also can complicate efforts to ensure that researchers adhere to responsible research practices ( Heitman and Petty, 2010 ). Education in the responsible conduct of research, while far from universal among U.S. science and engineering students, is nevertheless more extensive in the United States than in many other countries ( Heitman et al., 2007 ). Codes of responsible conduct differ from country to country, despite efforts to forge greater international consensus on basic principles ( ESF-ALLEA, 2011 ; IAC-IAP, 2012 ). In some countries with rapidly developing research systems, research misconduct and detrimental research practices appear to be more common than in countries with more established research systems ( Altman and Broad, 2005 ). Students from different countries may have quite different expectations regarding such issues as conflicts of interest, the deference to be accorded instructors and mentors, the treatment of research subjects, the handling of data, and the standards for authorship. For

example, one issue often noticed with foreign students in the United States is the different standards they apply to the use of ideas and phrases from others, which can lead to problems with plagiarism ( Heitman and Litewka, 2011 ).

As the sizes of individual national research enterprises grow and become more competitive, institutions and sponsors can experience more problems with research misconduct. Differences in national policy frameworks may constitute barriers to cross-border collaboration, but efforts are being made to harmonize or at least make these frameworks interoperable. Collaboration among researchers from different countries and cultures may expose differences in training, expectations, and values that affect behavior.

Relevance of Research Results to Policy and Political Debates

The rapid expansion of government support for scientific research in the decades after World War II was spurred by recognition of the importance of new knowledge in meeting human needs and solving problems. Over the past few decades, the link between scientific knowledge and issues in the broader society has become ever more apparent. Science is a critical factor in public discussions of and policy decisions concerning stem cells, food safety, climate change, nuclear proliferation, education, energy production, environmental influences on health, national competitiveness, and many other issues. Although all these topics cannot be covered here, this section will describe several of the key issues affecting science, policy, and the public and how they affect (and are affected by) research integrity.

To begin with, the federal government itself performs a significant amount of research through government laboratories, some of which is published. Federal agencies that perform research generally have policies and procedures in place to investigate allegations of research misconduct in their intramural programs (see NIH, 2012a , for an example of such policies and procedures, and see Chapter 7 for a more detailed discussion).

In addition, the Obama administration led an initiative on scientific integrity in the federal government starting in 2010 ( Holdren, 2010 ). Executive departments and agencies were instructed by the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) to develop policies that address a range of issues, including promoting a culture of scientific integrity, ensuring the credibility of government research, fostering open communication, and preventing bias from affecting how science is used in decision making or in communications with the public. The exercise is largely complete, as agencies have developed and implemented policies in response to the Office of Science and Technology Policy guidance ( Grifo, 2013 ; OSTP, 2013 ).

Research also comes into play in debates and decisions over numerous contentious policy issues. Science is not the only factor in these discussions. Many considerations outside of science influence policy choices, such as personal and

political beliefs, lessons from experience, trial-and-error learning, and reasoning by analogy ( NRC, 2012b ). To contribute to public policy decisions, researchers must be able to separate their expertise as scientists from their views as advocates for particular public policy positions. Furthermore, they often contribute to these discussions outside the peer-reviewed literature, whether in public forums, blogs, or opinion articles in newspapers. According to the document Responsible Conduct in the Global Research Enterprise: A Policy Report ( IAC-IAP, 2012 ), “Researchers should resist speaking or writing with the authority of science or scholarship on complex, unresolved topics outside their areas of expertise. Researchers can risk their credibility by becoming advocates for public policy issues that can be resolved only with inputs from outside the research community.”

One example of an area where science, public debate, and policy making have been closely tied and contentious in recent years is climate science. This has raised challenges for researchers and the institutions through which scientists provide policy advice. According to a recent National Research Council report, “Climate change is occurring, is very likely caused by human activities, and poses significant risks for a broad range of human and natural systems. The environmental, economic, and humanitarian risks of climate change indicate a pressing need for substantial action to limit the magnitude of climate change and to prepare to adapt to its impacts” ( NRC, 2011 ). The global climate is a highly complex system, and there is considerable uncertainty about the timing and magnitude of climate change, the effect of measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, regional impacts, and many other issues. Effectively limiting greenhouse gas emissions presents economic and technological challenges and affects countries and industries differently, making policy changes by individual countries difficult. The development of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its evolution over time illustrate the barriers to collective action on a global level. 3

In this environment of significant uncertainty on key scientific questions, difficult policy choices, the possibility of large impacts on powerful economic interests, and highly mobilized advocacy operations on all sides of the climate change issue, the climate science community has faced challenges in maintaining its credibility and public trust as it contributes its expertise. This experience might provide lessons on what researchers and scientific institutions need to do and what they need to avoid as highly charged issues arise with important scientific components. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007, is an international body that undertakes periodic scientific assessments of climate science and constitutes the primary mechanism for scientists to inform policy makers at the global level. In November 2009 the unauthorized leak of e-mail conversations among climate researchers, a number of whom were heavily involved with the IPCC process,

3 See http://unfcc.int./meetings/warsaw_nov2013/meeting/7649.php .

appeared to reveal a number of questionable actions, including efforts to limit or deny access to data, failure to preserve raw data, and efforts to influence the peer review practices of journals. While subsequent investigations cleared the researchers of misconduct, the “Climategate” scandal and subsequent discovery of errors in IPCC’s most recent assessment raised questions about the quality and impartiality of the organization’s work. A 2010 study by the InterAcademy Council recommended a number of reforms in IPCC governance and management, review processes, methods for communicating uncertainty, and transparency ( IAC, 2010 ). One possible lesson from the recent climate change experience is that researchers, institutions, and fields whose work becomes relevant to controversial policy debates will need to consciously examine and upgrade their practices in areas such as data access and transparency ( NAS-NAE-IOM, 2009a ).

Recent high-profile international cases in which scientists have been criticized and even prosecuted based on their advisory activities include the statements of scientists in the aftermath of the Fukushima earthquake and tsunami in 2011, and the manslaughter convictions of seismologists whose statements were misconstrued by a government official, Bernardo De Bernardinis, to mean that there was no risk of danger immediately prior to an earthquake in L’Aquila, Italy, that killed more than 300 people ( Cartlidge, 2012 ; Jordan, 2013 ; Normile, 2012 ). An appeals court overturned the convictions 2 years later for the six seismologists involved, but not for De Bernardinis ( Cartlidge, 2014 ).

Other issues involving science and policy that raise questions about integrity seemingly appear in the media on a weekly basis. During 2012, controversy erupted over a University of Texas sociologist’s research findings that adult children of parents who had same-sex relationships fared worse than those raised by parents who had not had same-sex relationships; his research methodologies have been severely criticized, but an institutional inquiry cleared him of research misconduct ( Peterson, 2012 ). A federal appeals court upheld a South Dakota statute requiring doctors to tell women seeking abortions that they face an increased risk of suicide; despite extremely weak research evidence to support the statute, the court decided not to strike it down as an undue burden on abortion rights or on First Amendment grounds ( Planned Parenthood Minnesota, N.D., S.D. v. Rounds, 2012 ). A French paper found that rats consuming genetically modified corn developed more tumors and died earlier than a control group, although food safety agencies have stated that the sample sizes were too small to reach a conclusion ( Butler, 2012 ). And a criminal investigation of a Texas state agency established to fund research on cancer prevention and treatment revealed that some awards were made without scientific review, which led to a wave of resignations among staff and oversight board members ( Berger and Ackerman, 2012 ). Needless to say, these cases underscore the salient role of scientific research in policy discussions.

For researchers, exercising responsibility in relations with society encompasses an increasing array of issues. For example, health and social science research in some communities, such as Native American tribes, requires adher-

ence to community rules for gaining approval. Research on people’s behavior on social networking websites raises questions about how human subject protections apply. Some emerging areas of research, such as crisis mapping and monitoring, raise human rights issues ( AAAS, 2012 ). Finally, researchers in the life sciences are being asked to exercise responsibility in the area of preventing the misuse of research and technology ( IAP, 2005 ).

Research findings are increasingly relevant to a broader range of policy-relevant questions, raising the magnitude of possible negative consequences of research misconduct and detrimental research practices. Researchers in a variety of fields are faced with more complicated choices with ethical dimensions. In this environment, maintaining rigorous peer review processes in scientific journals is a critical task. Decisions based on science suffer when non-peer-reviewed science, or science that was not well reviewed, is used.

TRENDS IN RESEARCH AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AUTHORSHIP

Decisions about the authorship of research publications are an important aspect of the responsible conduct of research. Although many individuals other than those who conceive of and implement a research project typically contribute to the production of successful research, authors are considered to be the person or persons who made a significant and substantial contribution to the production and presentation of the new knowledge being published. A number of the conventions and practices that constitute scientific authorship have been influenced by the trends discussed previously in this chapter. Tracing how trends in research such as globalization and technology are affecting authorship provides a useful window into how research is changing more broadly.

Authorship practices have evolved to support the development and distribution of new knowledge, engaging the powerful human motivation to discover and receive credit for discovery. Researchers are often evaluated, rightly or wrongly, by the quantity and quality of their work, as measured by the number of their publications, the prestige of the journals in which their publications appear, and how widely cited their publications are. Authorship also serves to establish accountability for published work. For example, authors are responsible for the veracity and reliability of the reported results, for ensuring that the research was performed according to relevant laws and regulations, for interacting with journal editors and staff during publication, and for defending the work following publication ( Smith and Williams-Jones, 2012 ).

Authorship practices vary between disciplines. Professional and journal standards and policies on authorship also vary. For example, in some disciplines the names of authors are listed alphabetically, while in other disciplines names are listed in descending order of contribution. In some disciplines, senior researchers are listed last and in others they are listed first.

At least three significant factors have changed authorship practices in recent

decades. First, the degree to which researchers make use of technology and the ways in which they use technology have changed dramatically. Researchers now frequently rely on computer software and hardware for many of the processes and analyses they undertake. They rely more on sophisticated software and computer models both in the analysis and in the presentation of results. The extent to which researchers understand how these tools affect data and results is a topic of concern in 21st-century research. Second, as a result of new information and communication technologies, especially the Internet, researchers engage in much more collaboration at a distance. This facilitates national and global collaboration and can lead to larger, more broadly scoped projects. Data gathering and analysis can be parsed out to different locations, with information potentially easily accessed and shared regardless of location. Researchers are able to electronically maintain frequent contact, have group meetings, and coauthor documents. Third, as a result of software and hardware developments, huge databases of information can be gathered and used, and researchers have access to and must deal with much more information than ever before. Consequently, researchers have to manage data in new ways and may be held to higher standards of knowing and understanding other research that has been done in their area.

These changes raise a variety of challenges to researchers and the research enterprise. For example, in part because of the increased scale of research, the number of authors listed on papers in some disciplines has grown considerably. Extreme examples include the 1993 Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue Plasminogen, or GUSTO, paper in the New England Journal of Medicine , which involved 976 authors ( GUSTO Investigators, 1993 ), and a 1997 Nature article on genome sequencing that had 151 authors ( Kunst et al., 1997 , from Smith and Williams-Jones, 2012 ). The recent joint paper from the two teams collaborating on the mass estimate of the Higgs boson particle lists more than 5,000 authors ( Castelvecchi, 2015 ). The original papers reporting the discovery of the Higgs boson had approximately 3,000 authors each ( Hornyak, 2012 ). How can the primary author or authors be responsible for the work of a hundred individual researchers who are geographically dispersed and come from a wide range of disciplines? When an error is found or an accusation of wrongdoing is made, the problem has to be traced back to the component of the research that is called into question. In the process of tracing back the possible wrongdoing, the primary author or authors, while accountable, may not understand the area or have had much control over the researchers involved. The primary author or authors may be accountable but not blameworthy. These challenges are complicated by disciplinary differences in authorship conventions.

Chapter 7 explores the challenges to research integrity arising in the area of authorship, and Chapter 8 considers alternatives for addressing them.

The integrity of knowledge that emerges from research is based on individual and collective adherence to core values of objectivity, honesty, openness, fairness, accountability, and stewardship. Integrity in science means that the organizations in which research is conducted encourage those involved to exemplify these values in every step of the research process. Understanding the dynamics that support – or distort – practices that uphold the integrity of research by all participants ensures that the research enterprise advances knowledge.

The 1992 report Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process evaluated issues related to scientific responsibility and the conduct of research. It provided a valuable service in describing and analyzing a very complicated set of issues, and has served as a crucial basis for thinking about research integrity for more than two decades. However, as experience has accumulated with various forms of research misconduct, detrimental research practices, and other forms of misconduct, as subsequent empirical research has revealed more about the nature of scientific misconduct, and because technological and social changes have altered the environment in which science is conducted, it is clear that the framework established more than two decades ago needs to be updated.

Responsible Science served as a valuable benchmark to set the context for this most recent analysis and to help guide the committee's thought process. Fostering Integrity in Research identifies best practices in research and recommends practical options for discouraging and addressing research misconduct and detrimental research practices.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

Switch between the Original Pages , where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

Crafting Research Papers: A Comprehensive Guide and Outline

Kinzaashraf

ILLUMINATION

Navigate the world of research paper writing with this comprehensive guide and outline. Learn how to structure and write impactful research papers for international journals.

W riting a research paper that meets the rigorous standards of international journals requires a structured approach. In this guide, we’ll provide you with a detailed outline to help you craft a successful research paper. From selecting a compelling title to presenting your findings and drawing meaningful conclusions, each step is covered. Whether you’re a seasoned researcher or new to the field, this guide will equip you with the tools you need to create papers that make a valuable contribution and stand out in the competitive world of academic publishing.

Following are the sections that comprise the outline of a research article:

Crafting an effective title is crucial for grabbing readers’ attention and conveying the core theme of your research. Here are some tips to help you create a compelling title:

1. Be Clear and Specific: Your title should accurately reflect the main focus of your research. Avoid vague or overly broad titles that might confuse readers.

2. Include Keywords: Incorporate key terms that are relevant to your research. This will help your paper come up in search results when scholars look for related work.

3. Highlight the Main Idea: Identify the central question, topic, or hypothesis of your research and make sure it’s evident in the title.

4. Be Concise: Keep your title concise and avoid unnecessary words. Aim for around 10–15 words.

5. Avoid Jargon: While including keywords is important, avoid using excessive technical jargon that might alienate readers from other fields.

6. Use Active Language: Active verbs can make your title more engaging and dynamic.

7. Capture the Essence: Your title should capture the essence of your research in a way that intrigues readers and encourages them to delve into your paper.

Examples of Effective Titles:

- “Exploring the Impact of Climate Change on Coral Reef Ecosystems: A Multi-Year Study in the Great Barrier Reef” - “Machine Learning-Based Early Detection of Parkinson’s Disease Using Voice Characteristics” - “Unraveling the Mechanisms of Neuronal Regeneration: A Cellular and Molecular Analysis in Zebrafish”

Remember, your title is the first impression readers have of your research, so take the time to craft it carefully.

2. Abstract:

The abstract is a concise summary of your entire research paper. It should provide readers with a clear understanding of the research problem, your approach, key findings, and the significance of your study. Here’s a template you can use to structure your abstract:

Background: Start by briefly introducing the context of your research and the problem you aimed to address.

Methods: Summarize the research methodology or approach you used to investigate the problem.

Results: Highlight the key findings and outcomes of your study.

Conclusions: State the main conclusions drawn from your research.

Significance: Explain the broader implications of your findings and the relevance of your study to the field.

Remember to be concise while conveying the essential information. Here’s an example abstract for a fictional research paper:

Abstract: The prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a significant threat to public health. This study aimed to investigate the impact of probiotics on mitigating antibiotic resistance in gut microbiota. Using a randomized controlled trial design, we administered a daily probiotic supplement to a cohort of 150 participants receiving antibiotic treatment for acute respiratory infections, while an equivalent control group received a placebo. Fecal samples were collected before, during, and after the treatment period to analyze the composition and antibiotic susceptibility of gut bacteria. Our results reveal a notable reduction in antibiotic resistance among gut bacteria in the probiotic group compared to the control group. Specifically, the probiotic group exhibited a 35% decrease in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains, while the control group showed no significant change. This suggests that probiotics may play a vital role in restoring antibiotic sensitivity in the gut microbiota during antibiotic treatment. These findings underscore the potential of probiotics as a complementary intervention to mitigate the emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. As antibiotic resistance remains a global health crisis, our study contributes to the development of novel strategies for addressing this issue. Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and optimize probiotic regimens for different patient populations.

This abstract provides a clear overview of the research problem, methodology, key results, and implications of the study. Remember that the abstract should be accurate and compelling, giving readers a reason to delve into the full paper.

3. Introduction:

Certainly, the introduction sets the stage for your research paper by providing the necessary context, outlining the research problem, and establishing the importance of your study. Here’s a detailed breakdown of each component of the introduction:

1. Introducing the Research Problem or Question:

Begin by introducing the specific research problem or question you’re addressing. Clearly state the issue you are investigating and why it is important. This section should engage the reader’s interest and curiosity.

2. Providing Context through Relevant Background Literature:

Discuss the existing literature related to your research problem. This involves summarizing key studies, theories, and concepts that are relevant to your topic. Highlight gaps or unresolved issues in the literature that your research aims to address. This will demonstrate your understanding of the field and how your study contributes to it.

3. Highlighting the Significance of Your Study:

Explain why your research is important in the broader context of the field. Discuss real-world implications, potential benefits, or the significance of addressing the research problem. Emphasize how your study fills a gap in knowledge or offers a novel perspective.

4. Stating Research Objectives and Hypotheses:

Clearly state the specific objectives of your research. These objectives should outline the goals of your study and what you intend to achieve. Additionally, if applicable, state the hypotheses you’re testing. Hypotheses are predictions about the relationships or effects you expect to find based on your research design and methodology.

Here’s an example of how these components could be integrated into the introduction of a research paper:

Introduction: Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global health crisis, threatening the efficacy of our most vital medical interventions. The growing prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria has prompted urgent efforts to identify strategies for curbing their spread. One promising avenue is the use of probiotics to mitigate antibiotic resistance within the gut microbiota. The existing literature has demonstrated the potential of probiotics in promoting gut health, but their role in antibiotic resistance modulation remains underexplored. Several studies have indicated that probiotics may influence bacterial populations and enhance immune responses, but a comprehensive understanding of their impact on antibiotic resistance is lacking. This gap in knowledge provides the foundation for our study. This research aims to address this critical gap by investigating the effects of probiotics on antibiotic resistance patterns within the gut microbiota of patients undergoing antibiotic treatment. We hypothesize that daily administration of a specific probiotic strain will lead to a reduction in the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains in comparison to a control group receiving a placebo. By elucidating the potential of probiotics to influence antibiotic resistance, this study contributes to both the fundamental understanding of microbial dynamics and the practical development of strategies to combat antibiotic resistance. The findings have the potential to inform clinical interventions and public health policies aimed at preserving the efficacy of antibiotics and safeguarding human health.

In this example, the introduction introduces the research problem, provides context through literature review, highlights significance, and states research objectives and hypotheses. This framework sets up the rest of the paper by guiding the reader through the rationale and goals of the study.

4. Literature Review

The literature review section of your research paper is where you provide a comprehensive overview of the existing body of knowledge related to your research topic. It’s important to demonstrate your understanding of the field, highlight gaps in the current literature, and show how your research contributes to filling those gaps. Here’s how you can structure and approach this section:

1. Presenting a Thorough Review of Relevant Existing Literature:

- Start by introducing the main themes or concepts related to your research topic. - Summarize key studies, theories, and findings that are directly relevant to your research. Include seminal works and recent publications. - Organize the literature logically, grouping related studies together to create a coherent narrative.

2. Identifying Gaps in the Current Knowledge:

- Point out areas in the literature where gaps, inconsistencies, or unanswered questions exist. - Discuss why these gaps are significant and how they create a need for further research.

3. Discussing Studies Directly Related to Your Research:

- Identify studies that are closely aligned with your research problem or question. - Analyze the methodologies, findings, and limitations of these studies. - Highlight any unresolved issues or debates in the literature that your research addresses.

4. Providing a Framework for Understanding Your Work:

- Use the literature review to provide context for your research, explaining how your study fits into the broader field. - Demonstrate how your study builds upon previous work and contributes to the ongoing discourse.

Here’s an example of how these components could be integrated into the literature review section of a research paper:

Literature Review: The literature on antibiotic resistance has grown significantly in recent years, reflecting the urgency of addressing this global health challenge. Researchers have explored various aspects of antibiotic resistance mechanisms, transmission pathways, and the role of microbiota in modulating resistance patterns. However, a critical gap exists in understanding the potential of probiotics as a strategy to mitigate antibiotic resistance. Studies by Smith et al. (2017) and Johnson et al. (2020) have highlighted the complex interplay between gut microbiota composition and antibiotic resistance. Smith’s work demonstrated alterations in the gut resistome following antibiotic treatment, while Johnson’s study revealed an association between dysbiosis and increased resistance gene abundance. These findings underscore the need for interventions that can promote antibiotic sensitivity within the microbiota. Despite these insights, the specific impact of probiotics on antibiotic resistance remains understudied. Existing research has predominantly focused on the broad benefits of probiotics for gut health, overlooking their potential role in addressing antibiotic resistance. By investigating the effects of probiotics on multidrug-resistant strains within the gut microbiota of antibiotic-treated patients, this study aims to bridge this gap in knowledge. Our research builds upon the work of Jones et al. (2019), who demonstrated the potential of probiotics to enhance immune responses in the gut. However, their study did not directly examine the relationship between probiotics and antibiotic resistance. By analyzing the dynamics of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial populations in response to probiotic supplementation, we seek to advance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this potential intervention. Through a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature and a targeted investigation of probiotics’ impact on antibiotic resistance, this study contributes to the field’s efforts to combat the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and provides insights for the development of effective interventions.

In this example, the literature review section not only summarizes relevant studies but also establishes the context for the research, identifies gaps, and provides a clear rationale for conducting the current study.

5. Methodology

Methodology section is where you detail the procedures and techniques you used to conduct your research. This section should provide enough information for other researchers to replicate your study and validate your findings. Here’s how you can structure and approach this section:

1. Research Design and Approach:

- Describe the overall research design, whether it’s experimental, observational, qualitative, quantitative, or a combination. - Explain the rationale behind your chosen approach and how it aligns with your research objectives.

2. Participants or Subjects:

- Provide details about the participants or subjects involved in your study. - Specify any inclusion/exclusion criteria, recruitment methods, and demographic information.

3. Data Collection:

- Describe the data collection methods you used (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations, experiments). - Detail the instruments or tools you employed, including any questionnaires, measurement scales, or devices. - Explain the procedures you followed during data collection, including how you ensured consistency and validity.

4. Data Analysis:

- Explain the techniques you used to analyze your data. - Provide a clear description of the statistical methods, software, or algorithms employed. - Specify any measures taken to ensure the reliability and validity of your analysis.

5. Ethical Considerations:

- Describe any ethical considerations or approvals obtained from relevant institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees. - Discuss how you ensured participant privacy, informed consent, and data confidentiality.

6. Replicability:

- Ensure that your methodology is described in sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate your study. - Include specific steps, procedures, and technical details that are essential to your research.

Here’s an example of how these components could be integrated into the methodology section of a research paper:

Methodology: Research Design and Approach: This study employed an experimental research design to investigate the impact of probiotics on antibiotic resistance within the gut microbiota. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted to compare the effects of probiotic supplementation with a placebo over a six-week period. Participants: A total of 200 adult participants were recruited from local healthcare clinics. Inclusion criteria included individuals aged 18 to 65 years who were prescribed antibiotics for respiratory infections. Participants were randomly assigned to either the probiotic group (n = 100) or the placebo group (n = 100). Data Collection: Baseline demographic information, medical history, and antibiotic prescriptions were collected from all participants. Fecal samples were collected at three time points: before antibiotic treatment (baseline), during the antibiotic treatment period (week 3), and two weeks after completing the antibiotic course (week 8). Samples were stored at -80°C until analysis. Data Analysis: Quantitative analysis of antibiotic resistance gene abundances was performed using qPCR. Relative gene abundances were calculated using the ΔΔCt method and normalized to an internal control gene. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 26. Independent samples t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to compare gene abundances between groups at different time points. Ethical Considerations: This study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of [Institution Name]. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before their inclusion in the study. Participant confidentiality was ensured by assigning unique identifiers to data and deidentifying all collected samples. Replicability: Detailed protocols for participant recruitment, data collection, and laboratory procedures are available in the supplementary materials, allowing for the replication of this study by other researchers.

In this example, the methodology section provides a clear overview of the research design, data collection, and analysis procedures, as well as ethical considerations and measures for replicability.

6. Results and Discussion:

Combining the Results and Discussion sections is a common approach in research papers, especially when the findings are directly tied to the interpretation and implications. This combined section allows you to present and analyze your results in a cohesive manner. Here’s how you can structure and approach this combined Results and Discussion section:

Results and Discussion:

1. presenting findings:.

- Begin by providing a concise overview of the main findings of your study. - Use tables, figures, and charts to present data clearly and visually. - Report the results objectively without offering interpretation at this stage.

2. Interpreting Results and Relating to Objectives:

- Interpret the significance of your findings in relation to your research objectives and hypotheses. - Explain how the results align or deviate from your expectations. - Provide context by discussing any unexpected or noteworthy findings.

3. Implications and Contribution to the Field:

- Discuss the broader implications of your findings for your research area and beyond. - Highlight the relevance of your study’s outcomes and how they advance the field. - Address how your research contributes to addressing the research problem or filling gaps in the literature.

4. Comparing with Existing Literature:

- Compare your results with similar studies from the literature. - Discuss points of agreement or discrepancy and explain potential reasons for differences.

5. Addressing Limitations and Bias:

- Acknowledge limitations in your study design, methodology, and data collection. - Discuss potential sources of bias that could have influenced the results. - Show awareness of these limitations and how they may have impacted your conclusions.

Here’s an example of how these components could be integrated into a combined Results and Discussion section:

Results and Discussion: The analysis of antibiotic resistance gene abundances within the gut microbiota yielded several key findings. In the probiotic group, a statistically significant decrease in the relative abundance of multidrug-resistant genes was observed at week 8 (p < 0.05). Notably, the reduction in multidrug-resistant genes was consistent across various bacterial taxa, suggesting a broad impact of probiotic supplementation. These findings align with our hypothesis that probiotic supplementation could lead to a reduction in antibiotic resistance within the gut microbiota. The observed decrease in multidrug-resistant genes suggests that probiotics may play a role in promoting antibiotic sensitivity, which has implications for enhancing the effectiveness of antibiotic treatment. Our results are consistent with the work of Smith et al. (2017), who found that gut microbiota alterations were associated with antibiotic resistance changes. However, our study advances this understanding by demonstrating a potential intervention to mitigate resistance, whereas Smith’s study focused on describing the phenomenon. Despite these promising findings, several limitations warrant consideration. The sample size was relatively small, and the study duration was limited to eight weeks. Additionally, the study did not explore potential mechanisms underlying the observed reduction in resistance genes, leaving room for further investigation. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the potential of probiotics in modulating antibiotic resistance within the gut microbiota. These findings have implications for clinical practice and public health policies aimed at preserving the efficacy of antibiotics. While further research is needed to validate and expand upon our results, this study contributes to the ongoing efforts to address antibiotic resistance and its consequences.

In this example, the combined section effectively presents the results, interprets them in relation to the research objectives, discusses implications, compares with existing literature, and addresses limitations. This approach provides a comprehensive and integrated view of the study’s outcomes and their significance.

7. Conclusion

Absolutely, the conclusion section provides a final opportunity to summarize the main points of your research, emphasize its significance, and discuss the broader implications for the field. Here’s how you can structure and approach the conclusion:

Conclusion:

1. summarizing key findings:.

- Briefly recap the main findings and outcomes of your study. - Avoid introducing new information; focus on the key points already discussed in the paper.

2. Reiterating Significance and Implications:

- Emphasize the importance of your research problem and the relevance of your study. - Highlight how your findings contribute to addressing the research gap you identified.

3. Discussing Broader Implications for the Field:

- Explain how your study’s outcomes have broader implications for the field and beyond. - Address any potential applications, policy implications, or areas for future research.

Here’s an example of how these components could be integrated into the conclusion section of a research paper:

Conclusion: In conclusion, this study sheds light on the potential of probiotics as a strategy to mitigate antibiotic resistance within the gut microbiota. Our findings demonstrate a significant reduction in multidrug-resistant genes following probiotic supplementation, suggesting a promising intervention to enhance antibiotic sensitivity during treatment. The significance of our study lies in its contribution to the ongoing efforts to combat the global challenge of antibiotic resistance. By revealing a mechanism through which probiotics can influence antibiotic resistance patterns, our research provides insights that may aid in the development of innovative clinical interventions. This study also underscores the importance of considering the gut microbiota’s role in antibiotic efficacy, a factor that has implications not only for individual patient outcomes but also for public health strategies. Furthermore, this research opens avenues for further investigation into the specific mechanisms underlying the observed reduction in resistance genes. Future studies could explore the interactions between probiotics, host immune responses, and bacterial communities to elucidate the precise pathways involved. In the context of the broader field of microbial ecology, our study offers a practical example of how interventions at the microbial level can impact larger-scale health outcomes. As antibiotic resistance continues to challenge medical practice, our findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge aimed at preserving the efficacy of antibiotics and safeguarding human health.

In this example, the conclusion effectively summarizes the main findings, reiterates the significance, discusses broader implications, and highlights potential avenues for future research. This section provides closure to the paper while reinforcing the value of your study’s contributions.

8. References

Absolutely, the references section is a crucial part of your research paper as it provides proper credit to the sources you’ve used and allows readers to explore the background and context of your study. Here’s how you should format and approach the references section:

List all the sources you cited in your paper in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Make sure to use the specific citation style required by the target journal. Common citation styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, IEEE, etc. Here’s an example of how references could be formatted in APA style:

- Book: Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher.

- Journal Article: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

- Website: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Date of publication). Title of webpage. Website Name. URL

- Conference Paper: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Title of Conference Proceedings (page range). Publisher.

Ensure that you follow the formatting guidelines for your chosen citation style accurately, including font, indentation, and punctuation.

For example, in APA style:

References: - Smith, J. A. (2019). Antibiotic resistance and the gut microbiota: An emerging challenge. Journal of Microbial Ecology, 45(2), 143–159. - Johnson, R. M., et al. (2020). Dysbiosis and antibiotic resistance gene abundance in the gut microbiota. PLoS ONE, 10(8), e0132121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132121 - Jones, M. B., et al. (2019). Probiotic supplementation enhances gut immune responses. Frontiers in Immunology, 6, 678. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2015.00678

Remember to double-check the specific requirements of the citation style and format your references accurately to ensure the highest level of professionalism and accuracy in your research paper.

9. Title and Abstract (Revised)

Absolutely, revisiting and refining your title and abstract is a crucial step before finalizing your research paper. These components play a significant role in attracting readers and conveying the essence of your study. Here are some tips to ensure that your title and abstract accurately represent your paper:

- Make sure your title accurately reflects the main focus of your research. - Double-check for any discrepancies between the title and the content of your paper. - Ensure that the title is concise, informative, and engaging.

- Revisit your abstract to ensure that it provides a clear and concise summary of your paper’s content. - Confirm that the abstract includes the main research problem, methodology, key findings, and implications. - Check for any inaccuracies or inconsistencies between the abstract and the rest of the paper.

It’s a good practice to revise your title and abstract after you’ve completed writing the entire paper. This allows you to ensure that these components accurately represent the final content and findings of your research. Additionally, consider seeking feedback from colleagues or mentors to ensure that your title and abstract effectively capture the essence of your paper.

General Guidelines and Tips:

1. Choose the Right Journal: Select a journal that aligns with the scope and focus of your research. Review the journal’s guidelines for authors to ensure your paper meets their requirements.

2. Original Contribution: Your paper should contribute something new to the field, whether it’s new data, a novel methodology, or fresh insights.

3. Clarity and Precision: Write in a clear, concise, and precise manner. Avoid jargon that might be unfamiliar to readers outside your specific field.

4. Proofreading and Editing: Edit your paper for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Consider seeking feedback from colleagues or mentors before submission.

5. Logical Flow: Ensure that your paper has a logical flow, where each section leads naturally to the next.

6. Ethical Considerations: Clearly state any conflicts of interest or ethical considerations associated with your research.

7. Be Patient: The peer-review process can take time. Be prepared to revise and address reviewer comments before final acceptance.

8. Persistence: Don’t be discouraged by rejection. If your paper gets rejected, carefully address the reviewers’ comments and consider submitting to another journal.

9. Collaborate: Consider collaborating with experienced researchers to enhance the quality of your work.

10. Stay Updated: Familiarize yourself with recent papers published in your field to stay current with trends and emerging research.

Remember that writing a high-quality research paper takes time and effort. Following this outline and these guidelines can significantly increase your chances of getting published in an international level journal. Good luck!

You may also like:

Mastering data analysis with pandas and matplotlib, revolutionizing biofloc technology through python, unveiling bioinformatics with biopython.

Written by Kinzaashraf

"Achieve Goals with Technology & Personal Development | Linkedln: https://www.linkedin.com/in/kinzaashraf | Email: [email protected] "

Text to speech

The Science of Writing

research-based best practices for writing instruction

The Science of Outlining: Improving Organization in Writing

As students progress through their academic careers, the expectation for clear and organized writing becomes increasingly important. One way to achieve this is by using outlines to structure written work. Outlining is a powerful tool that can improve writing in numerous ways, from providing clarity and focus to helping students stay on track with their arguments. In this blog post, we’ll take a closer look at the science behind outlining and how it can help students improve their organization in writing.

What is outlining?

Outlining is the process of creating a plan for written work by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable parts. These parts are organized hierarchically, with main ideas at the top level and supporting details beneath them. An outline can be as detailed or as simple as necessary, depending on the assignment or the writer’s preference.

Why is outlining important?

Outlining is important for several reasons. First and foremost, it provides structure and organization to written work. This makes it easier for the reader to follow the writer’s argument and understand their main points. It also helps the writer stay focused and on track, ensuring that they don’t wander off topic or get bogged down in unnecessary details.

Additionally, outlining can save time and effort in the writing process. By creating a plan for the work beforehand, the writer can avoid the frustration of staring at a blank page, unsure of where to start. Instead, they can dive right into writing, confident in the knowledge that they have a clear roadmap to follow.

The science behind outlining

So, what does science have to say about outlining? According to research, outlining can have a significant impact on the quality of writing. A study published in the Journal of Educational Psychology found that students who used outlines before writing essays produced higher quality work than those who did not use outlines. Specifically, the researchers found that outlines helped students organize their ideas more effectively, leading to clearer and more concise writing.

Another study, published in the Journal of Writing Research, found that outlining can also improve the quality of argumentative writing. The researchers found that students who used outlines before writing argumentative essays produced stronger arguments and used more evidence to support their claims.

These studies demonstrate the value of outlining in improving the quality of writing. By breaking down written work into smaller, more manageable parts, outlining helps students stay organized and focused on their main points. This, in turn, leads to clearer, more concise writing that is easier for readers to follow and understand.

Tips for effective outlining

If you’re a student looking to improve your writing through outlining, here are a few tips to get you started:

• Start with a clear thesis statement: Before creating an outline, make sure you have a clear thesis statement that summarizes your main argument. This will serve as the foundation for your outline and help you stay focused on your main point.
• Use a hierarchical structure: Organize your outline hierarchically, with main ideas at the top level and supporting details beneath them. This will help you stay organized and ensure that your ideas flow logically.
• Keep it flexible: Remember that your outline is a plan, not a set of rules. Be open to making changes as you write and adjust your outline accordingly.
• Be consistent: Use consistent formatting and language throughout your outline to make it easy to read and follow.
• Review and revise: Once you’ve completed your outline, review it carefully to ensure that it accurately reflects your main points. Make revisions as necessary to ensure that your outline is a clear and accurate reflection of your written work.

Outlining is a powerful tool that can help students improve their organization and clarity in writing. By breaking down written work into smaller, more manageable parts, outlining provides structure and focus, making it easier for readers to follow the writer’s argument. So, if you’re a student looking

Similar Posts

Vocabulary Instruction in Fifth Grade and Beyond: Sources of Word Learning and Productive Contexts for Development

Increasing the vocabulary knowledge of young adolescent and adolescent students has been a focal point of educational research and many teacher professional development initiatives. Yet many teachers continue to use traditional, but generally ineffective, methods of classroom-based vocabulary instruction. Synthesizing the literature around the general topics of vocabulary instruction, classroom discourse, and teacher talk, this…

How Does Writing Fit Into the ‘Science of Reading’?

In one sense, the national conversation about what it will take to make sure all children become strong readers has been wildly successful: States are passing legislation supporting evidence-based teaching approaches, and school districts are rushing to supply training. Publishers are under pressure to drop older materials. And for the first time in years, an instructional issue—reading—is…

Instant gratification at the expense of skill building

Kids these days are losing their ability to learn skills. Why? Because they’re always looking for instant gratification. These days, people would rather get a quick fix from a video game or social media than take the time to learn something new. However, by doing so, they’re not developing the patience or persistence needed to…

The Link Between Writing and Critical Thinking in Teens

It is important for teenagers to develop critical thinking skills as they navigate the complex and rapidly changing world around them. Teens should be encouraged to ask questions, challenge assumptions, and seek evidence to support their beliefs. Media literacy should be taught across the curriculum to teach students to critically evaluate information they find online…

Captivating Your Readers: Unleashing the Power of Vivid Descriptions, Storytelling, and Thought-Provoking Questions

In the world of writing, capturing and maintaining your readers’ attention is a crucial skill. To stand out amidst the sea of content, employing effective writing techniques becomes essential. In this blog post, we will explore the power of vivid descriptions, storytelling elements, and thought-provoking questions as potent tools to captivate your readers and keep…

AI Writing: Revolutionizing the Future of Content Creation

Artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prominent in various aspects of our lives, and the field of writing is no exception. From automated content generation to language translation, AI is revolutionizing how we produce and consume written content. In this blog post, we will delve into the emerging role of AI in writing, examining its…

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Trying to devise a structure for your essay can be one of the most difficult parts of the writing process. Making a detailed outline before you begin writing is a good way to make sure your ideas come across in a clear and logical order. A good outline will also save you time in the revision process, reducing the possibility that your ideas will need to be rearranged once you've written them.

The First Steps

Before you can begin outlining, you need to have a sense of what you will argue in the essay. From your analysis and close readings of primary and/or secondary sources you should have notes, ideas, and possible quotes to cite as evidence. Let's say you are writing about the 1999 Republican Primary and you want to prove that each candidate's financial resources were the most important element in the race. At this point, your notes probably lack much coherent order. Most likely, your ideas are still in the order in which they occurred to you; your notes and possible quotes probably still adhere to the chronology of the sources you've examined. Your goal is to rearrange your ideas, notes, and quotes—the raw material of your essay—into an order that best supports your argument, not the arguments you've read in other people's works. To do this, you have to group your notes into categories and then arrange these categories in a logical order.

Generalizing

The first step is to look over each individual piece of information that you've written and assign it to a general category. Ask yourself, "If I were to file this in a database, what would I file it under?" If, using the example of the Republican Primary, you wrote down an observation about John McCain's views on health care, you might list it under the general category of  "Health care policy." As you go through your notes, try to reuse categories whenever possible. Your goal is to reduce your notes to no more than a page of category listings.

Now examine your category headings. Do any seem repetitive? Do any go together? "McCain's expenditure on ads" and "Bush's expenditure on ads," while not exactly repetitive, could easily combine into a more general category like "Candidates' expenditures on ads." Also, keep an eye out for categories that no longer seem to relate to your argument. Individual pieces of information that at first seemed important can begin to appear irrelevant when grouped into a general category.

Now it's time to generalize again. Examine all your categories and look for common themes. Go through each category and ask yourself, "If I were to place this piece of information in a file cabinet, what would I label that cabinet?" Again, try to reuse labels as often as possible: "Health Care," "Foreign Policy," and "Immigration" can all be contained under "Policy Initiatives." Make these larger categories as general as possible so that there are no more than three or four for a 7-10 page paper.

With your notes grouped into generalized categories, the process of ordering them should be easier. To begin, look at your most general categories. With your thesis in mind, try to find a way that the labels might be arranged in a sentence or two that supports your argument. Let's say your thesis is that financial resources played the most important role in the 1999 Republican Primary. Your four most general categories are "Policy Initiatives," "Financial Resources," "Voters' Concerns," and "Voters' Loyalty." You might come up with the following sentence: ÒAlthough McCain's policy initiatives were closest to the voters' concerns, Bush's financial resources won the voters' loyalty.Ó This sentence should reveal the order of your most general categories. You will begin with an examination of McCain's and Bush's views on important issues and compare them to the voters' top concerns. Then you'll look at both candidates' financial resources and show how Bush could win voters' loyalty through effective use of his resources, despite his less popular policy ideas.

With your most general categories in order, you now must order the smaller categories. To do so, arrange each smaller category into a sentence or two that will support the more general sentence you've just devised. Under the category of "Financial Resources," for instance, you might have the smaller categories of "Ad Expenditure," "Campaign Contributions" and "Fundraising." A sentence that supports your general argument might read: "Bush's early emphasis on fundraising led to greater campaign contributions, allowing him to have a greater ad expenditure than McCain."

The final step of the outlining process is to repeat this procedure on the smallest level, with the original notes that you took for your essay. To order what probably was an unwieldy and disorganized set of information at the beginning of this process, you need now only think of a sentence or two to support your general argument. Under the category "Fundraising," for example, you might have quotes about each candidate's estimation of its importance, statistics about the amount of time each candidate spent fundraising, and an idea about how the importance of fundraising never can be overestimated. Sentences to support your general argument might read: "No candidate has ever raised too much money [your idea]. While both McCain and Bush acknowledged the importance of fundraising [your quotes], the numbers clearly point to Bush as the superior fundraiser [your statistics]." The arrangement of your ideas, quotes, and statistics now should come naturally.

Putting It All Together

With these sentences, you have essentially constructed an outline for your essay. The most general ideas, which you organized in your first sentence, constitute the essay's sections. They follow the order in which you placed them in your sentence. The order of the smaller categories within each larger category (determined by your secondary sentences) indicates the order of the paragraphs within each section. Finally, your last set of sentences about your specific notes should show the order of the sentences within each paragraph. An outline for the essay about the 1999 Republican Primary (showing only the sections worked out here) would look something like this:

I. POLICY INITIATIVES

II.  VOTERS' CONCERNS

III.  FINANCIAL RESOURCES

            A.  Fundraising

                        a.  Original Idea

                        b.  McCain Quote/Bush Quote

                        c.  McCain Statistics/Bush Statistics

            B.  Campaign Contributions

            C.  Ad Expenditure

IV.  VOTERS' LOYALTY

Copyright 2000, David Kornhaber, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

• Understanding the Assignment
• Need a Topic?
• Evaluating Sources
• Brainstorming Strategies

Traditional Outline

• Rhetorical Pyramids

Reverse Outlining

Writing activity for outlining, links to other resources, printable forms.

• Drafting Strategies
• Thesis Formulation
• Introductions
• Conclusions
• Show Don't Tell
• Expand Your Draft
• Flow & Lexical Coherence
• Revision Checklist
• Introduction to Style and Grammar
• Apostrophes
• Article Usage for ESL Learners
• Capitalization
• Clarity: Get Rid of Nominalizations
• Cohesion: Does my Paragraph Flow?
• Commas and Colons
• Conciseness
• Confusing Words
• Parallel Structure
• Passive Voice
• Quotation Marks
• Run-on Sentences
• Subject-Verb Agreement
• Writing Mechanics
• Other Styles
• Art History This link opens in a new window
• Programming Lab Reports
• Scientific Lab Reports
• Screenwriting
• Publication Opportunities
• Meet with a Tutor This link opens in a new window

Ever feel overwhelmed by all the facts, dates, events, quotations, ideas, definitions, theories, and explanations in a paper?

Creating an outline helps you to:     

• Create a visual picture of your ideas
• See the connections between your ideas
• See where you need more support for a point
• Find the “best structure” for your paper

To create your outline:

• Brainstorm/list all ideas you want to include.  For more help generating ideas see Brainstorming Strategies .
• Organize by grouping related ideas into clusters.
• Put your clusters in order. Begin with bigger ideas as headers, and include details underneath them.
• Arrange and re-arrange the order.
• Take out parts that don’t fit or are repetitive.
• See if anything is missing.

The traditional outline:

This example outline has three main ideas. Your paper may have more than three or only two main ideas.

I.  Intro with thesis

A. First idea

3.commentary

B. Second idea

C. Third idea

III. Conclusion

Don’t like the traditional outline format? You can also try:

• Rhetorical pyramid (see pyramid below)
• Mind mapping software (see links at top right)
• Write ideas on notecards or post-its and re-arrange as needed.
• Type ideas into a Powerpoint or Prezi presentation and re-arrange the slides.

Before turning your outline into a rough draft, ask yourself:

• Does my thesis control the direction of my outline?
• Are all of my main points relevant to my thesis?
• Does the logic and order make sense?
• Does my argument progress, or does it stall?
• Do I have sufficient support for each of my points?
• Have I made room in my outline for other points of view about my topic?
• Does this outline reflect a thorough, thoughtful argument?

Many writers come to the writing center asking, “Does my paper flow?”

How does a reader judge if a paper flows? Readers look for the topics of sentences and paragraphs. When they can easily identify these topics and see how--across an essay-- they are related to each other and add up to a whole, readers say the writing “flows.” There are two levels of flow in a paper:

• At the macro or big picture level, the placement of main ideas and their supporting details seems logical to the reader. We call this logical coherence. This handout provides a strategy (reverse outlining) to check your paper for  logical coherence . 
• At the micro level, readers look for specific words such as key terms, pronouns or transitions to help them follow the thread of your paper. We call this  lexical coherence . Refer to  Flow and Lexical Coherence  for this. We strongly recommend you check your paper for lexical coherence AFTER you’ve checked the logical coherence. 

Reverse outlining is a revision strategy to help you identify problems with your paper’s flow, organization, and development. Unlike an outline you make before you write a draft, a reverse outline is done  after . Before you begin reverse outlining, you must feel somewhat confident about the strength of your thesis. Many of the questions you will ask yourself pertain to how closely your paragraphs support your thesis.

Beginning with the last paragraph of your essay, read each paragraph carefully and ask yourself this question --  What does the paragraph do ? Write your answers in the margin of the paper or on a separate page. Use the questions below to help you decide what the paragraph does in your paper:

• Does it introduce a new topic? What is the topic?
• Does the topic support the thesis directly, indirectly, or not at all?
• Does the paragraph develop a point?
• Does it set a mood or summarize a point? 

Do not write down  what you want the paragraph to do . Focus on  what the words on the page do . Even if the sentences are confusing or misleading, write down exactly what the paragraph does. If you realize the paragraph talks about more than one topic, write down all the topics.

When you have finished, read all of your notes from front to back. Then respond to the following questions:

• Are any of the paragraphs unnecessary because they repeat the same points?
• Do any of these paragraphs seem to discuss more than one topic? If yes, could the paragraph be split up?
• Do any of these paragraphs seem out of place?
• Do all of your topics support your thesis? Do any of the paragraphs take the reader in a direction you had not intended?
• Is anything missing from this essay that you thought you had included?
• Does this ordering of ideas seem easy for a reader to follow? Why did you choose this order? Does it follow the order you laid out in the introduction?
• Does the essay seem choppy? If it does, how do the paragraphs move from one idea to the next? How could you make the move from one paragraph to another smoother? See  Flow and Lexical Coherence  for more help.

Now you should see ways you want to revise your paper’s organization and improve the flow. You should also see if certain points of your paper need further development (see Expand your Draft) or if some should be deleted from the paper. Perhaps this revision strategy has made you realize your thesis needs tweaking to more closely resemble what your paper turned out to be. (see Thesis Formulation) After checking your paper for logical coherence and making any necessary revisions, you are now ready to check for lexical coherence. Are you using the right words to keep your reader on track? Go to  Flow and Lexical coherence . See this link to  UNC's podcast  for a quick take on reverse outlining.

After reading the above information on outlining, attempt the writing activity below for further practice. 

• Writing Activity: Outlining
• Outlines Podcast Check out this podcast about outlines from the UNC Chapel Hill Writing Center!
• Drawing Relationships Podcast Learn more about drawing relationships from this podcast from UNC Chapel Hill Writing Center.
• XMind Mind Mapping Tool Here is great program for mind mapping. And it's free!
• Popplet Mind Mapping App Check out this great mind mapping app for the iPhone and iPad. It has a lot of useful features for only $4.99.
• << Previous: Brainstorming Strategies
• Next: Drafting Strategies >>
• Last Updated: Jun 2, 2024 10:04 PM
• URL: https://libguides.lmu.edu/writing

How to Conduct Industry Research: An Introductory Writing Guide

Industry research outlines the key internal and external factors that influence an industry. This is essential information for companies that operate in dynamic ever changing industries. Whether you’re an entrepreneur, analyst, consultant, or marketer, industry research is an extremely valuable tool. But with so much information available, where do you begin? In this article, we’ll explore the importance of industry research, how to compile a typical industry research report and how to use genei for an efficient research and write-up experience.

What is Industry Research?

Industry research (or analysis) is the process of collecting information related to a specific industry, and the factors that influence it, such as economic, market, political or financial factors. In particular, industry research is a tool for companies to see where they stand within their current industry or niche in relation to their competitors. 

This provides insight into what's happening within industry, such as supply and demand, degree and extent of the competition both inside and outside of the industry, and the future threats or opportunities that might exist. Through industry research, companies can develop an understanding of the internal and external factors influencing their industry and in turn, this presents an overview of how the industry operates at present and will operate in the future. 

Why is Industry Research Important?

The dynamics of any industry is ever changing which means companies need to adjust accordingly. Industry research is an important and valuable tool that provides a framework for making informed business or market decisions. Although industry research reports can become outdated within days or weeks, they provide key summaries of the industry that have a number of benefits for companies. For example, industry research can support strategic business planning for sales and marketing, and determine performance benchmarks to see whether a company is performing above or below competitors. 

Additionally, industry research can highlight current or past trends within an industry, which outlines the potential opportunities or threats that can arise for the company. This information can forecast supply and demand, and consequently, the potential financial returns. All of which are important for stakeholders, who would be interested in knowing how they benefit from investing in a company, and the likelihood of a return of their investment. Likewise, understanding the current state of an industry can indicate whether it is still growing or has reached a point of saturation. Finally, this research could present new market opportunities, which is beneficial if a current industry sub-section begins to seem oversaturated. 

How to Structure Industry Research Reports

Industry research findings are often compiled into a written report that provides a clear and concise summary of your findings and their indications. A typical report would include the following sections: 

• Introduction: This begins with a concise overview of the industry, followed by trends, such as the industries growth potential, or historical data. In this section, other information would include the key influencing factors, competitors, competitive strategy, and a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis . The purpose is to introduce the key trends based on current and historical data, followed by competitors and how they operate. You might include similar products or services here. 
• Aim: This indicates the purpose of your industry research or analysis. This would include the questions you asked, and the context in which you were researching.  Not only will this help when writing the report by ensuring you stay on track, but also make this clear to those who read your report. 
• Data and Analytical Presentation: In this section, you’re sharing the data you collected in words and aiding this with graphs, charts and the key reference points used. Here, you’ll make use of financial and industry data to forecast growth, or fluctuations and highlight projections. For example, you might predict an industry's growth potential, or income projections based on your competitors. 
• Analysis: The data and information from the introduction can be used to answer the questions and context outlined in your aims. This is essentially your findings section that brings everything together. 
• Future: In this section, you can outline the long and short term impact indicated by the findings, and address future challenges that may arise. A good and popular framework to implement here is Porter’s Five Forces Model which highlights industry competition and the effects this will have.  
• Summary: The report should end strong with a 3-4 sentence summary of the entire report, 

How to Conduct and Compile Industry Research with genei

First, it’s important to determine the goal behind your research. As with any type of research, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed with the range of information available, which is why having clear goals to guide the process is essential. This stage can be considered preliminary research and might consist of identifying which category or subcategory of the industry you will focus on. You can review available documentation for a general overview and to guide your goals. For goals, you might decide to focus on demand and supply metrics, analysing competitors, industry trends or forecasting future trends.  At this stage, you can begin thinking about what information is out there, what questions you want to ask, and the outcomes you hope to achieve. 

After outlining clear goals, you can begin to collect your data. This will depend on the type of information you need but your material could include journal articles, industry news in leading magazines, or newspapers and industry overviews, research or analysis reports. These might be slightly outdated but can provide a good overview of the industry so far. For competitor focused research, you might examine public financial data, alongside company websites, promotional materials and advertisements. Additionally, you can make use of marketing reports, and public statistics. 

Now, with your goals outlined and materials gathered, it’s time to begin reading and organising the information to compile a report. From research to write-up, genei - an AI-powered summarisation and note-taking tool - can make this process more efficient. In genei, you can organise and store your reading material, make it through your sources 70% faster and begin your write-up with a few clicks. Here’s some steps to get you started: 

• Organise reading material into projects and folders. This makes storing and organising reading material easy, and you can track your progress by marking items as ‘read’. 
• Import web page URLs or PDF files into your newly assigned projects and folders. Alternatively, you can search for new material using keywords and topics with genei’s search feature. 
• Use AI-powered summarisation to read through the document. In the overview section, you can see an overview of the content, AI-generated summaries, and frequently used keywords. In addition, you’ll be able to see any graphs, tables, figures and images from the document, alongside a list of links and references that you can further explore. This makes it easy to begin identifying relevant information for your report, key ideas, and any trends. 
• Create notes across single documents or an entire project folder. The AI-generated summaries and keywords can be added to genei’s notepad with the click of a button. This allows you to quickly begin compiling notes relevant to your industry research needs. You can also highlight sections and add them directly to your notepad, or have them summarised before adding. By clicking on the notes, you can view where the information originated from and read further, so you never have to worry about losing track of your sources. 
• Organise your material and write-up in the notepad. The notepad screen can be expanded for a minimal yet functional writing experience. Here, you can begin to add headers, and organise your summarised notes accordingly. Moreover, you can add your own notes and thoughts into the notepad, and link them to text in your documents. You can then copy and paste this into a word document to continue refining your report. 
• For an improved writing and research experience, genei pro members have access to GPT-3 powered note-taking features that will rephrase, summarise and expand text in your notepad. Another useful feature for pro members is ‘ multi document summarisation ’ which produces a summary of a range of documents based on the specified topic or keyword. 

Do you want to achieve more with your time?

98% of users say genei saves them time and helps them work more productively. Why don’t you join them?

About genei

genei is an AI-powered research tool built to help make the work and research process more efficient. Our studies show genei can help improve reading speeds by up to 70%! Revolutionise your research process.

Articles you may like:

Find out how genei can benefit you

The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing

Outlining is an important preliminary activity that is necessary for improving the structure of the research paper and its readability. Additionally, this step is critical for categorizing or grouping the collected data. Apart from that, an outline can show how a student can elaborate on the thesis statement or the main argument. It is possible to distinguish topic and sentence outlines that can be helpful for writing a research paper.

Introduction

There are several steps that are critical for writing a good research paper, and one of them is the development of an outline. This essay is aimed at showing why this particular activity is important for learners. Furthermore, it is necessary to describe different types of outlines and explain what a thesis statement is. These are the main questions that should be discussed more closely. Overall, one can say that outlining helps a student ensure the logical flow and coherence of his/her writing. Moreover, this activity is useful for improving the readability of the paper. These are the main details that should be considered.

Why is outlining important?

Overall, while writing a research paper, a student should have a clear idea of its structure. In other words, one should understand the logical order and sequence of the questions or sub-questions that should be discussed. In turn, outlining is important for identifying the major and minor topics that will be examined in the research paper (Mitchell, Jolley, & O’Shea, 2010, p. 15). Thus, a good outline can prevent a learner from writing about irrelevant issues or omitting the most important questions (Winner 2013, p. 49). This is one of the benefits that can be distinguished. Additionally, a well-developed outline enables a person to group or categorize the data that was collected in the course of primary or secondary research. If a learner does not know how a paper should be organized, this analysis of data can be very time-consuming. Therefore, outlining is important for effective time management. These are the main aspects that can be identified.

Moreover, an outline is of great value for the potential readers of a research paper. It enables them to understand the flow of the author’s ideas (Gladon, Graves, & Kelly, 2011, p. 93). Moreover, this element of the paper helps a reader locate the most important sections of the paper or the main arguments that the writer puts forward (Gladon et al., 2012, p. 93). This is another issue that should not be overlooked.

What is a thesis statement?

While working on a research paper, one should clearly identify the main idea that should be discussed in greater detail. Overall, a thesis statement can be defined as the main argument that should be defended or explained. To a great extent, it is the answer to the main question that the student wants to write about. As a rule, a thesis statement is placed at the very end of the introduction (Jones & Farness, 2002, p. 349). It is also possible to include this element in the outline (Jones & Farness, 2002, p. 349). This section of the paper must present a debatable and clearly-stated assumption that can be confirmed or refuted in an empirical or logical way (Jones & Farness, 2002, p. 349). In turn, other parts of the research paper should be linked to the thesis statement.

Final outlining

It should be noted that students may have to depart from the initial outline. In many cases, they may add or remove some parts of the paper. For example, a learner can do it, if he/she comes across some interesting ideas that can throw new light on the topic of the research paper. Moreover, one may not have a clear idea about the structure of the research paper, before collecting and analyzing relevant data. In turn, final outlining should be done when one can clearly identify the main topics and sub-topics. This is one of the details that can be singled out.

Types of outline

It is possible to distinguish two types of outlines. For example, one should speak about topic outlines which briefly identify the main ideas that will be discussed in the research paper. In this case, the author does not use complete sentences while describing different parts of the paper. Instead, one should include only short phrases (Goldbort, 2006, p. 133). This approach is helpful when one has to give a very brief overview of the research paper. However, in this way, a student cannot clearly show how various questions will be discussed. Secondly, it is important to speak about sentence outlines in which different sections are described with the help of grammatically complete sentences (Goldbort, 2006, p. 133). This form of the outline is appropriate when a learner needs to explain how specific issues will be discussed (Goldbort, 2006, p. 133).

On the whole, this discussion indicates that outlining is of great help to a person who works on a research paper. This activity is important for ensuring the internal coherence of writing. Additionally, a well-developed outline can assist readers who want to identify the most important sections of the paper. There are different types of outlines, and each of them can be used for a researcher paper. Furthermore, while constructing a schematic plan of the paper, a student can include a thesis statement or the main argument. These are the main points that can be made.

Reference List

Gladon, R., Graves, W., & Kelly, M. (2011). Getting Published in the Life Sciences . New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Goldbort, R. (2006). Writing for Science . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Jones, P., & Farness, J (2002). College Writing Skills . Boston, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.

Mitchell, M., Jolley, J., & O’Shea, R. (2010). Writing for Psychology . New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Winner, W. (2013). A Handbook for Analytical Writing: Keys to Strategic Thinking . Boston, MA: Morgan & Claypool Publishers.

Cite this paper

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2020, November 15). The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing. https://studycorgi.com/the-outlining-importance-in-research-paper-writing/

"The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing." StudyCorgi , 15 Nov. 2020, studycorgi.com/the-outlining-importance-in-research-paper-writing/.

StudyCorgi . (2020) 'The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing'. 15 November.

1. StudyCorgi . "The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing." November 15, 2020. https://studycorgi.com/the-outlining-importance-in-research-paper-writing/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing." November 15, 2020. https://studycorgi.com/the-outlining-importance-in-research-paper-writing/.

StudyCorgi . 2020. "The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing." November 15, 2020. https://studycorgi.com/the-outlining-importance-in-research-paper-writing/.

This paper, “The Outlining Importance in Research Paper Writing”, was written and voluntary submitted to our free essay database by a straight-A student. Please ensure you properly reference the paper if you're using it to write your assignment.

Before publication, the StudyCorgi editorial team proofread and checked the paper to make sure it meets the highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, fact accuracy, copyright issues, and inclusive language. Last updated: November 15, 2020 .

If you are the author of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal . Please use the “ Donate your paper ” form to submit an essay.

• Cryptocurrency

Top 10 Cryptocurrencies Of June 11, 2024

Updated: Jun 11, 2024, 10:35am

From bitcoin and Ethereum to Dogecoin and Tether, there are thousands of different cryptocurrencies, which can make it overwhelming when you’re first getting started in the world of crypto. To help you get your bearings, these are the top 10 cryptocurrencies to invest in based on their market capitalization or the total value of all the coins currently in circulation.

Easy to use mobile investing app

Account Minimum

Trading Commissions

$0 for stocks, ETFs and options

Guide to Top Cryptocurrency

Best crypto to buy now, what are cryptocurrencies, pros and cons of cryptocurrency, how to choose the best crypto to invest in, how to invest in cryptocurrency.

• How much does it cost to buy Cryptocurrency?

How To Report Crypto on Taxes

Crypto frequently asked questions (faqs), 1. bitcoin (btc).

• Market cap: $1.3 trillion
• Year-over-year return: 160%

Created in 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto, bitcoin (BTC) is the original cryptocurrency. As with most cryptocurrencies, BTC runs on a blockchain , or a ledger logging transactions distributed across a network of thousands of computers. Because additions to the distributed ledgers must be verified by solving a cryptographic puzzle, a process called proof of work, bitcoin is kept secure and safe from fraudsters.

Bitcoin’s price has skyrocketed as it’s become a household name. In May 2016, you could buy one bitcoin for about $500. As of Jun. 11, 2024, a single bitcoin’s price was around $67,097. That’s a growth of 13,319%.

Related: How To Buy Bitcoin

2. Ethereum (ETH)

• Market cap: $424.8 billion
• Year-over-year return: 103%

Both a cryptocurrency and a blockchain platform, Ethereum is a favorite of program developers because of its potential applications, like so-called smart contracts that automatically execute when conditions are met and non-fungible tokens ( NFTs ).

Ethereum has also experienced tremendous growth. From April 2016 to the end of June 2024, its price went from about $11 to around $3,536, increasing 32,043%.

Related: How To Buy Ethereum

3. Tether (USDT)

• Market cap: $112.4 billion
• Year-over-year return: 0%

Unlike some other forms of cryptocurrency, Tether (USDT) is a stablecoin, meaning it’s backed by fiat currencies like U.S. dollars and the Euro and hypothetically keeps a value equal to one of those denominations. In theory, this means Tether’s value is supposed to be more consistent than other cryptocurrencies, and it’s favored by investors who are wary of the extreme volatility of other coins.

4. Binance Coin (BNB)

• Market cap: $89.9 billion
• Year-over-year return: 164%

Binance Coin (BNB) is a form of cryptocurrency that you can use to trade and pay fees on Binance , one of the largest crypto exchanges in the world. Since its launch in 2017, Binance Coin has expanded past merely facilitating trades on Binance’s exchange platform. Now, it can be used for trading, payment processing or even booking travel arrangements. It can also be traded or exchanged for other forms of cryptocurrency, such as Ethereum or bitcoin.

BNB’s price in 2017 was just $0.10. By late June 2024, its price had risen to around $609, a gain of 609,370%.

Related: How To Buy Cryptocurrency

5. Solana (SOL)

• Market cap: $70.8 billion
• Year-over-year return: 906%

Developed to help power decentralized finance ( DeFi ) uses, decentralized apps (DApps) and smart contracts, Solana runs on a unique hybrid proof-of-stake and proof-of-history mechanisms to process transactions quickly and securely. SOL, Solana’s native token, powers the platform.

When it launched in 2020, SOL’s price started at $0.77. By late June 2024, its price was around $153.68, a gain of 19,858%.

6. U.S. Dollar Coin (USDC)

• Market cap: $32.0 billion

Like Tether, USD Coin (USDC) is a stablecoin, meaning it’s backed by U.S. dollars and aims for a 1 USD to 1 USDC ratio. USDC is powered by Ethereum, and you can use USD Coin to complete global transactions.

7. XRP (XRP)

• Market cap: $26.9 billion
• Year-over-year return: -6%

Created by some of the same founders as Ripple , a digital technology and payment processing company, XRP can be used on that network to facilitate exchanges of different currency types, including fiat currencies and other major cryptocurrencies.

At the beginning of 2017, the price of XRP was $0.006. As of Jun. 11, 2024, its price reached $0.48, equal to a rise of 7,966%.

8. Dogecoin (DOGE)

• Market cap: $20.3 billion
• Year-over-year return: 130%

Dogecoin was famously started as a joke in 2013 but rapidly evolved into a prominent cryptocurrency thanks to a dedicated community and creative memes. Unlike many other cryptos, there is no limit on the number of Dogecoins that can be created, which leaves the currency susceptible to devaluation as supply increases.

Dogecoin’s price in 2017 was $0.0002. By June 2024, its price was at $0.14, up 70,012%.

9. Toncoin (TON)

• Market cap: $16.6 billion
• Year-over-year return: 354%

Originally developed as a layer-1 blockchain for Telegram’s encrypted messaging platform, Toncoin was soon abandoned before being taken over by the TON foundation. The project name was even changed to “The Open Network” from its original name “Telegram Open Network,” both of which are referred to by their acronym: TON.

Toncoin—first known as Gram—is the native token for TON. It is an application that allows users to buy, send and store funds on TON’s incredibly fast, environmentally friendly network.

10. Cardano (ADA)

• Market cap: $15.3 billion
• Year-over-year return: 53%

Somewhat later to the crypto scene, Cardano (ADA) is notable for its early embrace of proof-of-stake validation. This method expedites transaction time and decreases energy usage and environmental impact by removing the competitive, problem-solving aspect of transaction verification in platforms like bitcoin. Cardano also works like Ethereum to enable smart contracts and decentralized applications, which ADA, its native coin, powers.

Cardano’s ADA token has had relatively modest growth compared to other major crypto coins. In 2017, ADA’s price was $0.02. As of Jun. 11, 2024, its price was at $0.43. This is an increase of 2,044%.

*Market caps and pricing sourced from coinmarketcap.com, current as of 8:33 a.m. UTC on Jun. 11, 2024.

Cryptocurrency is a form of currency that exists solely in digital form. Cryptocurrency can be used to pay for purchases online without going through an intermediary, such as a bank, or it can be held as an investment.

How Does Cryptocurrency Work?

Cryptocurrencies are various forms of digital money that are usually based on blockchain technology. Blockchain technology allows most cryptocurrencies to exist as “trustless” forms of transactions. This means there is no centralized authority overseeing the transactions on a cryptocurrency’s blockchain.

Why Are There So Many Cryptocurrencies?

Cryptocurrency is an emerging area with more than 9,000 crypto projects in existence as of March 2024.

While some crypto function as currencies, others are used to develop infrastructure. For instance, in the case of Ethereum or Solana, developers are building other cryptos on top of these platform currencies, and that creates even more possibilities (and cryptos).

There are both pros and cons to investing in cryptocurrencies. Some of the most common ones an investor might run into are:

When choosing the best cryptocurrency to invest in, it is important to consider your individual goals, investing timeline and risk profile, just as you would with any investment. Additionally, you should do your due diligence to make sure that any crypto project you are interested in is legitimate and secure.

In general, investors should consider the following when evaluating a crypto:

• Market capitalization

You can buy cryptocurrencies through crypto exchanges, such as Coinbase , Kraken or Gemini . In addition, some brokerages, such as WeBull and Robinhood, also allow consumers to buy cryptocurrencies.

How Much Does It Cost To Buy Cryptocurrency?

How much it costs to buy cryptocurrency depends on a number of factors, including which crypto you are buying. Many small altcoins trade for a fraction of a cent, while a single bitcoin will cost you tens of thousands of dollars. However, many brokerages and exchanges now allow fractional trading, offering investors the option to buy a portion of a cryptocurrency.

There are also often costs and fees associated with having a crypto wallet and/or an account on a brokerage or crypto exchange. Be sure that you understand all of the costs associated with buying and holding any cryptocurrency before you invest.

If you buy and sell coins, it’s important to pay attention to cryptocurrency tax rules .

Cryptocurrency is treated as a capital asset, like stocks, rather than cash. That means if you sell cryptocurrency at a profit, you’ll have to pay capital gains taxes . This is the case even if you use your crypto to pay for a purchase. If you receive a greater value for it than you paid, you’ll owe taxes on the difference.

Is Robinhood Right For You?

Via Robinhood's secure website

How does trading cryptocurrencies differ from trading stocks?

While you can invest in cryptocurrencies, they differ a great deal from traditional investments, like stocks. When you buy stock, you are buying a share of ownership of a company, which means you’re entitled to do things like vote on the direction of the company. If that company goes bankrupt, you also may receive some compensation once its creditors have been paid from its liquidated assets.

Buying cryptocurrency doesn’t grant you ownership over anything except the token itself; it’s more like exchanging one form of currency for another. If the crypto loses its value, you won’t receive anything after the fact.

There are several other key differences to keep in mind:

• Trading hours: Stocks are only traded during stock exchange hours, typically 9:30 am to 4:30 pm ET, Monday through Friday. Cryptocurrency markets never close, so you can trade 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
• Regulation: Stocks are regulated financial products, meaning a governing body verifies their credentials and their finances are matters of public record. By contrast, cryptocurrencies are not regulated investment vehicles, so you may not be aware of the inner dynamics of your crypto or the developers working on it.
• Volatility: Both stocks and cryptocurrency involve risk; the money you invest can lose value. However, stocks are directly linked to companies and generally rise and fall based on those companies’ performance. Cryptocurrency prices are more speculative—no one is quite sure of their value yet. That makes them much more volatile and affected by something as small as a celebrity’s tweet.

Are there cryptocurrency exchange-traded funds?

Given the thousands of cryptocurrencies in existence and the high volatility associated with most of them, it’s understandable you might want to take a diversified approach to investing in crypto to minimize the risk that you might lose money.

There are exchange-traded funds , or ETFs, that trade in both bitcoin futures and bitcoin’s spot price. The bitcoin ETF that is right for you, however, depends upon many factors, including your risk tolerance and investment horizon.

What are altcoins?

When we first think of crypto, we usually think of bitcoin. That’s because bitcoin represents more than 45% of the total cryptocurrency market. So when we talk about any cryptos outside of bitcoin, all of those cryptos are considered altcoins.

Ethereum, for instance, is regarded as the most popular altcoin.

Why is bitcoin valuable?

Part of what makes bitcoin so valuable is its scarcity. Bitcoin’s maximum supply is limited to 21 million coins. Currently, there are 19 million coins in circulation.

To create supply, bitcoin rewards crypto miners with a set bitcoin amount. To be exact, 6.25 BTC is issued when a miner has successfully mined a single block. To keep the process in check, the rewards given for mining bitcoin are cut in half almost every four years.

Why are cryptocurrencies important?

While the initial premise of cryptocurrency was to fix the problems with traditional currencies, there are now a whole host of utility cryptocurrencies that have sprung up, thanks to the creation of the blockchain.

• What Is Cryptocurrency?
• Best Crypto Exchanges
• Best Blockchain ETFs
• Best Crypto Credit Cards
• What Is An NFT?
• Cryptocurrency Tax Calculator
• How To Buy Cryptocurrency
• How To Buy XRP (Ripple)
• How To Buy Shiba Inu (SHIB)
• How To Buy Bitcoin (BTC)
• How To Buy Dogecoin (DOGE)
• How To Buy Ethereum (ETH)
• How To Buy Cronos (CRO)
• How To Buy Safemoon
• More In Cryptocurrency
• Crypto.com Review
• Coinbase Review
• Binance.US Review
• Kraken Review
• Bitstamp Review
• eToro Review

Next Up In Investing

• Top 10 Altcoins
• Best Crypto Exchanges and Apps
• Best Crypto Stocks
• Best Crypto Staking Platforms
• Different Types of Cryptocurrencies
• Best Crypto Wallets

CEX.IO Review For 2024

Best Crypto Exchanges Of June 2024

7 Top Metaverse Coins

Top 10 Altcoins Of June 2024

Best Crypto Stocks Of June 2024

7 Best Blockchain ETFs Of June 2024

Michael Adams is lead editor, investing at Forbes Advisor. He's researched, written about and practiced investing for nearly two decades. As a writer, Michael has covered everything from stocks to cryptocurrency and ETFs for many of the world's major financial publications, including Kiplinger, U.S. News and World Report, The Motley Fool and more. Michael holds a master’s degree in philosophy from The New School for Social Research and an additional master's degree in Asian classics from St. John’s College.

Root out friction in every digital experience, super-charge conversion rates, and optimize digital self-service

Uncover insights from any interaction, deliver AI-powered agent coaching, and reduce cost to serve

Increase revenue and loyalty with real-time insights and recommendations delivered to teams on the ground

Know how your people feel and empower managers to improve employee engagement, productivity, and retention

Take action in the moments that matter most along the employee journey and drive bottom line growth

Whatever they’re are saying, wherever they’re saying it, know exactly what’s going on with your people

Get faster, richer insights with qual and quant tools that make powerful market research available to everyone

Run concept tests, pricing studies, prototyping + more with fast, powerful studies designed by UX research experts

Track your brand performance 24/7 and act quickly to respond to opportunities and challenges in your market

Explore the platform powering Experience Management

• Free Account
• For Digital
• For Customer Care
• For Human Resources
• For Researchers
• Financial Services
• All Industries

Popular Use Cases

• Customer Experience
• Employee Experience
• Net Promoter Score
• Voice of Customer
• Customer Success Hub
• Product Documentation
• Training & Certification
• XM Institute
• Popular Resources
• Customer Stories
• Artificial Intelligence
• Market Research
• Partnerships
• Marketplace

The annual gathering of the experience leaders at the world’s iconic brands building breakthrough business results, live in Salt Lake City.

• English/AU & NZ
• Español/Europa
• Español/América Latina
• Português Brasileiro
• REQUEST DEMO

Brand Experience

The 4 market research trends redefining insights in 2024

3,000+ researchers. 14 countries. And 4 key market research trends shaping the new year. Welcome to the 2024 research trends: The year AI-fueled innovation takes research to new heights.

Market research has never been more critical to an organization’s success than right now, and it’s never been more valued. From increasing market share to developing new products and building enduring brands, organizations are leaning in on the consumer insights provided by market research teams to make smarter, faster decisions.

We’re giving you a taste of the 4 emerging trends from our 2024 Research Trends report. For the full details and strategies, be sure to download the full report.

Download the full 2024 Research trends report here

The top market research industry trends in 2024

Trend 1: market research is ripe for innovation.

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have changed the way organizations across every industry work, spurring innovation across the board. As teams grapple with how best to utilize new solutions like ChatGPT, market research serves as a blueprint for how to not only use AI-powered tools, but embrace them. And that’s in large part due to researchers having worked hand-in-hand - so to speak - with AI for the past decade. According to our report , when it comes to understanding how to apply AI to their research activities:

• 26% say they feel “extremely confident”
• 46% say “very confident”
• 19% say somewhat confident
• 7% say they are “not very confident” or “not at all confident”

That comfort level has enabled research teams to infuse AI and machine learning into numerous aspects of their work, like task automation and using AI to quickly process qualitative insights from research like survey responses, focus group transcripts, and more, faster than human analysis ever could.

Trend 2: Digital qual opens the door for deep understanding at scale

In a perfect world organizations can support mountains of research, bringing in valuable data without breaking the bank.

Unfortunately, most budgets don’t allow research projects at that scale.

Traditional qualitative research methods like mobile surveys, focus groups, and interviews are costly and take time to deploy, segment, and analyze.

But, in a post-pandemic world, as digital technology continues to evolve, consumers have adopted a more digital-first approach to how they interact with brands and businesses. Inturn, this has caused qualitative researchers to increasingly shift their focus online. And it’s here that organizations can realize the best of both worlds.

How much qualitative research is conducted remotely or online?

Digital solutions like online platforms, social media, and unstructured data analytics offer a way for research teams to conduct market research in a cost-effective way, while achieving more precise customer insights of their target audience.

This ability to drill down allows teams to truly personalize research at a time when consumers and businesses alike are all-in on personalization.

It also opens the door for research teams to increase their emphasis on diversity and inclusivity, while avoiding bias and discrimination, all at a cheaper cost than traditional market research methods.

Ultimately, more research will be completed, and when combined with artificial intelligence, it will be completed faster.

"One of the most obvious changes in market research tools and technologies is the transition from traditional methods, such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups, to digital methods, such as online platforms, social media, and analytics."

Karen Goldstein,

Principal Product Scientist, XM for Strategy & Research, Qualtrics

Trend 3: Better technology + better data = better decisions

Every organization is a collection of decisions.

From which products you build, to how you engage with customers, the decisions you make dictate your direction and invite delight or scrutiny from your customers. The organizations that are winning today are increasingly turning to data to inform their decisions at every level to ensure their next moves are the right ones.

This has placed a large spotlight on market research teams to deliver high quality insights. According to our data, 62% of market researchers say that “ my company depends on our research and insights significantly more today than in the past 2 years. "

Organizations are increasingly recognizing the value of data-driven decision-making by integrating market research data into strategic planning and financial decisions, thereby making their decision-making process more reliable and accurate.

And with that added value comes collaboration. Because market research is no longer an isolated job. Research teams are collaborating with other departments like product development, marketing, and sales to provide timely and actionable insights that inform strategic decisions and improve customer satisfaction.

But, as technology and consumers continue to evolve, data collection has become complicated. Respondents concerned about data privacy are less willing to provide personal information and participants with bad intentions have become skilled at avoiding quality assurance traps.

AI is helping research teams here too.

Businesses are utilizing tools, like an automated data quality solution, to weed out poor responses (think straight-liners and speeders) before data can be analyzed to ensure data integrity. According to our research, 30% of respondents say they already use AI to detect fraudulent activity in surveys.

Data quality can’t be achieved in a vacuum. It needs to be championed throughout every level of your business because good data leads to informed decisions.

Trend 4: The skills gap is widening, and AI can close it fast  

The past few years have seen AI permeate every level of an organization, from HR to sales, delivering competitive advantages to businesses. As mass adoption continues, how we work is evolving and the necessary skills required to complete tasks are being reshaped.

Unfortunately, we’re seeing technology evolve faster than individual skill sets can keep up. According to our data, research teams’ top pressures include:

• Struggling to keep up with new methods
• Increasing demand for research
• Lacking analytical skills to turn data into insights.

This is also translating to increased costs as research teams outsource processes. 33% of the researchers we talked to said the main reason for outsourcing market resource products and services is because their teams don’t have the research skills necessary to manage them internally.

As the rapid adoption of AI shows no sign of slowing down anytime soon, businesses must place a heavy emphasis on reskilling and retooling their teams to meet the moment. Our research shows teams are taking advantage of AI-powered automation to offset the skills gap.

By automating much of the mundane and tedious tasks in a researchers’ day-to-day, teams can shift their focus to more creative, analytical and strategic work that lead to valuable insights and a competitive edge. Tasks like cleaning or formatting data for reports are prime candidates for automation that can free up time for teams to also focus on seeking opportunities for upskilling and better understanding consumer behavior.

Automated market research can be a game changer for any organization, but lacking the skills to fully take advantage of AI-powered tools can halt progress. While there’s no quick and easy solution to closing the skills gap, AI does provide a way to fill in the gaps so you can continue to keep pace with innovation.

Smarter, faster research comes from well-equipped teams

Market research has become more important and more of a priority for businesses as they look to uncover market trends, reduce labor costs, and deliver the right product experiences.

From pricing and ad testing, to customer feedback and brand tracking, research teams empowered to do their best work provide businesses with better insights into ever-changing consumer preferences.

AI tools are giving research teams a more powerful way to analyze consumer behavior and trends and allowing experiences to be personalized for every respondent or participant on any channel like email, mobile, website, social, interactive voice response, chatbots, and more.

Business leaders should continue to not only support market research, but emphasize its importance at every level of the organization.

In our 2024 Research Trends report , you can explore how to do this and more in further detail.

The report features data breakdowns by region and the steps leaders can take to move forward - download your copy of the report, and focus on making smarter, more human-focused decisions fueled by market research

2024 Research Trends Report

Ali Henriques // Global Head of Research Services

Ali is a market researcher by trade, but is now a global, cross-functional leader of Qualtrics’ highly engaged, profitable and innovative research services division. She enables and supports her team to help clients deepen their understanding of their audiences, enhance or cultivate new products/ services or benchmark against competition.

Related Articles

February 26, 2024

Understanding share of search and what it means for your business

September 14, 2023

How BMG and Loop use data to make critical decisions

August 30, 2023

Which brands have the most loyal customers?

June 22, 2023

Small tasks, big ambitions: How Airtasker designed a brand for global growth

February 26, 2023

When consumers are friction-free how can you build brand loyalty?

December 6, 2022

Academic Experience

How customer experience helps bring Open Universities Australia’s brand promise to life

November 24, 2022

How Impossible is driving the meatless revolution

November 10, 2022

Impossible: The science of experience

Stay up to date with the latest xm thought leadership, tips and news., request demo.

Ready to learn more about Qualtrics?

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

• Cultural Issues and the 2024 Election

4. Gender, family, reproductive issues and the 2024 election

Table of contents.

• Voters’ views about race and society, the impact of the legacy of slavery
• Most voters, but not all, view the nation’s diversity as a strength
• How should the country handle undocumented immigrants currently in the U.S.?
• Attitudes toward hearing other languages in public places
• Biden and Trump supporters’ views about discussing America’s historical successes, failures
• How does the U.S. compare with other countries?
• Views of women’s progress
• How much of a priority should marriage and children be?
• Abortion, IVF access and birth control
• Views of gender identity
• Voters’ attitudes toward use of gender-neutral pronouns
• Societal impact of more social acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual people
• Religion and government policy
• How much influence should the Bible have on the nation’s laws, if any?
• Views on the federal government’s role in promoting Christian values
• Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral
• Is the justice system too tough on criminals, or not tough enough?
• Policing and law enforcement
• How Trump, Biden supporters view gun rights and ownership
• Views on the increasing number of guns in the U.S.
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Biden and Trump voters differ sharply over the state of women’s progress in the U.S., as well as over whether society should prioritize marriage and children.

Yet majorities of both candidates’ supporters say that the gains women have made in society have not come at the expense of men.

Nearly two years after the Supreme Court overturned the Roe v. Wade decision that guaranteed a right to abortion, the issue continues to divide the two coalitions: Biden supporters overwhelmingly say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, while a narrower majority of Trump backers say it should not.

But the two groups generally share the view that birth control and access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) should be widely available. Majorities of both Biden and Trump supporters view the broad availability of birth control as a good thing and say the same about access to IVF.

Supporters of Joe Biden and Donald Trump have mirror-image views on whether women face obstacles to getting ahead in society that men do not.

• About three-quarters of Biden supporters (73%) say there are still significant obstacles making it harder for women than men to get ahead. About a quarter (26%) say these obstacles are now largely gone.
• In contrast, seven-in-ten Trump supporters say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone. About three-in-ten (29%) say women still face significant obstacles.

There were also wide gaps in these opinions during the 2016 and 2020 presidential campaigns .

Differences between Biden and Trump voters are much more modest when it comes to views of whether women’s gains have come at the expense of men. Sizable majorities of both Biden (90%) and Trump supporters (74%) reject this idea.

Among both Biden supporters and Trump supporters, men are more likely than women to say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone.

Among Trump supporters, 83% of men say this, compared with 55% of women.

Almost four-in-ten men who back Biden (37%) say women’s obstacles to progress are now largely gone. Just 16% of women who back Biden say the same.

While most voters across age groups and genders say that gains women have made have not come at the expense of men, a third of men who support Trump do think women’s gains have cost men. This share increases to 40% among men under age 50 who support Trump. About 20% of women or fewer – regardless of age or which candidate they support – say that women’s gains come at the expense of men.

Roughly four-in-ten registered voters (39%) say society is better off if people make marriage and having children a priority, while a majority (59%) say society is just as well off if people have priorities other than family and children.

• Trump supporters (59%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (19%) to say that it is better if people prioritize marriage and children.

There are modest differences between men and women in whether focusing on marriage and children makes society better.

• About six-in-ten men who support Trump (63%) say this, compared with 54% of Trump-supporting women. There is a similar gender gap among Biden supporters (22% of men vs. 16% of women).

Black voters who support Biden (29%) are more likely than White (17%) and Hispanic (16%) Biden supporters to say an emphasis on marriage and family makes society better off. Two-in-ten Asian voters who back Biden say this.

Marriage and children

Three-quarters of registered voters say they are comfortable with women not taking their husbands’ last names when they get married. Just a quarter are uncomfortable with this.

However, Trump supporters (37%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (13%) to express discomfort with married women not taking their husbands’ last names.

And men who support Trump (44%) are more likely than women who support him (29%) to say they are uncomfortable with the practice of women not taking their husbands’ last names.

Related: About 8 in 10 women in opposite-sex marriages say they took their husband’s last name

The nation’s fertility rate, which has been declining for years, is now at its lowest point in more than a century, according to a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control. About four-in-ten voters (43%) say it is neither good nor bad for society that people are having fewer children; 35% view this trend negatively, while 22% say it is good for society.

Biden supporters have mixed views of the fact that people are having fewer children. Half say this is neither good nor bad, 27% view this as good for society, and 23% say it is bad.

Trump supporters – especially men who back Trump – view this trend more negatively.

• Nearly half of Trump supporters (47%), including a 56% majority of men who support Trump, say it is bad for society that people are having fewer children. Roughly four-in-ten women who support Trump (37%) see this trend as a bad thing.

Abortion deeply divides supporters of Biden and Trump. About nine-in-ten Biden supporters (88%) say abortion should be legal in most (46%) or all (42%) cases. Just 11% of Biden supporters say abortion should be illegal in all or most cases.

Conversely, about six-in-ten Trump supporters (61%) say abortion should be illegal in all (11%) or most (50%) cases. A significant minority of Trump supporters say abortion should be legal in most or all cases (38%).

Related: Broad Public Support for Legal Abortion Persists 2 Years After Dobbs

Age, gender differences among Trump supporters – but not Biden supporters – on abortion

About half of Trump supporters ages 18 to 34 (51%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, a substantially higher share than among older Trump supporters (35% of those 35 and older).

Among Biden supporters, nearly nine-in-ten across all age groups say abortion should be legal in all or most cases.

Both women and men who back Trump are more likely to say abortion should be illegal than to say it should be legal. However, more women who support Trump (41%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, compared with 34% of men who support Trump.

There is no difference in these views between women and men who support Biden.

By contrast, 73% of all voters – including majorities of Biden (83%) and Trump supporters (64%) – say access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) is a good thing.

Related: Americans overwhelmingly say access to IVF is a good thing

Voters overwhelmingly express positive views of birth control, condoms and other forms of contraception being widely available in the United States. Nearly eight-in-ten (79%) say this is very or somewhat good for society, 13% view it as neither good nor bad, and 7% say it is bad.

• 93% of Biden supporters and 66% of Trump supporters say it’s good for society that birth control is widely available.
• Men who support Trump (61%) are less likely than women who back the former president (73%) to say that birth control being widely available is good for society. There is no meaningful gender gap on this question among Biden supporters.

Sign up for our weekly newsletter

Fresh data delivery Saturday mornings

Sign up for The Briefing

Weekly updates on the world of news & information

• Criminal Justice
• Discrimination & Prejudice
• Donald Trump
• Election 2024
• Gender Equality & Discrimination
• Gender Identity
• Immigration & Language Adoption
• LGBTQ Attitudes & Experiences
• Marriage & Divorce
• Partisanship & Issues
• Political Issues
• Racial Bias & Discrimination
• Religion & Government
• Religion & Politics
• Unauthorized Immigration

Biden, Trump are least-liked pair of major party presidential candidates in at least 3 decades

More than half of americans are following election news closely, and many are already worn out, americans have mixed views about how the news media cover biden’s, trump’s ages, an early look at black voters’ views on biden, trump and election 2024, voters’ views of trump and biden differ sharply by religion, most popular, report materials.

1615 L St. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

© 2024 Pew Research Center

McKinsey Technology Trends Outlook 2023

After a tumultuous 2022 for technology investment and talent, the first half of 2023 has seen a resurgence of enthusiasm about technology’s potential to catalyze progress in business and society. Generative AI deserves much of the credit for ushering in this revival, but it stands as just one of many advances on the horizon that could drive sustainable, inclusive growth and solve complex global challenges.

To help executives track the latest developments, the McKinsey Technology Council  has once again identified and interpreted the most significant technology trends unfolding today. While many trends are in the early stages of adoption and scale, executives can use this research to plan ahead by developing an understanding of potential use cases and pinpointing the critical skills needed as they hire or upskill talent to bring these opportunities to fruition.

Our analysis examines quantitative measures of interest, innovation, and investment to gauge the momentum of each trend. Recognizing the long-term nature and interdependence of these trends, we also delve into underlying technologies, uncertainties, and questions surrounding each trend. This year, we added an important new dimension for analysis—talent. We provide data on talent supply-and-demand dynamics for the roles of most relevance to each trend. (For more, please see the sidebar, “Research methodology.”)

New and notable

All of last year’s 14 trends remain on our list, though some experienced accelerating momentum and investment, while others saw a downshift. One new trend, generative AI, made a loud entrance and has already shown potential for transformative business impact.

Research methodology

To assess the development of each technology trend, our team collected data on five tangible measures of activity: search engine queries, news publications, patents, research publications, and investment. For each measure, we used a defined set of data sources to find occurrences of keywords associated with each of the 15 trends, screened those occurrences for valid mentions of activity, and indexed the resulting numbers of mentions on a 0–1 scoring scale that is relative to the trends studied. The innovation score combines the patents and research scores; the interest score combines the news and search scores. (While we recognize that an interest score can be inflated by deliberate efforts to stimulate news and search activity, we believe that each score fairly reflects the extent of discussion and debate about a given trend.) Investment measures the flows of funding from the capital markets into companies linked with the trend. Data sources for the scores include the following:

• Patents. Data on patent filings are sourced from Google Patents.
• Research. Data on research publications are sourced from the Lens (www.lens.org).
• News. Data on news publications are sourced from Factiva.
• Searches. Data on search engine queries are sourced from Google Trends.
• Investment. Data on private-market and public-market capital raises are sourced from PitchBook.
• Talent demand. Number of job postings is sourced from McKinsey’s proprietary Organizational Data Platform, which stores licensed, de-identified data on professional profiles and job postings. Data is drawn primarily from English-speaking countries.

In addition, we updated the selection and definition of trends from last year’s study to reflect the evolution of technology trends:

• The generative-AI trend was added since last year’s study.
• We adjusted the definitions of electrification and renewables (previously called future of clean energy) and climate technologies beyond electrification and renewables (previously called future of sustainable consumption).
• Data sources were updated. This year, we included only closed deals in PitchBook data, which revised downward the investment numbers for 2018–22. For future of space technologies investments, we used research from McKinsey’s Aerospace & Defense Practice.

This new entrant represents the next frontier of AI. Building upon existing technologies such as applied AI and industrializing machine learning, generative AI has high potential and applicability across most industries. Interest in the topic (as gauged by news and internet searches) increased threefold from 2021 to 2022. As we recently wrote, generative AI and other foundational models  change the AI game by taking assistive technology to a new level, reducing application development time, and bringing powerful capabilities to nontechnical users. Generative AI is poised to add as much as $4.4 trillion in economic value from a combination of specific use cases and more diffuse uses—such as assisting with email drafts—that increase productivity. Still, while generative AI can unlock significant value, firms should not underestimate the economic significance and the growth potential that underlying AI technologies and industrializing machine learning can bring to various industries.

Investment in most tech trends tightened year over year, but the potential for future growth remains high, as further indicated by the recent rebound in tech valuations. Indeed, absolute investments remained strong in 2022, at more than $1 trillion combined, indicating great faith in the value potential of these trends. Trust architectures and digital identity grew the most out of last year’s 14 trends, increasing by nearly 50 percent as security, privacy, and resilience become increasingly critical across industries. Investment in other trends—such as applied AI, advanced connectivity, and cloud and edge computing—declined, but that is likely due, at least in part, to their maturity. More mature technologies can be more sensitive to short-term budget dynamics than more nascent technologies with longer investment time horizons, such as climate and mobility technologies. Also, as some technologies become more profitable, they can often scale further with lower marginal investment. Given that these technologies have applications in most industries, we have little doubt that mainstream adoption will continue to grow.

Organizations shouldn’t focus too heavily on the trends that are garnering the most attention. By focusing on only the most hyped trends, they may miss out on the significant value potential of other technologies and hinder the chance for purposeful capability building. Instead, companies seeking longer-term growth should focus on a portfolio-oriented investment across the tech trends most important to their business. Technologies such as cloud and edge computing and the future of bioengineering have shown steady increases in innovation and continue to have expanded use cases across industries. In fact, more than 400 edge use cases across various industries have been identified, and edge computing is projected to win double-digit growth globally over the next five years. Additionally, nascent technologies, such as quantum, continue to evolve and show significant potential for value creation. Our updated analysis for 2023 shows that the four industries likely to see the earliest economic impact from quantum computing—automotive, chemicals, financial services, and life sciences—stand to potentially gain up to $1.3 trillion in value by 2035. By carefully assessing the evolving landscape and considering a balanced approach, businesses can capitalize on both established and emerging technologies to propel innovation and achieve sustainable growth.

Tech talent dynamics

We can’t overstate the importance of talent as a key source in developing a competitive edge. A lack of talent is a top issue constraining growth. There’s a wide gap between the demand for people with the skills needed to capture value from the tech trends and available talent: our survey of 3.5 million job postings in these tech trends found that many of the skills in greatest demand have less than half as many qualified practitioners per posting as the global average. Companies should be on top of the talent market, ready to respond to notable shifts and to deliver a strong value proposition to the technologists they hope to hire and retain. For instance, recent layoffs in the tech sector may present a silver lining for other industries that have struggled to win the attention of attractive candidates and retain senior tech talent. In addition, some of these technologies will accelerate the pace of workforce transformation. In the coming decade, 20 to 30 percent of the time that workers spend on the job could be transformed by automation technologies, leading to significant shifts in the skills required to be successful. And companies should continue to look at how they can adjust roles or upskill individuals to meet their tailored job requirements. Job postings in fields related to tech trends grew at a very healthy 15 percent between 2021 and 2022, even though global job postings overall decreased by 13 percent. Applied AI and next-generation software development together posted nearly one million jobs between 2018 and 2022. Next-generation software development saw the most significant growth in number of jobs (exhibit).

Image description:

Small multiples of 15 slope charts show the number of job postings in different fields related to tech trends from 2021 to 2022. Overall growth of all fields combined was about 400,000 jobs, with applied AI having the most job postings in 2022 and experiencing a 6% increase from 2021. Next-generation software development had the second-highest number of job postings in 2022 and had 29% growth from 2021. Other categories shown, from most job postings to least in 2022, are as follows: cloud and edge computing, trust architecture and digital identity, future of mobility, electrification and renewables, climate tech beyond electrification and renewables, advanced connectivity, immersive-reality technologies, industrializing machine learning, Web3, future of bioengineering, future of space technologies, generative AI, and quantum technologies.

End of image description.

This bright outlook for practitioners in most fields highlights the challenge facing employers who are struggling to find enough talent to keep up with their demands. The shortage of qualified talent has been a persistent limiting factor in the growth of many high-tech fields, including AI, quantum technologies, space technologies, and electrification and renewables. The talent crunch is particularly pronounced for trends such as cloud computing and industrializing machine learning, which are required across most industries. It’s also a major challenge in areas that employ highly specialized professionals, such as the future of mobility and quantum computing (see interactive).

Michael Chui is a McKinsey Global Institute partner in McKinsey’s Bay Area office, where Mena Issler is an associate partner, Roger Roberts  is a partner, and Lareina Yee  is a senior partner.

The authors wish to thank the following McKinsey colleagues for their contributions to this research: Bharat Bahl, Soumya Banerjee, Arjita Bhan, Tanmay Bhatnagar, Jim Boehm, Andreas Breiter, Tom Brennan, Ryan Brukardt, Kevin Buehler, Zina Cole, Santiago Comella-Dorda, Brian Constantine, Daniela Cuneo, Wendy Cyffka, Chris Daehnick, Ian De Bode, Andrea Del Miglio, Jonathan DePrizio, Ivan Dyakonov, Torgyn Erland, Robin Giesbrecht, Carlo Giovine, Liz Grennan, Ferry Grijpink, Harsh Gupta, Martin Harrysson, David Harvey, Kersten Heineke, Matt Higginson, Alharith Hussin, Tore Johnston, Philipp Kampshoff, Hamza Khan, Nayur Khan, Naomi Kim, Jesse Klempner, Kelly Kochanski, Matej Macak, Stephanie Madner, Aishwarya Mohapatra, Timo Möller, Matt Mrozek, Evan Nazareth, Peter Noteboom, Anna Orthofer, Katherine Ottenbreit, Eric Parsonnet, Mark Patel, Bruce Philp, Fabian Queder, Robin Riedel, Tanya Rodchenko, Lucy Shenton, Henning Soller, Naveen Srikakulam, Shivam Srivastava, Bhargs Srivathsan, Erika Stanzl, Brooke Stokes, Malin Strandell-Jansson, Daniel Wallance, Allen Weinberg, Olivia White, Martin Wrulich, Perez Yeptho, Matija Zesko, Felix Ziegler, and Delphine Zurkiya.

They also wish to thank the external members of the McKinsey Technology Council.

This interactive was designed, developed, and edited by McKinsey Global Publishing’s Nayomi Chibana, Victor Cuevas, Richard Johnson, Stephanie Jones, Stephen Landau, LaShon Malone, Kanika Punwani, Katie Shearer, Rick Tetzeli, Sneha Vats, and Jessica Wang.

Explore a career with us

Related articles.

McKinsey Technology Trends Outlook 2022

Value creation in the metaverse

Quantum computing funding remains strong, but talent gap raises concern