climate change in ghana thesis

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices by smallholder farmers in rural Ghana: An application of the theory of planned behavior

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

Roles Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, United Kingdom

Affiliation Department of Agribusiness, Joseph Sarwuan Tarkwa University, Markurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

Roles Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Programme, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra, Ghana

Affiliation School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Bradford Way, Lincoln, United Kingdom

• Jonathan Atta-Aidoo, 
• Philip Antwi-Agyei, 
• Andrew John Dougill, 
• Christopher Elaigwu Ogbanje, 
• Edmund Kyei Akoto-Danso, 

• Published: October 10, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082
• Reader Comments

Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices are crucial in managing climatic shocks faced by smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. However, evidence on the socio-psychological drivers of farmers’ adoption of CSA practices remains limited. This study employed the Theory of Planned Behavior framework to analyze smallholder farmers’ intention and adoption behavior toward CSA practices in rural Ghana. The study sampled 350 smallholder farmers from the Upper East and North-East Regions of Ghana and employed the Structural Equation Model to understand smallholder farmers’ intention and adoption behavior toward CSA practices. Results showed that farmers’ attitudes (notably their beneficial evaluation of CSA practices) had a significant impact (0.25) on their intention to adopt CSA practices. Social pressure exerted on farmers to use CSA practices (Subjective norm) also had a significant impact (0.52) on farmers’ adoption behavior. Perceived behavior control which measures the controllability and use of CSA practices also had a significant impact on both the intention (0.43) and adoption behavior (0.20) of smallholder farmers. Findings highlight the role socio-psychological factors play in explaining the adoption of CSA practices in rural Ghana. We recommend the need to create awareness of CSA practices by sharing relevant information more widely on CSA practices through community leaders, chief farmers, assembly members, and clan heads in order to exert influence on farmer’s adoption of CSA practices.

Citation: Atta-Aidoo J, Antwi-Agyei P, Dougill AJ, Ogbanje CE, Akoto-Danso EK, Eze S (2022) Adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices by smallholder farmers in rural Ghana: An application of the theory of planned behavior. PLOS Clim 1(10): e0000082. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082

Editor: Ferdous Ahmed, IUBAT: International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, MALAYSIA

Received: July 14, 2022; Accepted: September 3, 2022; Published: October 10, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Atta-Aidoo et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data are in the supporting information file.

Funding: The work was supported by the Royal Society, London, through study received funding from the FLAIR Collaboration Grant by the Royal Society, London [FCG\R1\211025 to AJD and PA-A]. This work was also supported by the Future Leaders-African Independent Research (FLAIR) Fellowships funded by the Royal Society, London [FLR\R1\201640 to PA-A]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

Increased rainfall variability and drought associated with climate change poses the greatest challenge to the food systems and sustainable agricultural development of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [ 1 , 2 ] and to the region’s food and nutrition security [ 3 ]. SSA is regarded as the most vulnerable region to the negative impacts of climate change, because of structural and institutional weakness, high poverty levels and the low adoption of modern techniques that limits farmers’ capacity to adapt [ 4 – 6 ].

Agriculture in Ghana, like most SSA countries is largely rainfall-dependent and employs about 75% of the rural population [ 7 ], but extreme weather events arising from climate change pose a serious threat to the agricultural sector and agri-based livelihoods. Projections from climate models point to a worsening situation in Ghana. For example [ 8 ], reported that the annual mean temperature is projected to increase by 2.0°C and 3.9°C while rainfall is also projected to decrease by 10.9% and 18.6% by the years 2050 and 2080, respectively. Historical data indicate a worrying trend of shifting climatic conditions that encompass erratic and declining rainfall patterns and a warming trend across all the agro-ecological zones of Ghana [ 9 ]. These climatic changes are estimated to reduce cassava and rice yields by 13.5% and 8% by the year 2050 [ 10 ]. As such, crop yields will continue to decline unless farmers adopt and utilize Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices [ 11 ].

Climate-Smart Agriculture aims to achieve three pillars: (1) sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes; (2) enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity and build resilience; and (3) reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) [ 12 , 13 ]. It has become imperative for farmers in developing countries to adopt and use CSA practices since they include numerous inexpensive farm-based sustainable agricultural land management techniques such as water management, zero/minimum tillage, residue management, and agroforestry among others. Additionally, CSA practices mostly include traditional practices and indigenous knowledge that are widely known to, and used by, farmers in addressing climatic risks [ 3 , 14 ].

Ghana, like many SSA countries, has sought to promote CSA through its sustainable agricultural development policy [ 15 ]. A National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan was developed with the aim of facilitating and operationalizing the National Climate Change Policy for effective incorporation of climate change into food and agriculture sector development policies and programs [ 16 ]. The action plan sought to provide a multi-sectoral institutional mechanism for climate-smart agriculture [ 16 ]. Over the years, numerous efforts have been made by the Government of Ghana and international organizations to promote the adoption of CSA practices to help mitigate the impact of climate change [ 17 , 18 ]. Despite these efforts CSA adoption remains low among smallholder farmers in many parts of Ghana [ 19 ]. However, the few farmers that have adopted practices attest to their effectiveness in increasing farm productivity and incomes, enhancing food security, and conserving the natural resources in Ghana [ 20 – 22 ].

Several studies have examined the determinants of the adoption and impact of CSA practices in SSA countries [ 23 – 25 ] and in Ghana specifically [ 20 , 22 , 26 ]. The determinants identified by these studies were mostly socio-demographic factors. Other determinants identified were access to extension services, awareness of climate change/variability, agricultural insurance, membership of farmer-based organization, and location of the farmer. Some adoption-related studies identified economic incentives as the major determining factor of the adoption of climate smart agricultural practices [ 27 , 28 ]. However, the factors affecting adoption of agricultural practices goes beyond just socio-demographic factors and economic incentives and are largely influenced by individual and intrinsic motivations [ 29 , 30 ] and other perceptions which can best be explained by psychological theories [ 31 , 32 ]. As yet, there is a dearth of empirical studies on the influence of individual and intrinsic motivation on the adoption of CSA practices in SSA and Ghana in particular. This study addresses this gap by using the Theory of Planned Behavior developed by [ 33 ] to examine the behavioral intention and actual adoption behavior of smallholder farmers toward CSA practices in Ghana. The Theory of Planned Behavior was chosen for this work because it provides socio-psychological basis for understanding human behavior [ 34 , 35 ] in diverse fields to encourage behavior change [ 36 ]. The main aim of the study was to identify the socio-psychological factors that influence farmers’ behavioral intention and actual behavior towards the adoption of CSA practices in rural Ghana using the Theory of Planned Behavior. The specific objectives of this study were to:

• Determine which psychological factors exert greater influence on farmers’ behavioral intention and behavior towards the adoption of CSA practices in rural Ghana.
• Examine whether farmers’ behavioral intention towards CSA practices translate into actual adoption behavior of CSA practices in rural Ghana.

We contribute to the literature on the adoption of CSA practices by identifying the relative significance of the Theory of Planned Behavior constructs on farmers’ behavioral intention and adoption behavior towards CSA practices in dryland farming systems. Insights can inform policymakers the areas of possible interventions that can be impactful at the household level to positively alter farmers’ behavior and enhance their adoption of CSA practices.

2. Theoretical framework and hypotheses development

2.1. the theory of planned behavior.

This study aimed to explain the adoption of CSA practices using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as developed by [ 33 ] ( Fig 1 ). Although a plethora of studies indicate the importance of economic incentives in driving the adoption behavior of farmers [ 31 , 37 – 39 ], the TPB has proven valuable in explaining the decision-making process of farmers [ 40 , 41 ]. This is because farmers are not only profit-maximizing entities [ 42 ], but can be influenced by other individual and intrinsic motivations especially when the decision may have both social and environmental consequences [ 29 , 30 ]. The TPB predicts people’s intention to follow a particular behavior based on the assumption that human behavior is regulated by behavioral intentions which are determined by the attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control of individuals [33, 43; Fig 1 ].

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Source: [ 33 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.g001

The behavior intention of a farmer can be defined as that farmer’s motivation regarding their plan or conscious decision to apply effort to carry out a particular behavior [ 44 , 45 ]. Behavior intention represents the immediate antecedent and best predictor of performing an actual behavior [ 33 ]. By implication, stronger behavior intention towards a behavior indicates a stronger likelihood of performance of that behavior [ 46 ]. Such behavioral intention can accurately be estimated from the farmer’s attitude towards that particular behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control [ 33 , 43 ]. However, limited studies [ 47 , 48 ] have examined the relationship between behavior intention and actual behavior due to the difficulty in measuring actual behavior. In addressing this, our study used past adoption behavior as a proxy for future adoption behavior particularly because farmers’ adoption of CSA practices shows a high degree of temporal stability [ 47 , 49 ].

Attitude refers to the favorable or unfavorable assessment of behavior. The overall assessment of behavior and belief in its desired results determine the attitude towards a behavior [ 50 ]. By implication, a more positive attitude towards a behavior leads to a better intention of carrying out that behavior [ 51 ]. Several studies [ 47 , 52 , 53 ] have indicated the role of attitude in predicting farmers’ intention to adopt farm practices. Attitude can be regarded as a significant determinant of an individual’s intention and behavior [ 54 , 55 ].

Subjective norm includes perceived social influence from internal and/or external sources to carry out or not to carry out a particular behavior. Such pressure may arise from internal sources such as family members and relatives or external sources such as friends and personnel from a government agency or an NGO [ 56 ]. The perceived approval of behavior by important people within a community also serves as a source of pressure that induces individuals’ intention of performing that particular behavior [ 57 ]. Subjective norm, therefore, measures the influence of the society on the decision-making process of a farmer [ 58 ]. Subjective norm has been estimated to be the most important determining factor of farmers’ intention to adopt new practices [ 59 – 61 ].

Perceived behavior control relates to the perceived ease or difficulty in performing a particular behavior. Perceived behavior control concerns itself with the existence of control factors that may hamper or enable the performance of a particular behavior [ 43 ]. These control factors may be in the form of money, skills, time as well as cooperation with others [ 62 ] and these may determine the farmers’ ability to carry out a particular behavior. A farmer’s engagement in a given behavior is subject to the farmer’s belief in the likelihood of having access to the required resources and opportunities [ 44 ]. Perceived behavior control is an essential predictor of farmers’ intention to adopt farm practices [ 60 , 63 , 64 ]. By extension, Perceived Behavior Control has a direct influence on intention and behavior [ 54 , 65 ].

Hypotheses . Based on the TPB model, seven hypotheses were developed for the study as follows:

H 1 : Attitude has a positive influence on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices.

H 2 : Subjective norm has a positive influence on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices.

H 3 : Perceived behavior control has a positive influence on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices.

H 4 : Behavioral intention mediates the positive effects of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices.

H 5 : Attitude has a positive influence on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices.

H 6 : Subjective norm has a positive influence on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices.

H 7 : Perceived behavior control has a positive influence on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices.

The TPB was extended with additional two hypotheses (H 5 and H 6 ) which showed a direct relationship between attitude and behavior, and subjective norm and behavior. Sapp et al. [ 66 ] argue that, behavior intentions may be ill-informed at certain times leading to inconsistency between intention and actual behavior. It is therefore critical to examine the attitude–behavior and subjective norm–behavior relation to provide a better understanding of their impact on actual behavior because such relation has been largely ignored in the literature. Studies such as [ 67 , 68 ] have asserted that psychological factors such as attitudes and subjective norms are not always mediated by intention but can have a direct influence on actual behavior.

3. Methodology

3.1. study area.

The study was carried out in the West Mamprusi Municipality in the North East Region, and the Bongo District and Bolgatanga Municipality in the Upper East Region of Ghana ( Fig 2 ). These districts lie within the Sudan savannah agro-ecological zone and have a single rainfall pattern that lasts from May/June to September/October.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.g002

The West Mamprusi Municipality lies between longitudes 0°35’ W and 1°45’ W and latitudes 9°55’ N and 10°35’ N. The municipality has a total population of 175,755, comprising 85,712 males and 90,043 females [ 69 ]. West Mamprusi municipality is rural with agriculture being the mainstay of the local economy [ 70 ]. The main agricultural activities in the municipality include the rearing of livestock and the production of maize, millet, sorghum, and groundnuts.

The Bongo District is located between longitudes 0°W and 1°30’W and latitudes 10°30’N and 11°N. The Bongo district has a total population of 120,254, comprising 56,920 males and 63,334 females [ 69 ]. Subsistence agriculture involving the production of sorghum, millet, rice, groundnuts, and maize is the main economic activity in the district [ 71 ].

The Bolgatanga Municipality is located between longitudes 0°30’W and 1°00’W and latitudes 10°30N and 10°50’N. The Bolgatanga Municipality has a total population of 139,864, comprising 66,607 males and 73,257 females. Despite being a relatively urbanized municipality, livestock farming and crop production continue to be the main economic activity employing over 60% of the labor force within the municipality [ 72 ].

These districts were selected because they are among the most vulnerable to drought in Ghana and the majority of the populace are dependent on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihood [ 73 , 74 ]. Consequently, several projects and interventions such as the knowledge systems and advisory services supporting CSA aimed at enhancing farmers’ adoption of CSA practices have been instituted in these areas.

3.2. Sampling procedure

Three districts, namely West Mamprusi Municipality in the North East Region and Bongo District and Bolgatanga Municipality in the Upper East Region of Ghana, which have significant rural populations with agriculture as the main source of livelihoods were purposively selected. These districts were selected because they host several CSA demonstration fields of the Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Program (GASIP). Subsequently, with the assistance of district agricultural officers, Sagadugu and Minima in the West Mamprusi Municipality, Yikene and Zaare in the Bolgatanga Municipality, and Ayelbia, Sinabisi, and Feo-Asabere in the Bongo District were selected.

Three hundred and fifty (350) household surveys were conducted in the seven study communities. A total of 87 households (38 in Sagadugu and 49 in Mimima) were interviewed in the West Mamprusi Municipality. Eighty-eight (88) households (46 in Ayelbia, 20 in Sinabisi and 22 in Feo-Asabere) were interviewed in the Bongo District while 175 households (87 in Yikene and 88 in Zaare) were interviewed in the Bolgatanga Municipality.

3.3. Ethics statement

Ethical approval for this study was provided by the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Committee (HuSSRECC) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. HuSSRECC subjected the protocol to a thorough review and, among other things, observed that the necessary precautions have been taken to ensure that the participants in study will be well protected from risks and other distasteful occurrences they may face in the administration of questionnaire in particular. Formal consent for participation was obtained verbally from each study participant after the study objectives have been interpreted to them in their local dialect. Study participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality.

3.4. Questionnaire design and measurement scale

Smallholder farmers were randomly selected using the Census and Survey Processing System (CSPro) software in the seven farming communities. The survey was conducted between August 2021 and September 2021 using locally trained enumerators. Interviews were conducted at the convenience of the farmers at their homes and lasted between 45 to 60 minutes. The survey instrument consisted of a questionnaire that solicited information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, and questions framed base on the theory of planned behavior about CSA practices ( S1 File ). Four of the latent constructs (i.e. behavioral intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) were measured using twenty-two items adopted and modified from [ 75 , 76 ]. A five-point Likert scale was used for all the items (Part 1 in S1 File ).

Following the TPB guidelines, constructs for behavioral intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control followed the principle of compatibility to avoid the occurrence of weaker and less-robust correlations among the constructs [ 77 ]. These constructs were defined in terms of the same element (i.e., CSA practices) to ensure construct compatibility and we also ensured that measurement scales were compatible across study sites to achieve scale compatibility [ 34 , 43 ]. Behavioral intention to adopt CSA practices was measured by four items, which enquired about farmers’ willingness to utilize CSA practices (with or without support) and their willingness to overcome barriers in terms of finance and information. Attitude towards CSA was measured using six items, three of which were concerned with the importance, convenience, and practicability of CSA practices. The other three considered the possible contributions of CSA practices in terms of increases in yield, on-farm income, and reputation. Subjective norm toward CSA was measured using six items, three of these items were about the motivation to use CSA practices while the other three covered the perception of others concerning adopting CSA practices.

Perceived behavior control was measured with six items. These items covered the control a farmer had over actions needed to adopt CSA practices. The fifth latent construct (CSA adoption) consisted of eight items covering CSA practices such as; the use of drought-tolerant varieties, cover cropping, zero tillage, no burning of crop residues, mixed cropping, planting early maturing varieties, water management/irrigation, and intercropping with legumes. A four-point Likert scale was used for these items.

3.5. Data analysis

The study used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with latent constructs to analyze the collected data following [ 59 , 78 , 79 ]. The first step involved Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to acquire a suitable measurement model. Step two covered the development and testing of the structural model. CFA was carried out to assess the validity of constructs as well as to evaluate the fitness of the model. [ 80 , 81 ] indicate the need for conducting CFA because construct validity reveals the extent to which the measured items reflect the hypothetical construct they are intended to measure. The validity of the measurement model was assessed using the overall goodness-of-fit statistics. Overall goodness-of-fit was assessed by checking the chi-squared value, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) [ 59 , 78 ]. Cronbach alpha and factor loadings were used to establish the reliability of the constructs and various items.

The structural modeling involved the estimation of a set of multiple regressions with particular emphasis on the nature and magnitude of the relation between the latent constructs [ 78 , 81 ] in this case attitude (ATT), subjective norms (SN), perceived behavior control (PBC), behavioral intention (BI) and actual behavior (CSA adoption). The predictive power and the ability of the SEM to estimate multiple regressions simultaneously made it the appropriate tool to examine the causal relations that exist among the TPB constructs and to test the underlying hypotheses. The SEM was estimated using the maximum likelihood procedure because maximum likelihood estimation procedure has proven to produce reliable and robust results under different circumstances compared to other estimation procedures [ 82 ].

3.6. Limitations of the study methods

Disagreement from respondents on what constituted climate smart practices is a limitation of the current study. The researchers resolved this limitation by providing further explanations as to what CSA practices were and the goals they seek to achieve. Another limitation of the study was focusing solely on the original factors of the Theory of Planned Behavior in explaining adoption of CSA practices. However, the authors saw this as necessary due to the extensive literature available on other factors affecting adoption decision of farmers. In spite of the limitations, the current study has strengths in terms of measuring CSA practices by not limiting it to a simple yes/no response but by measuring the frequency of use of these practices. The use of a Likert scale in measuring the adoption helps to ensure that a farmer who uses any CSA practice on yearly basis has a greater adoption score than a farmer who rarely uses or had used the given practice only once. Future study can build on this study by recategorizing the CSA practices under similar themes so as to measure the impact of the psychological factors on these sub-themes.

4.1. Descriptive statistics

The demographic and socioeconomic information of farmers are presented in Table 1 . The majority of respondents are smallholder farmers with 68.9% estimated farm sizes to be 2 hectares or below.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.t001

4.2. Item measurement in the TPB model

Table 2 presents descriptive statistics, factor loadings, and Cronbach alpha for the various constructs of the TPB framework. All the 350 respondents reported that they used at least one of the eight CSA practices most prevalent in their localities. A comparison of the eight items that make up the CSA adoption construct shows that mixed cropping (94.9%) was the most used practice followed by intercropping with legumes (82.9%), planting early maturing varieties (73.1%), no burning of crop residues (67.4%), cover cropping (62.6%), use of drought-tolerant varieties (60.9%), zero tillage (57.4%) and water management/irrigation (17.7%).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.t002

In terms of behavioral intention to adopt CSA practices, a cumulative 5% of the sample expressed disagreeable intention to adopt CSA practices while 3% showed neither agreeable nor disagreeable intention to adopt CSA practices. Item b1n6 (“I am willing to learn about CSA practices”) shows the highest mean score while item b1n1 (“I am willing to adopt CSA practices by myself; with or without financial support”) shows the least mean score.

Farmers expressed a positive attitude (mean of 4.44) towards the adoption of CSA practices. The majority of farmers interviewed expressed an agreeable attitude towards the adoption of CSA practices. About 2% of the sample expressed a disagreeable attitude towards the adoption of CSA practices, while 6% seem indifferent about the adoption of CSA practices.

About 25% of the sample expressed disagreeable subjective norms towards the adoption of CSA practices while about 10% of the sample expressed neither disagreeableness nor agreeableness towards the adoption of CSA practices. Sn6 (“CSA practices are something I speak about with important referents”) showed the highest mean score compared to sn8 (“I feel under pressure from extension agents to integrate CSA practices in my farming”) which received the lowest mean score. In terms of perceived behavioral control, 15% of the sample indicated disagreeableness while about 9% indicated that they were neither agreed nor disagreed with the items under this construct. Pbc4 (“I have the resources to implement the CSA practices”) showed the least mean score while pbc5 (“I can easily command to use CSA practices on my farm”) showed the highest mean score.

Factor loadings from the confirmatory factor analysis ( Table 2 ) show that the observed variables were significant at the p < 0.01 level and can be considered adequate, ranging from 0.18 to 0.89. Although, six items recorded factor loadings less than 0.30 as recommended for a sample size of at least 350 [ 82 ], they were maintained because they were greater than 0.10 and proved to establish a simple structure [ 42 , 82 ] and suggested at least good contributions of these items to their respective constructs [ 83 ]. The factor loadings ( Table 2 ) indicate that all the five latent variables satisfied the convergent validity test. The Cronbach alpha which was used to test for the reliability of the constructs indicated that all five constructs–attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavior control, behavioral intention and CSA adoption–recorded Cronbach alpha of above 0.60, implying that measurement scales for all the variables were internally consistent and reliable [ 82 , 84 ].

4.3. Goodness-of-fit statistics

Based on the “cut-off” points developed by [ 82 ] and presented in Table 3 , we chose four measures namely: chi-squared/degrees-of-freedom (χ 2 / df), comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) to determine the overall model fit. Although a significant χ 2 indicates an unfit model, this was expected due to the large sample size and a high number of observed variables hence the χ 2 is not sufficient to measure the overall fit of the model [ 82 , 85 , 86 ]. The CFI which is less sensitive to model complexity shows that the model is fit given the “cut off” point of 0.92 for large sample sizes [ 82 ]. The observed value for RMSEA which attempts to rectify the tendency of using χ 2 to reject models with large sample sizes [ 82 , 87 ] indicates a good fit given an observed value of 0.069. The observed value of 0.08 for SRMR suggests no problem with the model fit indicating that the estimated model is significant and inferences made can be reliable [ 82 , 88 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.t003

4.4. Hypotheses testing

Table 4 shows that the attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control of smallholder farmers jointly explained 25% of the variations in farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices. Subsequently, behavioral intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control collectively explained a 30% variance in the adoption of CSA practices by smallholder farmers.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.t004

Standardized parameter estimates from the model are presented in Table 5 to show the different pathways. Subjective norm was revealed to have no significant effect on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices hence, there was no evidence to support H 2 . Perceived behavior control was estimated to have a greater influence (β = 0.43) than either attitude (0.25) or subjective norm (β = 0.02) on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices. Farmers’ attitude was estimated to have a positive and significant effect (β = 0.25, p < 0.000) on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices, providing evidence to support H 1 . The perceived behavior control of farmers was estimated to have a positive and significant (β = 0.43, p < 0.000) on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices, thus supporting H 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.t005

Table 5 shows that farmers’ behavioral intention to adopt CSA practices played no mediating role on farmers’ actual adoption of CSA practices. However, the subjective norm was estimated to have a positive and significant effect (β = 0.52, p < 0.000) on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices, supporting H 6 . Perceived behavior control was estimated to have a direct positive and significant effect (β = 0.20, p < 0.010) on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices, thus, supporting H 7 . Our results show that attitude and perceived behavior control positively affect farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices while subjective norm and perceived behavior control affect farmers’ adoption of CSA practices.

4.5. Discussion

Results from the SEM indicated that farmers’ attitude has a positive and significant impact on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices. A positive significant impact of attitude on farmers’ intention implies that favorable opinions about CSA practices increases a farmer’s chances of forming intentions to adopt such CSA practices. Forming such positive attitudes towards CSA practices depend on farmers’ witnessing the positive impacts CSA practices have on farm output. Our results are consistent with the findings of previous studies [ 44 , 67 , 78 , 79 , 89 ] suggesting that attitude is the best starting point for behavioral change. Attitude is regarded as an important component in shaping farmers’ intentions as it is the response to behavioral beliefs [ 42 , 78 , 90 ]. Farmers’ attitude has been documented to significantly impact behavioral intention towards Conservation Agriculture [ 91 ]. Studies including [ 47 , 92 , 93 ] have indicated that attitude has the largest impact on farmers’ behavior intention, however, our findings indicate the contrary and it is in line with the findings of [ 52 ] with attitude estimated to have a slightly negative impact on the actual adoption of CSA practices albeit insignificant. A possible explanation for such negative impact of attitude on the adoption behavior of farmers is due to the minimal exposure of farmers to the actual results of CSA practices on farms that use an appropriate mix of CSA practices. [ 26 ] indicate that being close to a climate-smart village increases the likelihood of adopting climate-smart practices because farmers that have witnessed firsthand the results of CSA practices tend to develop a positive attitude toward such practices. The lack of a visible “success story” about the use of CSA practices casts doubts about the expected results and hence farmers are likely to develop a neutral or negative attitude towards CSA practices. This has implications for the adoption of CSA practices in farming communities in the study area where slight changes in rainfall can cause significant crop yield losses.

Perceived behavior control had a positive and significant effect on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices. By implication, the perception of farmers about their own capabilities to apply CSA practices significantly influences their behavioral intention and their subsequent adoption of such practices. Our results are consistent with the literature [ 44 , 56 , 91 , 94 ], suggesting that higher perceived capability to apply CSA practices invariably leads to greater intention towards the application of CSA practices. The PBC component of the TPB suggests that, farmers who can overcome the different limitations in adopting CSA practices such as lack of information and resources will gain the motivation and develop the intention to adopt CSA practices [ 44 , 95 ]. PBC was found to have a significant and positive effect on the actual usage of CSA practices. PBC had a significant and positive impact on CSA usage because farmers mostly want to feel in charge of their adoption behavior [ 67 , 96 ]. This suggests that the perception of farmers about their capacity and degree of control over adoption significantly influences their intention and actual behavior [ 53 ]. However, studies such as [ 52 ] contend that PBC is not an important predictor of smallholder farmers’ intention to adopt production practices.

Subjective norm was found to have a significant and positive direct effect on CSA adoption. This suggests that farmers’ adoption behavior is influenced by perceived social pressure [ 56 ]. Social relations such as family members, neighbors, and opinion leaders play an active role in farmers’ adoption behavior. Subjective norm had the greatest effect on farmers’ adoption of CSA practices because farmers’ adoption decision is largely influenced by other’s opinion [ 92 ]. Social norm was found to have no significant effect on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices, this result is consistent with that of other studies such as [ 89 , 97 ]. Although studies including [ 92 , 93 ] have found subjective norm to significantly influence farmers’ intentions, their results revealed that social pressure/influence had extremely low impact on intentions relative to the attitude and perceived behavior control.

Contrary to the findings of [ 47 , 96 ], our model indicated that behavioral intention plays no mediating role between attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavior control, and CSA adoption. The difference in the mediating role of behavioral intention may stem from constraints. This result implies that unanticipated events, insufficient time and resources, lack of requisite skills and several other factors may prevent farmers from acting on their intentions [ 98 ]. It is therefore important these constraints are addressed to enable farming communities to successfully implement appropriate CSA interventions aimed at moderating the adverse effects of climate change and variability on agro-based livelihoods.

It is important to stress that self-reported measures of behavior and intentions may differ from actual behavior and as such lead to no correlation between the measures [ 99 ]. The difficulty in accurately measuring the actual behavior of farmers has prevented researchers from going beyond just intentions. Our study contributes theoretically to this sparsely researched area by estimating actual behavior from past behavior. This is critical considering the projected increases in temperature and erratic rainfall partners across Ghana and West Africa more widely. Findings from this study provides important information for policy makers to design climate change adaptation policy that take cognizance of the different psychological and behavioral factors that have the potential to influence the adoption of CSA practices.

5. Conclusion and policy implications

The study examined the different factors affecting smallholder farmers’ intention to adopt and their adoption behavior towards CSA practices using a Structural Equation Model (SEM) based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). We have provided evidence of the extent to which the attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control of smallholder farmers drive their intentions and subsequently their actual adoption of CSA practices in rural Ghana.

Findings showed that farmers’ attitudes had a positive impact on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices but had no direct impact on farmers’ actual adoption behavior. This suggests that, the more positive attitudes farmers develop, the better the chances of increasing their intention to adopt CSA practices. Subjective norm had no impact on farmers’ intention to adopt CSA practices but significantly impacted the actual adoption of CSA practices by farmers. The perceived influence from both internal and external sources had the largest impact on farmers’ adoption behavior. Perceived behavior control had a significant impact on both farmers’ intention to adopt and the actual adoption of CSA practices. That is, farmers’ perception about their control over factors that could facilitate or hamper their adoption of CSA practices was the most significant driver of farmers’ adoption of CSA practices in Ghana.

We recommend that more efforts should go into creating awareness among smallholder farmers to develop a more positive attitude towards CSA practices. Such positive attitudes by farmers towards CSA practices can be harnessed if demonstration fields of CSA practices are made available to demonstrate the positive effects CSA practices have on crop yields. The study recommends the need to create awareness of CSA practices by sharing that relevant information on CSA practices through community leaders including chief farmers, assembly members, clan heads, etc. so that such information can be easily passed on to farmers. Policy makers should encourage the establishment of demonstrating farms for farmers to appreciate the benefits associated with such practices.

Supporting information

S1 file. sample questionnaire for data collection..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.s001

S1 Appendix.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000082.s002

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the districts and communities that participated in this research.

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Knowledge, Attitude, and Adaptation to Climate Change in Ghana

Affiliations.

• 1 School of Public Service and Governance, Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration, Accra, Ghana.
• 2 National Blood Services, Accra, Ghana.
• 3 School of Liberal and Social Sciences, Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration, Accra, Ghana.
• PMID: 33299383
• PMCID: PMC7710404
• DOI: 10.1155/2020/3167317

Climate change is a serious challenge to human existence. It threatens efforts towards the attainment of sustainable development goals and aggravates conditions that lead to health inequities and inequalities for vulnerable populations. The study aimed to investigate knowledge and adaptation to climate change among people in Ghana. A nationally representative survey of Ghanaian adults ( N = 674) was conducted from August 1, 2019, to December 31, 2019. Results showed that 43.9% of the respondents understood the meaning of climate change. Respondents perceived the causes of climate change to include burning of fossil fuel, deforestation, natural events such as ocean currents, carbon emission from vehicles and industries, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide from fertilizers, and an act of God. About 53.1% and 41% of the male and female respondents, respectively, had an encounter with climate change-induced natural disasters. About two out of five respondents (43%) were either afraid or confused about climate change. Distilled or maintained public drainage from waste (30.2%) and clearing drains (25.6%) was the leading adaptation strategies towards climate change-induced natural disasters. Training (30.1%), national radio (27.7%), and television (19.1%) were the preferred leading methods for receipt of global warming information. These findings provide useful insights for policy directions. The government of Ghana and other stakeholders should develop a communication strategy to increase and sustain publicity and education on climate change to the citizenry.

Copyright © 2020 Stephen T. Odonkor et al.

• Adaptation, Physiological / physiology*
• Climate Change*
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Ghana / epidemiology
• Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice*
• Middle Aged
• Surveys and Questionnaires*
• Young Adult

REVIEW article

A review of the water resources of ghana in a changing climate and anthropogenic stresses.

• 1 Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
• 2 Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ho Technical University, Ho, Ghana

An extensive narrative review approach is adopted to present existing information on the consumptive and non-consumptive uses and their related issues, such as floods and droughts, climate and the environment in Ghana. Total annual rainfall in the country ranges between 800 mm/y (south-east coat) and 2,000 mm/y (south-west coast) with a bimodal and mono-modal patterns in the south and north, respectively. Annual total runoff from the 3 river systems (the Volta river system, the South-western river system and the Coastal river system) in Ghana is estimated at 40 billion m 3 out of about 53 billion renewable freshwater resources. Groundwater yields ranges from 6 m 3 /h in the Volta basin sedimentary formations to 180 m 3 /h in the limestone formations. It is estimated that the total water withdrawal as a percentage of total renewable water resources is about 2%. At an average per capita consumption of water of 50 l/p/d, estimated daily water demand for the 2021 population of 31 million people stands at about 566 million m 3 /y. Current water supply systems are overstretched and it is further estimated that about US $ 240 million is required per year as capital expenditure in urban and rural water supply. Moreover, climate change is projected to increase the scarcity of water in future. Wastewater generated through domestic and industrial uses including storm water in urban Ghana is estimated at about 760 million m 3 /y. Ghana's irrigation potential to reduce climate change impact on agriculture is put at between 0.36 and 2.9 million ha, accounting for about 66.4% of the consumptive water withdrawal. Estimated water demand for cattle, sheep and goats in 2010 was put at about 22 million m 3 /y. Other services obtained from surface water are the provision of fish (the Volta Lake is estimated to contributes to 16% of total catch in Ghana); hydropower generation accounting for about 40% of total power installed capacity (Akosombo = 1,020 MW, Kpong = 160 MW, and Bui = 404 MW); water transportation (notably on the Volta Lake); tourist attractions [are 550 km Ghana's shoreline that has about 90 lagoons, the Volta Lake, the lower Volta (e.g., Sogakope, Ada) and some other inland waters like Lake Bosumtwi] and wetlands (recognized by RAMSAR convention of 1971) In the legal context, water governance issues are handled by various institutions created by Acts of Parliament.

1. Introduction

Ghana is located in West Africa, bordered on the north by Burkina Faso, on the east by Togo, on the west by Cote D'Ivoire and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea. It has a land area of ~240,000 km 2 . Ghana used to have 10 administrative regions but on 27 December 2018, the map of the country changed to 16 administrative regions following a referendum on the creation of six additional regions. Water is a cross-cutting issue in the developmental agenda of Ghana and relevant to enhancing livelihood, growth, and good health. Water deficit areas (northern Ghana) face more severe development challenges than southern Ghana which is comparatively wetter. In Ghana, water as an economic good has been considered in all the United Nations (UN) water-related programmes such as the Water and Sanitation Decade, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD), and now the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in addition to national programmes such as the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ). The objective of this paper is to review the trends of water use and availability in Ghana in the context of climate change impact on water resources and the implication for sustainable development.

An extensive narrative review approach is adopted to present existing information, using the web search engine, snowballing and other reports, on the water resources availability and uses in relation to the direct and indirect impacts of climate change. The topical issues reviewed are the hydrometeorology, river systems, groundwater, reservoirs, wetlands, water quality, wastewater, sedimentology and water-induced erosion, water supply, irrigation animal watering, hydropower generation, inland water transport, inland fisheries, water-related tourism, the water sector in a changing climate (floods, droughts) and water legislation and water sector institutions. Literature on the Volta, Pra, and Densu basins were of interest because of their roles and coverage in the three river systems of Ghana.

The remaining part of the study is grouped under six sections. Section 3 focuses on climate of Ghana (water year, rainfall, evapotranspiration, and humidity); section 4 is on Water resources in Ghana (River systems, Groundwater, Reservoirs, Wetlands); section 5 on Climate change and impacts on water resources (Quantity and Water quality); section 6 on Water uses (Consumptive and non-consumptive water uses, and wastewater); section 7 on Existing water legislation and water sector institutions and section 8 on the Implication of this study and way forward.

3. Climate of Ghana

The water year in Ghana starts on the first day of March each year and ends on the last of February the following year. Officially, the wet season begins on the first day of March while the dry season ends on the last day of February. However, there are some spatial variations in the hydrological calendar.

3.1. Rainfall

Total rainfall in the country decreases spatially from 1,800 mm/y on the south-west coast through 1,250 mm/y in the mid belt to about 1,000 mm/y in the north, averaging at about 1,200 mm for the period 1981–2010 ( Bessah et al., 2021a ). The least total rainfall is recorded in the south-east at about 750–850 mm/y ( Bessah et al., 2021a ).

Rainfall is bimodal in the south and mono-modal in the north and the northern parts have higher water deficits due to the high excesses of evapotranspiration over rainfall ( Bessah et al., 2021a ). The average annual rainfall about 1,200 mm should be sufficient to grow most of the staples in Ghana ( Incoom et al., 2022 ). The coastal savannah belt of Ghana which records the least rainfall has average annual rainfall of about 800 mm/y. Except in cases of occasional extreme climatic conditions that lead to the destruction of crops, rainfall amounts can be described as adequate for most crops, but the distribution has been uneven both geographically and seasonally. Crop water requirements for tomato and onions were projected to increase by about 50 mm/growth period under climate change in the twenty-first century over a base period records in the range of 500–580 mm/growth period in the Guinea Savannah zone of Ghana ( Incoom et al., 2022 ). Water surplus of rainfall over potential evapotranspiration is higher in the south than the north for the wet months. At the same time, water deficits of rainfall over potential evapotranspiration are smaller in the south than the north for the dry months. This explains why even though the north has good amounts of rainfall, the much higher potential evapotranspiration rates results in huge water deficits for plant growth. Hence the need for irrigation in especially the north of Ghana ( Agodzo et al., 2014 ).

Hydrometeorology refers to the water-related climate parameters. It includes all forms of precipitation, evapotranspiration and the humidity of the air. Table 1 presents the average data for rainfall, evapotranspiration and relative humidity at representative gauging stations in Ghana.

Table 1 . Rainfall, potential evapotranspiration and relative humidity for Accra, Kumasi, and Tamale.

3.2. Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration determination in Ghana is usually through empirical estimation. Acheampong (1986) compared three methods for the estimation of ET and concluded that the Penman method works best for Ghana. Salifu et al. (2011) successfully employed the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) model to estimate actual evapotranspiration (ET a ) for different land use/cover types for the Atankwidi and Afram catchments in the Volta Basin of Ghana, with values ranging between 1.4 and 7.30 mm/d across the catchments.

3.3. Relative humidity (RH)

There are hardly any relative humidity studies in Ghana. In Table 1 , relative humidity (RH) reduced from Accra (81%) on the southern coast through Kumasi (77%) in the middle belt to Tamale (61%) in the northern belt, implying air moisture depletion from the south to the north. Frimpong et al. (2014) in a study in Bawku East reported a rising trend of relative humidity at Garu, while trends in Manga and Binduri did not show clear patterns in rise or fall for the period 1961–2012. Recent study based on the reference period of 1976–2018 showed that RH increases spatially from the coast (60–85%) through the forest (30–80%) to the savannah (30–70%) agro-ecological zones ( Bessah et al., 2022 ).

4. Water resources in Ghana

4.1. the river systems.

Ghana has a land area of ~240,000 km 2 . The country is endowed with 3 river systems: the Volta river system, the South-western river system and the Coastal river system ( Figure 1 ). The catchment area of the Volta basin extends into six riparian countries (Ghana, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Togo, Benin) covering a little over 400,000 km 2 . The main tributaries of the Volta river are the Black Volta, White Volta Red Volta, and the Oti rivers. About 85% of the catchment area of the Volta basin is shared between Ghana and Burkina Faso and 15% shared between the other four countries. The Volta Basin Authority (VBA) was established by the riparian countries to manage the basin as an international resource and by 2010, five riparian countries except Cote d'Ivoire signed the VBA agreement bringing the convention into effect. Cote d'Ivoire later joined.

Figure 1 . Basin demarcation for the 3 river systems in Ghana.

The Volta river system drains about 70% of Ghana of the total land area of about 240,000 km 2 and the other 2 river systems drain the remaining 30% in the proportion of 22% (South-west river system) and 8% (Coastal river system). Estimated total annual mean runoff for Ghana is about 53.2–54.4 billion m 3 of water, of which nearly 40 billion m 3 , or 68.6%, is generated within Ghana's borders ( Water Research Institute (WRI), 2010 ; Agodzo et al., 2014 ). The remaining 31.4%, or 15 billion m 3 , is generated outside Ghana's borders. Some estimates put the annual runoff proportion at 65, 29, and 6%, respectively, for the Volta, South-western, and the Coastal river systems [ Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ; Water Research Institute (WRI), 2010 ; Aidoo et al., 2021 ]. The largest basin in the South-western river system is the Pra basin supplying four regional capitals and leading producer of tuber crops in the country ( Obuobie et al., 2012b ; Bessah et al., 2020a ). The Densu basin in the coastal river system is of key importance to water supply in Accra, the capital of Ghana. The Bia river is shared with Cote d'Ivoire, while the lower reaches of the Tano river also form part of the boundary with Cote d'Ivoire ( Figure 1 ). The upper reaches of the Tordzie river in the Coastal system shares boundary with Togo ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ; Nyatuame et al., 2020 ).

4.2. Groundwater

Ghana is underlain by three main geological formations, namely the basement complex comprising crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks; the consolidated sedimentary formations underlying the Volta basin (including the limestone horizon) and the Mesozoic and Xenozoic sedimentary rocks. These formations represent 54, 45, and 1% of the country, respectively [( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ; Water Research Institute (WRI), 2010 ; Water Resources Commission (WRC), 2012a , b )]. The depth of aquifers in the basement complex and the Volta basin is normally between 10 and 60 m with yields rarely exceeding 6 m 3 /h. The aquifer depths in the Mesozoic and Xenozoic formations are usually between 6 and 120 m with average yields of about 184 m 3 /h particularly in the limestone aquifer. Groundwater occurrences in limestone formations, which also exist, are much deeper located, typically in the range of 120–300 m. The average yield in the limestone formation is 180 m 3 /h.

Recharge is usually in the form of direct infiltration of precipitation through fracture and fault zones along the highland fronts and also through the sandy portions of the weathered zone. Some recharge also occurs indirectly as seepage from ephemeral stream channels and pools of accumulated runoff in the rainy seasons. Estimated recharge values are generally low, varying from 1.5 to 19% of annual rainfall, and there is high spatial and temporal variability. Additional recharge occurs through seepage from ephemeral stream channels during the rainy season. There are saline intrusions in shallow aquifers along the coastal zone, while borehole yields in the Northern, Upper East, Upper West, and parts of Brong-Ahafo regions are often in-sufficient with some occurrence of “dry boreholes.” There are also problems of high iron and fluoride contents in parts of the country including the Western, Northern, and Upper East regions ( UPgro African Groundwater Country Study, 2020 ).

Groundwater recharge studies are few. For example, recharge estimates by Obuobie et al. (2012a) in the White Volta River basin of Ghana (~46,000 km 2 ) for the 2006 and 2007 water years showed high seasonal and spatial variability in the water level, with a range of 1.24–5.00 m in 2006, and 1.60–6.80 m in 2007. Water level rise occurred only in the rainfall season and recharge to groundwater estimated to vary between 2.5 and 16.5% of the mean annual rainfall. In another study, Obuobie et al. (2013) assessed the groundwater resource potential for dry-season vegetable irrigation in two areas of north-eastern Ghana. By using geophysical surveying, recharge estimation, and water quality analysis, they found that groundwater abstractions for all purposes are small compared to recharge. Establishing that groundwater was generally suitable for irrigation, they concluded that the use of groundwater for dry-season irrigation could be expanded 14–18-fold in the study areas.

Ghana shares in two main transboundary aquifers, both of which are coastal: The Tano aquifer system, located in the extreme southwest of Ghana and shared between Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire. It covers an area of 806 km 2 in Ghana and includes three aquifer units (Quaternary, continental terminal and Maastrichtian); and the Keta aquifer system, found in the extreme southeast of Ghana and shared among Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. It is a layered system covering an area of 2,721 km 2 ( UPgro African Groundwater Country Study, 2020 ).

4.3. Reservoirs

Lake Bosumtwi, about 30 km south-east of Kumasi in Ashanti ( Figure 1 ), is a natural lake formed from a meteorite impact. From an areal view, it looks almost circular, where the rim of the crater has a diameter of about 10.5 km. The water surface area which is below the rim of the crater is said to have a diameter of 8 km ( Koeberl et al., 2007 ), working out to a surface area of about 50 km 2 and a maximum depth of 78 m ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ). There are 30 settlements dotted around the lake. Lake Volta, as shown in Table 2 , is a man-made lake and one of the most studied lakes in Ghana ( Van de Giesen et al., 2010 ; Codjoe et al., 2020 ; Nyadzi et al., 2021 ). It is the largest impoundment with a capacity estimated between 148 and 153 km 3 when the Akosombo dam was constructed for hydropower generation in 1964 ( NASA, 2018 ).

Table 2 . Characteristics of some major reservoirs or impoundments in Ghana and their estimated annual generation rate or irrigation surface or abstraction rate.

Other notable man-made reservoirs in Ghana ( Table 2 ) include the Bui reservoir (12.57 km 3 ), Tono (3.76 km 3 ), Vea (0.82 km 3 ), and Kpong (0.23 km 3 ) [ Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ; WRC, 2005 ; Yeleliere et al., 2018 ] and either used for water supply, irrigation or hydropower generation. The total inland water area, which includes the Volta Lake, Lake Bosomtwi, and others, is about 11,800 km 2 ( United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2015 ). For an average annual rainfall over Ghana between 1,170 and 1,200 mm, the total direct precipitation on the inland water surfaces works out to ~14 billion m 3 (14 km 3 ) per annum.

There are smaller impoundments scattered across the country, especially in northern Ghana. Ghansah et al. (2018) studied the small impoundments in the White Volta basin based on remote sensing techniques and ground truthing. They estimated that there are ~254 small reservoirs of surface areas between 1 and 53 ha in the sub-basin. The combined surface area and volume of the small reservoirs were estimated to be 1585.265 ha and 21.154 million m 3 , respectively.

4.4. Wetlands

The discussion here does not include large and small natural and man-made impoundments but limited to the coastal lagoons, mangroves and the flood plains. Wetlands which were originally considered as “wastelands,” have been recognized in Ghana in the context of the RAMSAR convention of 1971 as important for providing habitat for wildlife, maintenance of the water table, mitigation of flood conditions, water purification, fishing, hunting, food production, and generation of other economic activities. Public awareness was created on the benefits and functions of wetlands in a coastal Wetlands Management Project undertaken from 1996 to 1999 The notable lagoons (Sakumono, Songor, Keta, Muni-Pomadze) were designated as RAMSAR sites in 1992 [Ministry of Lands and Forestry (MLF), 1999].

Important RAMSAR sites are: Sakumono Lagoon, near Tema in the Greater Accra Region covering 13.64 km 2 ; Songor Lagoon outside Ada and on the west of Lower Volta River estuary in the Greater Accra Region, covering 28.7 km 2 ; Keta Lagoon, on the east coast of Ghana, extending about 126 km inland, covering about 1,200 km 2 ; and Muni-Pomadze Lagoon, west of the coastal town of Winneba, ~55 km west of Accra, covering about 9.5 km 2 [ Akyeampong, 2001 ; Willoughby et al., 2001 ; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2004 ; RAMSAR, 2007 ; Okyere et al., 2012 ; Adu Kumi and Apraku, 2015 ; Ramsar Sites Information Service (RSIS), 2022 ]. The Keta Lagoon is the largest of the 90 lagoons on the 550 km coastal stretch of Ghana. The roles these wetlands play in the natural ecosystem functioning include but not limited to flood attenuation and control, maintenance of underground and surface water supplies, sediment trapping, erosion control, pollution abatement, and provision of habitats of rich biodiversity. In Ghana, they have provided such economic functions as fishing, salt harvesting, water transport, tourism, and water supply (freshwater lakes).

Corcoron et al. (2007) put the total mangrove area in Ghana at 137 km 2 . Mangroves are found in nearshore lagoons and estuarine environments. The notable ones are found in the Volta and Densu deltas and the western coastline between Cote d'Ivoire and Cape Three Points on the Western coast of Ghana. Anthropogenic activities have resulted in the harvesting of mangrove wood for fish traps and firewood and have resulted in drastic reduction in fish stock.

Almost flat and featureless, the flood plains tend to be swampy in the rainy season and stretch from the lowlands of the coastal west to the coastal east and to the foot of the Akwapim-Togo ranges. The Keta-Avu plain into which the Tordzie-Aka river discharges is one of the notable flood pains in Ghana, with the heavy clays and serves as an important agricultural area. Logah et al. (2017) did hydrodynamic study impacts of dam water releases from the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower facilities on downstream communities along the Lower Volta River. Combined with some sediment studies, they concluded through simulations that large areas downstream of the dam including its flood plains would be inundated if dam releases came close to or exceeded 2,300 m 3 /s, recommending relocation of communities along the banks and in the flood plains of the Lower Volta River.

5. Climate change and impacts on water resources

5.1. climate change and rainfall, evapotranspiration and rh dynamics.

A number of studies on rainfall in Ghana have been in relation to the air masses that affect the wet and the dry seasons in West Africa. The dynamics of the West African Monsoon (moisture-laden south-west air mass) and the Harmattan (dry and dusty north-east air mass) do determine the seasons in Ghana and onset, cessation, and length of rainfall season (LRS). The main conclusions of such studies were that the length of the rainfall season has been changing with delayed onset and early cessation of the rains. This is affecting agricultural production a great deal. This has led to mitigation measures as the breeding of short-duration and drought-resistant crop varieties, in order to cope with the changes in the length of the rainfall season (e.g., Omotosho et al., 2000 ; Amekudzi et al., 2015 ; Kumi and Abiodun, 2018 ). Some of the rainfall-related studies were about rainfed agriculture, with reference to rainfall onset, cessation and length of rain days. For example, Bessah et al. (2020a) reported possible increase in LRS from two models and decrease in LRS from three models for the period 2020–2049 in the Pra river basin of Ghana. Kwawuvi et al. (2022) studied the rainfall onset, cessation and the length of rain days in the Oti river basin reporting possible future increasing variability in onset and cessation of rainfall that could exacerbate the vulnerability of rainfed agricultural production, recommending drought-resistant varieties as mitigating measures for farmers in the basin.

Logah et al. (2017) surveyed 77 meteorological stations in Ghana and showed that there had been a general decline in the distribution of rainfall in the entire country. This trend, they attributed to such anthropogenic activities as deforestation, poor farming practices, overgrazing, harvesting wood for energy, and bushfires. Some other studies (e.g., Ampadu, 2008 ; Ampadu et al., 2019 ) were localized and mostly came up with similar conclusions on rainfall, even though some showed some increasing trends. Asante and Amuakwa-Mensah (2015) also projected low rainfall occurrence in 2020, 2050, and 2080, corroborating similar studies. Bessah et al. (2021a) projected rainfall amount to generally increase in the range of 10–40% and 8–38% under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 emission scenarios over Ghana in the twenty-first century.

Evapotranspiration as a major component of the hydrological cycle was projected to increase by 6.3% from the baseline by 2050 in the Tordzie basin ( Nyatuame et al., 2020 ). The potential crop evapotranspiration for rice, tomato and pepper were estimated as 697, 533, and 427 mm/season, respectively ( Sadick et al., 2014 ). Aidoo et al. (2021) also argued that climate change is having an adverse effect on the environment especially in sub-Sahara Africa, where capacity for natural resource management such as water is very low. They considered water loss from the environment in the form of evapotranspiration (ET) as a major component in the hydrological cycle. Understanding its spatial dimensions is critical in evaluating the effects it has on regional land use, thus employing METRIC method to create evapotranspiration map for land use in Kintampo North Municipal area for Ghana. The found November and February ET in the range of about 38–87% and 29–52%, respectively.

On RH, Dwamena et al. (2022) did multiple linear regression analyses, relating maize, cassava and yam yield to climatic parameters in the Ashanti region of Ghana, and concluded, among other things, that a unit increase in RH resulted in a yield decrease of maize by 0.001 t/ha; a unit increase in RH resulted in a yield increase of cassava by 1.219 t/ha; a unit decrease of RH resulted in a yield increase of yam by 0.385 t/ha. Climate change could exacerbate these dynamics in Ghana.

5.2. Surface water quality

Water quality studies are many but there is hardly any long-term water quality data ( Karikari and Ansa-Asare, 2006 ; Leslie, 2010 ; Bessah et al., 2021b ). Most water quality studies have reported on the testing of occasional samples taken from surface sources. The non-regular water quality tests have mostly been blamed on financial constraints but the difficulty of such data is that it does not tell the full story of the changes occurring in the water quality for informed management decisions to be made.

The most authentic studies based on regular rather than occasional water sampling were observations of weekly bacterial counts throughout the water column of the Volta Lake at Ajena (a lake shore settlement) from August 1964 to December 1965. The results showed that during the rainy season bacterial populations increased; the contrary being true in the dry months ( Biswas, 1967 ). Goski (1999) , Karikari and Ansa-Asare (2006) , Asamoah-Boateng (2009) , Leslie (2010) , and Cobbina et al. (2010) , reported on biological quality of dugout and river water sources indicating high bacterial contamination in some cases and recommending treatment for such waters if they were to be used for domestic purposes.

Mining activities in the south-western river system (Pra, Tano, Birim, Offin, Bia, Ankobra) of Ghana have also attracted a lot of attention, where mining-related chemical contamination of such surface and groundwater sources have become major concerns. A few of such studies will be reported here. Asamoah-Boateng (2009) indicated that arsenic (As), iron (Fe), and lead (Pb) were the most predominant mining-related metallic pollutants found in most water bodies. Asante (2012) reported mining-related contaminants detected in water samples as: As (<0.001–0.002 mg/), Cu (0.002–0.04 mg/l), Mn (0.10–0.72 mg/l), and Fe (0.32–3.04 mg/l). Kusimi (2014) , in his study on sediment yield and bank erosion assessment of Pra river basin asserted that “the Pra River Basin has been engulfed by certain anthropogenic activities particularly illegal small-scale mining (popularly called galamsey) and serious concerns have been raised by stakeholders within the basin of the level of pollution due to the release of chemicals and sediments into the water bodies.” Bessah et al. (2021b) also did some studies on the Pra, Birim, and Offin river basins on mining-related contamination and reported the following levels of contaminants: As (0.002–294.429 μg/l); Cd (0.001–1.366 μg/l); Cu (0.036–403.787 μg/l); Fe (0.125–429.145) mg/l); Hg (0.005–7.566 μg/l); Pb (0.018–68.451 μg/l). Examples of some studies on other chemical contaminants, such as total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness and Biological oxygen demand (BOD) were done on the Densu and Ayensu river systems by Goski (1999) , Karikari and Ansa-Asare (2006) , Ansa-Asare and Gordon (2012) , and Asante (2012) , cited by Yeleliere et al. (2018) . The physical parameters studied were mainly turbidity, color, and total suspended solids and the obvious conclusions have been that quality indicators are either above or below national or WHO levels (e.g., Goski, 1999 ; Asamoah-Boateng, 2009 ; Leslie, 2010 ; Ansa-Asare and Gordon, 2012 ; Saana et al., 2016 ).

5.3. Groundwater quality

Nkansah et al. (2010) , Affum et al. (2015) , and Saana et al. (2016) , based on occasional water sample tests, reported on biological water quality of some groundwater sources, indicating absence of and excesses of bacterial contamination depending on the sources of water. Contamination levels, attributable to human activities, were compared with national and WHO standards. Groundwater abstracted from boreholes in Ghana is generally of good chemical and microbiological quality and thus suitable for domestic (including drinking), agricultural and industrial uses. However, in the forest zones of southern Ghana, groundwater has low pH (3.5–6.0). High concentrations of iron are found in many places throughout the country. High natural concentrations of manganese and fluoride are found mostly in the northern regions. High levels of mineralisation, with total dissolved solids (TDS) in the range of 2,000 up to more than 14,000 mg/l are found in some coastal aquifers, largely due to high salt (sodium chloride) from sea water intrusion ( UPgro African Groundwater Country Study, 2020 ).

Possible point source pollution sources include refuse dumps and latrines. For example, Anim-Gyampo et al. (2018) , in a study of the Atankwidi catchment (191.27 km 2 ) of the White Volta Basin, found that 20, 48.8, and 33.2% of the basin showed low, moderate and high risks, respectively, of groundwater contamination, attributing the level of vulnerability to the depth to the groundwater table. The least thickness of the vadose zones showed high risks, while the greatest thickness of the vadoses zone showed low risks of contamination, with about 80% of the entire Atankwidi catchment showing moderate to high risk of groundwater pollution. Intensive use of agro-chemicals (e.g., fertilizers, weedicides, pesticides etc.) in dry season irrigation farming could be blamed for pollution risks. The intense use of agro-chemicals is climate change adaptation strategy ( Bessah et al., 2021c ).

5.4. Climate change and floods

Flood is an uncertainty and historical response to responding to such uncertainty has included improving knowledge about the uncertainty and the construction of engineering structures to contain the flood ( Galloway, 2011 ; Hirsch, 2011 ). To further improve knowledge about floods, mathematical models have been developed to manage the occurrence and extent of the events ( Milly et al., 2008 ; Brown, 2010 ). Yet still, there is the climate change dimension, leading to increased frequency of extreme climatic events, requiring new approaches to dealing with the situation, such as, the interpretation of weather information available ( Rayner et al., 2005 ; Ziervogel et al., 2010 ; Kiparsky et al., 2012 ). The maximum daily rainfall over Accra (244 mm) and Kumasi (168 mm) for the period 1960–2017 saw increasing trend of same over the period in Accra and a decreasing trend in Kumasi ( Ansah et al., 2020 ). These daily maximum rainfall events were the flood-related events. Most of the rainfall studies in Ghana are flood-related (e.g., Amoako and Inkoom, 2018 ; Owusu-Ansah et al., 2018 ; Frick-Trzebitzky and Bruns, 2019 ; Ansah et al., 2020 ; Mensah and Ahadzie, 2020 ). Between 2000 and 2020, there were 17 recorded flood events ( Table 3 ) in Accra alone ( Mensah and Ahadzie, 2020 ). Seventeen (17) annual events in a period of 20 years could well be described as nearly yearly flood events ( Asumadu-Sarkodie et al., 2015 ). Mensah and Ahadzie (2020) attributed the floods to poor urban planning and development, poor and inadequate drainage infrastructure, poor environmental attitude of the citizenry and extreme rainfall events. These floods led to physical, economic, social, and ecological costs. Displaced people depended on government, friends and family support and construction of new drains and desilting and cleaning of drains were remedial measures.

Table 3 . Some major floods in Ghana ( Mensah and Ahadzie, 2020 ).

It is common knowledge that hydraulic structures are designed based on peak flood estimates. However, such hydraulic structures sometimes burst their seams in extreme rainfall conditions. In urbanization, hard surfaces have increased in the form of pavements, thereby increasing surface runoff into the drains. Urban drains in Ghana have been overwhelmed by the poor environmental practices of the citizenry of Ghana. However, flood events have increased in magnitude, frequency, duration, and severity in Ghana due to climate change ( IPCC, 2012 ; World Bank, 2011 ), thus flood risk management (FRM) regimes and sustainable adaptation approaches are urgently needed. Rain et al. (2011) and Appeaning-Addo et al. (2011) have attributed flooding occurrences to climate variability and change. The authors further related changes in rainfall and temperature patterns and coastal inundation and erosion to climate change. The changes in climatic conditions coupled with rapid urbanization modify the natural hydrology of the country resulting in heavy precipitation and increasing peak run-off discharge ( Nyarko, 2002 ; Adank et al., 2011 ) leading to flush floods. The probabilistic risk profile of Ghana indicates that the country loses 200 million dollars every year due to floods and droughts. In technical terms, under the current climate and considering the frequency of floods, this average annual loss, could well be more than 200 million dollars per annum. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) Regional Office for Africa, projecting into 2050, predicted a 5-fold increase in floods. This will adversely affect the potential GDP growth of the country [ United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) Regional Office for Africa, 2018 ].

5.5. Climate change and drought

Drought connotes absence of water and is defined specifically by the nature of the hazard it causes and its variation in frequency from region to region. Wilhite et al. (2007) , cited by Nasirudeen et al. (2021) , identified four main types of drought as meteorological, agricultural, hydrological and socio-economic. Meteorological drought is based on the degree of dryness or rainfall deficit and the length of the dry period. It is region-specific. Agricultural drought refers to conditions (reduced soil moisture) that result in adverse plant responses, which can range from reduced crop and forage yields to total crop or forage failure. Hydrological drought is based on the impact of rainfall deficits on the water supply such as stream flow, reservoir and lake levels, and ground water table decline. Socioeconomic droughts relate to the demand and supply of some economic goods with elements of other drought types and depends on the time and space processes of supply and demand. Meteorological drought occurred country-wide in the 1983, 1992, and 2001 when average annual precipitation generally fell below 900 mm ( United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2015 ). These negatively impacted agriculture nation-wide due to soil moisture deficits (agricultural drought) resulting in general crop failure. These also negatively impacted the economy of the nation, thereby affecting the supply and demand of economic goods (socioeconomic drought). Hydrological droughts occurred in Ghana in 2001, 2007, and 2013–2014, causing inflows into the Volta lake to reduce significantly resulting in low level of water in the Akosombo, Kpong, and Bui reservoirs. This consequently resulted in reduced hydropower generation ( United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2015 ).

Few studies sought to analyze drought patterns within specific basins in Ghana and most of the hydrological studies are centered around the black and white Volta basins (e.g., Kasei et al., 2010 ; Ndehedehe et al., 2017 ). According to Nasirudeen et al. (2021) , these studies however do not analyze the drought profile within these basins. Nasirudeen et al. (2021) , on the analysis of drought patterns in the Tano River Basin (TRB) of Ghana, suggested possible impact of climate change that could have negative implications on agricultural production and drinking water supply within the basin, since the basin solely relies on surface water for crop production and drinking water supply. Addi et al. (2021) studied meteorological drought conditions for six coastal synoptic stations (Axim, Takoradi, Saltpond, Accra, Tema, Ada) in Ghana for dry season periods of November–January, December–February, and January–March, for the period 1980–2014. They found moderate to severe drought during the dry seasons, with drought conditions becoming weaker, suggesting that the catchment areas were becoming wetter. Nyatuame and Agodzo (2017) also analyzed extreme rainfall events (drought and flood) over Tordzie watershed in the Volta Region of Ghana, which is in the coastal river basin. Tordzie is a trans-boundary basin shared between Ghana (1,865 km 2 ) and Togo (363 km 2 ). Drought analysis based on 3, 6, 9, and 12—month time scales showed that drought intensity was inversely proportional to its duration, meaning that as drought frequency increased its corresponding duration decreased.

5.6. Sedimentology and water-induced soil erosion

Sedimentology refers to the hydrological science of sediment erosion, flow and deposition in river channels and lakes. River channel and lake siltation have resulted in reduced channel and lake capacities to carry and hold water and may lead to floods. Sediment yield data is important in many respects, for example, in the design of hydro-turbines. Kusimi (2014) stated that “fluvial sediment yield data is an essential requirement for informed decision making on water resources development and management. However, information on the sediment load of most rivers is very rare due to the lack of financial resources to regularly undertake sediment yield studies.” Sediment studies in Ghana are few (e.g., Akrasi and Amisigo, 1993 and Akrasi, 2005 ; Akrasi and Ansa-Asare, 2008 ) and undertaken mainly by the Water Research Institute (WRI) of Ghana, covering the Volta lake, the Pra river, and some other selected rivers. Through field data collection and spatial modeling on the Pra river basin, Kusimi (2014) ascertained stakeholder's perceptions on fluvial erosion and suggested remedial measures to the problem. Braimah and Agodzo (2014) , in the study of the Bontanga irrigation reservoir in northern Ghana, reported sediment deposition rates of 66.0 and 63.5 mm/y at the right and left bank intake structures, respectively, arguing that in 4 years from the time of the study, the entry to the intake structures could be blocked if remedial action was not taken.

Remedial actions for improving stream flow involve dredging of sand from the river channel and shorelines to deepen the original river channel and prevent the proliferation of both submerged and floating aquatic weeds. The benefit of harvesting of aquatic weeds and converting the harvested weeds into commercially useable forms such as organic fertilizer, animal feed, gas for domestic use or power generation, cannot be over-emphasized. Dredging of the lower Volta especially at its estuary had taken place in piecemeal approach in the past but the Volta River Authority (VRA), since 2015, has made plans to dredge the lower Volta from Akuse to its estuary at Anyanui (Volta Region) and Ada (Greater Accra Region). This again was stalled in 2020 due to the COVID pandemic.

Water-induced soil erosion is pervasive in Ghana and has threatened agricultural production due to loss of agricultural soils and soil fertility, the most affected parts being the savannah zones in northern Ghana. Lowering agricultural production through water-induced erosion could lead to socioeconomic decline ( Kusimi, 2014 ; Tesfahunegn et al., 2021 ). For instance, in the savannah zone of Ghana land area of 35,172 km 2 is affected by slight-to-moderate sheet erosion and 27,306 km 2 by moderate-to-very severe sheet and gully erosion ( Tesfahunegn et al., 2021 ). The water-induced erosion has been exacerbated due to climate change factors like rampant removal of vegetation cover through bushfires, deforestation, overgrazing, harvesting of firewood, and non-compliance of citizens with the environmental regulations. For example, riverine areas are to be protected through the establishment of a 50 m buffer zone on either bank of streams and rivers but removal of vegetation cover right to the edge of streams and rivers for agricultural and other purposes is very common. Adama (2003) and Peprah et al. (2016) , cited by Tesfahunegn et al. (2021) , stated that “despite the severe impact of soil degradation on ecology and human welfare and development, investments in sustainable soil and land management are low in countries such as Ghana.” The establishment of vegetation cover as a water conservation measure is just not appreciated.

6. Water uses

6.1. consumptive water uses (water supply, irrigation, and livestock watering).

It is estimated that the total water withdrawal as a percentage of total renewable water resources is about 2%. Water uses in Ghana are categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive uses. The consumptive uses include water supply, irrigation and livestock watering. The non-consumptive uses include inland fisheries, water transport, hydropower generation, tourism, and environmental uses. The estimated share of consumptive water uses is 37% for water supply, 48% for irrigation and livestock watering and 15% for industrial use ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ). Estimated consumptive use of water in Ghana for 2020 was about 5 billion m 3 , working out to some 10% of the total surface water resources of 53.2 billion m 3 ( Table 4 ). There are deficits in water supply coverage and the 2004 estimates for urban and rural coverage were 55 and 51.6%, respectively. Estimated area actually under irrigation in 2020 was 100,000 ha ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ) but other estimates put this figure higher. For at least two cropping seasons in the year, irrigation demand could be 1,000 mm/y. This works out to about 1 billion m 3 of water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture in the year, amounting to about 20% of the total water demand for water supply, irrigation and livestock. In 2020, about 2% of the total water withdrawn went into urban and rural water supply and about 8% into irrigation and animal watering. Irrigation water withdrawal accounted for about 54% in 2000 about 80% in 2020 of the total withdrawals for consumptive purposes.

Table 4 . Estimated consumptive and non-consumption use of freshwater resources from 2000 to 2020.

Per capita water resources in Ghana decreased from 2,890 m 3 in 2000 to 1,760 m 3 in 2020, working out averagely to about 56.5 m 3 /y over the period, even though this may not be a linear decrease. At an assumed average per capita consumption of water of 50 l/p/d, estimated daily water demand for the 2021 population of 31 million people stands at about 566 million m 3 /y, amounting to about 1% of the renewable freshwater resources. As the capita freshwater consumption increases, the demand will correspondingly increase in the face of population growth. Current water supply systems are overstretched and it is further estimated that about US $ 240 million is required per year as capital expenditure in urban and rural water supply. According to UPgro African Groundwater Country Study (2020) , “over 95% of groundwater use in Ghana is for domestic water supply, mostly in rural areas and small towns. Overall, around 41% of households in Ghana depend on groundwater for their water supply—this is generally much higher in rural areas (59%) than urban areas (16%). However, there are some urban areas, in the Upper East and Upper West regions, where 80% of the urban population depend on groundwater for their primary water supply. Less than 5% of groundwater in Ghana is used for irrigation and watering of livestock and poultry. Industrial use of groundwater in Ghana accounts for < 1% of the total groundwater use. This includes large-scale commercial bottled water companies in the south of the country.”

Irrigation from a policy perspective in Ghana is classified as formal, informal, and commercial but its potential and structure are not well-understood. Formal irrigation is developed and managed by government through the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA). Informal irrigation in Ghana involves the individual and private-initiated schemes. The commercial schemes include export-led schemes that use the high-end irrigation systems to produce fruits, vegetables, and the ornamentals for export. Ghana's irrigation potential, including valley bottoms and floodplains, is put at between 0.36 and 2.9 million ha ( Agodzo and Bobobee, 1994 ) but as mentioned earlier, Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH) (2007 ) put actual area under all forms of irrigation at about 100,000 ha. This is said to account for an estimated 66.4% of the total water withdrawal for water supply, irrigation, and animal watering. The formal schemes constitute between 22 and 50 projects dotted around the country and they include the bilateral and multilateral project funded schemes.

For Ghana, nearly 9.44 million animals (cattle, sheep and goats) in 2010 would have consumed up to 22 million m 3 of water. This should be equivalent to the maximum safe storage of the Bontanga reservoir in the Northern Region of Ghana. Animal production requires provision of adequate water at vantage locations for the animals and this is necessary for a good performance of the animal industry in Ghana and elsewhere. Quite often, when it comes to the construction of dams, consideration of such facilities for animals comes as after—thoughts. Direct interventions for animal watering facilities in Ghana are few and incomprehensive. The huge potentials of the animal industry cannot be achieved without adequate provision of water, where dams provide some options ( Agodzo et al., 2014 ).

6.2. Non-consumptive uses

6.2.1. inland fisheries.

The Volta lake offers the most important inland fishing source and one could count as many as 32 landing sites which often also serve as marketing centers. Among these are Kwamekrom, Tepa Abotoase, Dzemeni, Dambai, Akateng, and Kpando Torkor. It is estimated that fish from the Volta Lake contributes to 16% of total catch in Ghana. The coastal lagoons and the several surface waters, in addition to fish farming, also offer additional sources of fish. Denyoh (1971) , cited by Freeman (1974) , reported that when Volta Lake started to form in 1964, it changed the inland fishing landscape, arguing that before the construction of the Volta Dam at Akosombo and its subsequent formation of the lake, there were not more than 2,000 fishermen operating in the Volta basin and they were mainly nomadic fishermen. The post lake formation fishing activities increased and fishing village surveys conducted in 1968 and 1969 revealed at least 10,000 fishing villages with 20,000 fishermen scattered along the lake shore. The estimated number of fishing canoes was between 11,000 and 14,000 and estimated fish catch in 1969 as between 50,000 and 70,000 MT/y, compared with about 10,000 MT/y from the previous riverine fishery. The 2014–2017 Sector Medium Term Development Plan (SMTDP) of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MOFAD) targeted fish catch of 100,000 MT/y by 2017 ( MOFAD/Fisheries Commission, 2014 ) but such a projection is well below the actual fish catch.

6.2.2. Inland water transport

Water transport is common in places inaccessible by road, using small canoes but the notable inland water transport facilities are run by the Volta Lake Transport Company (VTLC) which was officially incorporated in 1970 to operate river transportation for passengers, bulk haulage of petroleum products and cross-lake ferry services along the Volta Lake. It conveys passengers and bulk goods between Akosombo (Eastern Region), in the south and Buipe (Savannah Region) in the north, additional to other landing sites in the Brong Ahafo, Volta and Oti Regions.

According to Solomon et al. (2021) , operations of VLTC involve the use of flat-bottom river ferries. Goods transported from the north to Akosombo are further transported by road to Accra and Tema and distributed to other business centers. Also, passenger ferries and water-buses are used to transport human traffic and automobiles from one town to the next across the Volta river and this is referred to as “ferry-crossing.” The company's current operational stations are Yeji, Dambai, Kete Krachi, Adawso, and Akosombo. VLTC has a ferry fleet of nineteen (19) made up of passenger vessels/water buses, cargo ferries and barges and carries the average of 647,000 passengers and 57,000 cars per year, on all its ferries ( NASA, 2018 ; Solomon et al., 2021 ). According to Inros Lackner AG ( ILAG, 2014 ), cited by Solomon et al. (2021) , there are 500 informal boats operating on the Volta Lake. These are wooden boats powered by motors. They also carry passengers, fishes, farm produce, and charcoal amounting to 112,000 MT annually. The estimated cargo carried every year on the lake is 255,000 MT. The larger part is carried by VLTC and is composed mostly of oil products and cement (131,000 MT); other merchandise includes yam (6,000 MT) and general cargo (6,000 MT). Inland waterway transport is largely recognized as the safest, cleanest and most energy efficient among all land-based modes of transport, yet the Volta lake has recorded its fair share of accidents in the past due to poor safely measures.

6.2.3. Hydropower generation

Hydropower accounts for about 40% of total power installed capacity from 3 hydropower stations: Akosombo (1,020 MW), Kpong (160 MW), and Bui (404 MW). The Akosombo dam, completed in 1964, created a man-made lake with a surface area of about 8,300 km 2 . About 71% of the renewable surface water resources go into hydropower generation ( Ministry of Water Resources Works and Housing (MWRWH), 2012 ).

6.2.4. Tourism

Tourist attractions are offered by the 550 km Ghana's shoreline that has about 90 lagoons, additional to estuaries and associated floodplains ( Yankson and Obodai, 1999 ; Okyere et al., 2012 ) offering some exquisite hotels and opportunities for water sports and bird watching, despite the fact that part of the shoreline is threatened by sea erosion. The Volta Lake, the lower Volta river at Sogakope and Ada, and some other inland waters (e.g., Lake Bosumtwi) offer spectacular views and opportunities for boat cruises and water sports. Waterfalls in Ghana serve as tourist attraction sites. There are more than 10 of them, the majority of which are located in the Eastern and Volta Regions of Ghana. The landforms in these two regions provide mountain ranges (Mampong—Akwapim—Togo ranges) that are suitable for such waterfalls. The notable water falls are the Boti (Eastern Region), Tagbo (Volta Region), Fuller (Bono East Region), Kintampo (Bono East Region), and Wli (Volta Region) waterfalls. The Wli waterfall is the highest in Ghana and West Africa, cascading through a height of about 80 m.

6.3. Wastewater

At the turn of the twenty-first century, data on commercial and industrial wastewater production were virtually non-existent. Knowledge on safe wastewater use in agriculture was also virtually non-existent and funding for research into low-cost treatment of wastewater was unavailable. Wastewater treatment, especially, low-cost technologies were lacking in Ghana. Also, at the time, wastewater studies in Ghana were few (e.g., Anku et al., 1998 ; International Food Policy Research Institute, 1998 ; Cornish et al., 1999 ; Armar-Klemansu and Maxwell, 2000 ; Agodzo et al., 2003 ) and concentrated on the economic activities wastewater irrigation generated in urban and peri-urban Ghana. As time went on concerns began to grow on the risks associated with the use of such contaminated waters for the growth of vegetable crops in the urban and peri-urban areas of Ghana. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI), largely led the research component on wastewater use for urban and peri-urban agriculture in Ghana with notable research works as Obuobie et al. (2006) , Murray and Drechsel (2011) , and Drechsel and Keraita (2014) . About 38% of the population dispose of liquid waste by throwing them in the streets or outside their houses, 21% dispose of liquid waste directly into gutters, 35% in the compound, and about 1% in other places ( Obuobie et al., 2006 ). Agodzo et al. (2003) did a study on wastewater use for agriculture and made some projections. They estimated 2020 wastewater generation as about 760 million m 3 per annum, including stormwater. They stated that if only 10% of the wastewater generated was used for agriculture, this could irrigate about 12,700 ha of urban Ghana per annum, generating employment for about 25,440 farmers and farm income of US $17.8 million per annum. Available epidemiological studies on urban and peri-urban agriculture focused on the health risks and the safe use of wastewater, some of which are subsequently discussed.

Kwabla (2017) assessed the willingness to grow crops with treated wastewater and consume same and found that between 92.6 and 95% of people in Ashaiman and students in the University of Ghana, respectively, were willing to do so. The physico-chemical and microbiological qualities of wastewater studied were deemed to be within the acceptable WHO standards. Adu-Ofori (2019) evaluated the performance of domestic sewage ponds in Accra sewage treatment plant at Legon, in order to determine the suitability of the final effluent for irrigation and the quality of sludge for manure. He found that even though removal efficiency of E. coli was high, it could not meet the Ghana EPA acceptable standard but recommended the sludge as manure for soil fertility improvement. Awuah et al. (2014) assessed wastewater treatment system with flow rates of 720 and 870 m 3 /d. They concluded that even though the feacal coliform and heavy metal levels were low in the wastewater, they could still be harmful from the point of view their use for irrigation of vegetable crops and discharge into the natural water bodies. Pesewu et al. (2017) evaluated the bacteriological water quality of the wastewater used for irrigation in the vegetable farms at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH), Accra Metropolis, Ghana and concluded that mean total bacterial colony count far exceeded WHO recommended levels for unrestricted irrigation of crops likely to be eaten raw. Six predominant bacteria were isolated in the study, recommending that crop growers should use treated wastewater for farming while processors and consumers should minimize contamination risks before consumption. Abass et al. (2016) and Silverman et al. (2013) also did similar studies with similar health risk conclusions. Agyemang et al. (2013) designed a sequential batch reactor wastewater treatment plant that had removal efficiencies of key parameters such as conductivity, BOD, COD, and ammonia of between 50 and 100%; though performance for total coliforms, TSS and turbidity were unsatisfactory. They recommended the introduction of a slow sand filter to improve the removal efficiency and disinfection before final effluent discharge into the Atonsu stream.

Murray and Drechsel (2011) studied the reasons for the failure of liquid waste management facilities, reporting that with about 70 decentralized systems throughout Ghana, <10 (14%) are operating effectively. Comparing the successful and the unsuccessful facilities, the research revealed important differences in the operation and maintenance (O&M) strategies, financing schemes and incentive structures in the successful vs. unsuccessful facilities. They agreed that this may not be unique to Ghana and recommended effective planning and funding to improve sanitation services that can positively impact on environmental and public health. Biodigester wastewater treatment systems are now available commercially with the increasing housing estates being developed in the cities.

7. Existing water legislation and climate policy

7.1. water legislation and water sector institutions.

In the legal context, water governance issues are handled by various institutions created by Acts of Parliament as detailed in Table 5 . Their water-related mandates, objects and/or functions are also shown. Under customary law, water is considered a common good and vested in stools, communities, and families and this does not create private ownership over such a resource ( Ofori Boateng, 1977 ). Rules evolved under customary law, governing domestic uses, animal watering, and fishing. This leads to certain management choices, an example of which is determining whether an upstream or downstream part of a river could be used for drinking, washing, and animal watering. Fishing days are also determined and some riverine forest are also protected from encroachment. The sacredness of water and its customary use are also shrouded in religious beliefs.

Table 5 . Water sector institutions, their legislative frameworks and water-related mandate, object, and/or functions.

The Water Resources Commission (WRC) is the umbrella institution mandated to regulate all water issues, particularly water withdrawal issues, since all water is considered vested in the state. Some of the institutions include the Ghana Meteorological Services (GMet), Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA), Volta Lake Transport Company (VLTC), Volta River Authority, Bui Power Authority, Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC). The Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) ensures high quality of goods imported and exported and promotes standardization in industry and commerce, including the water industry. The Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) operates in the context of public health and enforces standards for the sale of food, herbal medicinal products, cosmetics, drugs, medical devices, and household chemical substances. Food here implies food, beverages and drinking water. According to Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH) (2007 ), the Hydrological Services Department (HSD) of the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, the Water Research Institute (WRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), and the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) constitute what is referred to as the Water Resources Information Services (WRIS) institutions. They provide data and other water resources related information and services to support planning and decision making. The universities also provide training and undertake water research. The work of the Forestry Commission (1999, Act 571) and Minerals Commission (1993, Act 450) have a lot of bearing on the conservation and utilization of water resources in Ghana. The interdependence of water and forestry in terms of water conservation is well-known, requiring the maintenance of tree cover, particularly at the sources of streams and rivers.

7.2. Climate-related policy issues on water

Ghana's climate-related policy issues on water works on the principle of recognizing water as a common good; ensuring adequate mitigating strategies be put in place in support of vulnerable groups; and minimizing effects of climate variability and change in the context of adequate land use planning and enforcement in respect of waterways and flood-prone areas. Details on the principles, challenges, policy objectives, and actions are reproduced in Box 1 .

Box 1. Climate—related policy issues on water in Ghana ( Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Ghana (MWRWH), 2007 ).

8. Implication of study and way forward

The significant impact of climate change affecting hydrometeorological parameters directly or indirectly threatens the services provided by water resources and water sector in Ghana ( IPCC, 2012 ). According to Obuobie et al. (2012b) , the White Volta basin will be water scarce (50% reduction in estimated water resource from reference) between 2036 and 2065 and the Pra river basin will be at absolute water scarcity in same period (46% reduction) without climate change impact. Amisigo et al. (2015) projected catchment runoff between 2011 and 2050 to reduce by 8.95 and 25.9% in the Volta and Pra river basins, respectively, under the Ghana dry climate scenario and increase by 2.28 and 60.9% in same basins under the Ghana Wet climate scenario, respectively. Bessah et al. (2020b) also projected 35% reduction in seasonal water yield from ensemble of five climate models in the Pra river basin for the period 2020–2049. Densu river basin is projected to reduce water resources by 58.3% between 2051 and 2080 under climate change ( Oti et al., 2020 ). These projections could affect groundwater recharge negatively thereby reducing groundwater resources. Mean basin runoff across 28 basins under Ghana dry climate scenario is projected to reduce by 17.14% and under the Ghana wet climate scenario to increase by 34.25% in the period 2011–2050 ( Amisigo et al., 2015 ). Atiah et al. (2020) reported decreasing trend of wet extreme indices over the Volta basin while Oguntunde et al. (2020) projected an increasing magnitude and frequency of severe drought over the Volta Basin under four (4) global warming scenarios.

Some implications are as follows:

a) Rainfall studies in Ghana have not been conclusive on trends. Some reported increasing trends and others decreasing trends over the years. More frequent extreme events have been reported suggesting that human behavior is exacerbating these events globally. Accra, for example, has been flooded almost every year in the past 20 years or more and that trend seems to be continuing. The Accra floods have not only been attributed to extreme rainfall events but also poor city planning, increased paved surfaces, removal of natural vegetation, inadequate drainage systems, and negative human behavior. Forest cover loss and artisanal mining activities in some of the river basins, particularly in the Eastern and Western Regions of Ghana, have not only led to the drying up of some of the streams but also caused excessive erosion and siltation and pollution of the river systems. The political will appears not be there to tackle these issues head-on.

b) Drought studies are limited but the least rainfall recorded in Ghana in recent history was in 1983. Evapotranspiration studies are almost non-existent but changing climate suggests higher water deficits across the country due to higher evaporative demand. The cropping calendar has been changing and agricultural activity has been impacted in different ways at different locations across the country.

c) Sediment studies in the lower Volta suggested that settlements on the banks of the river should consider relocating on higher ground due to possible future floods exacerbated by the siltation of the river channel.

d) Per capita water resources in Ghana decreased from 2,890 m 3 in 2000 to 1,760 m 3 in 2020, working out averagely to about 56.5 m 3 /y over the period, even though this may not be a linear decrease. As the population increases, this will continue to decrease. However, demand for water for agriculture, domestic and industrial uses have increased. This means that one cannot continue with business as usual in water resources management. Ghana's climate-related policy issues on water works on the principle of recognizing water as a common good; ensuring adequate mitigating strategies be put in place in support of vulnerable groups; and minimizing effects of climate variability and change in the context of adequate land use planning and enforcement in respect of waterways and flood-prone areas. On paper, it looks very good but, in implementation, it does not since such regulating agency as the WRC is not even well-equipped to carry out its mandate.

e) Hydropower generation has been affected in the past due to decline in reservoir water levels attributed partly to declining rainfall. Rural water supply comes mainly from groundwater sources, but the full picture is not clear regarding groundwater availability. Drying up of wells are widely reported at local levels, probably due partly to low recharge and high evaporative demand.

Due to climate change, the implementation of integrated water resources management (WRM) should be considered more seriously. This should include strict enforcement of water conservation laws, especially along buffer zones. In view of better land use planning, urban greening instead of pavement construction should be encouraged in order to increase infiltration capacity and curtail runoff volume which would eventually reduce flooding. The IWRM intervention should also consider increased financial resource allocation to awareness creation and education, and relief services for the vulnerable during climate change disasters.

9. Conclusion

An extensive narrative review approach is adopted to present existing information on the consumptive and non-consumptive uses of water in Ghana and their related issues, such as floods and droughts, climate and the environment. Several water issues have been put in one volume, enabling the reader to appreciate the full picture of water related issues.

Author contributions

SA conceptualized the study, designed and analyzed the literature, wrote the manuscript, and revised it. EB and MN reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate the open source policy for access to literature on the water resources, consumptive and non-consumptive uses, and the climate -related water issues in Ghana. We also thank the editors and reviewers for improving the quality of the paper through review and editorial services.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

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Keywords: water, rainfall, runoff, groundwater, consumptive/non-consumptive use, climate change, Ghana

Citation: Agodzo SK, Bessah E and Nyatuame M (2023) A review of the water resources of Ghana in a changing climate and anthropogenic stresses. Front. Water 4:973825. doi: 10.3389/frwa.2022.973825

Received: 20 June 2022; Accepted: 05 December 2022; Published: 04 January 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Agodzo, Bessah and Nyatuame. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Home > ETD > 7948

Thesis Format

Integrated Article

Impacts Of Climate Change On Food Security And Smallholder Livelihoods In Northern Ghana

Kamaldeen Mohammed , The University of Western Ontario Follow

Master of Arts

Collaborative Specialization

Environment and Sustainability

Luginaah, Isaac

Climate change and food insecurity threaten the livelihoods of smallholder communities in the Global South. In the Ghanaian context, climate change and food insecurity are particularly crucial challenges in the northern regions, where most people are engaged in diverse activities in the agricultural sector. Despite tremendous efforts to curtail food insecurity and climate change vulnerability of smallholder households in northern Ghana, food insecurity and climate change remain pervasive in the region, indicating that smallholder adaptive capacities and resilience to the impacts of climate change are not commensurate with the severity of the problems. Emerging literature has indicated that livelihood diversification strategies and collective household decision-making can potentially moderate the effects of climate change. Yet in the Upper West Region (UWR) of Ghana, we know little about these important links. Therefore, this study draws data from a cross-sectional survey (n=1100) in the UWR to examine smallholder livelihoods and food security situation in the contexts of climate change.

First, the study examined the role of livelihood diversification strategies in households’ resilience to climate change. Results from the logistic regression revealed that smallholder households that practiced only farm diversification (OR = 3.95; p  ≤ 0.05) and a combination of both farm and non-farm diversification (OR = 5.77; p  ≤ 0.01) had significantly higher odds of reporting stronger resilience to climate change compared to those who did not employ any diversification strategy. Second, the study examined the relationship between intra-household decision-making arrangements and food security. The regression results indicated that households that practiced joint decision-making (OR = 1.71; p≤0.001) had significantly higher odds of being food secure than households that practiced sole patriarchal decision-making. The findings from this study point to the need for agricultural policies to harness the synergies between farm and non-farm livelihood activities as complementary climate change risk-spreading strategies. Also, this study reinforces that policies seeking to address food insecurity and other socio-economic challenges in northern Ghana must focus on the interdependence and complementarity of men and women in household food security decision-making.

Summary for Lay Audience

Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aims to eliminate all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030. Regardless, nearly one-fourth of the global population do not have access to safe and nutritious food. Ironically, food insecurity is prevalent among food producers, particular smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The prevalence of food insecurity among smallholder farmers is attributed to climate change and other biophysical and socio-economic factors. In Ghana, climate change and food security present crucial challenges to people's livelihoods, especially smallholder farmers in the northern regions. This shows that smallholder farmers in northern Ghana do not have appropriate coping and adaptation strategies to these problems. Livelihood diversification and collective decision making are promising approaches that could improve food security and climate change resilience in smallholder communities. Livelihood diversification and collective decision making can pull resources from diverse livelihood activities to help households spread risks. Therefore, this thesis examined the potential of livelihood diversification strategies and collaborative decision making in improving resilience to climate change and food security.

Overall, the findings showed that livelihood diversification and collective decision making can improve climate change resilience and food security in smallholder context. Farmers that practiced only farm livelihood diversification were three times more likely to be resilient to climate change than farmers who did not practice livelihood diversification. Similarly, households that combined farm and non-farm livelihood strategies were five times more likely to be resilient to climate change impacts than households that did not practice livelihood diversification. Also, households that practiced collective decision making were more likely to be food secure than households that practiced sole decision making. The findings show that combining farm and non-farm livelihoods is a beneficial initiative in smallholder communities and policies must pay attention to how concurrent diversification into farm and non-farm livelihood activities could be harnessed to improve smallholder farmers adaptive capacities and livelihoods. The study also suggests that policies and initiatives that want to improve food security should recognize that women and men depend on and complement each other to ensure household food security. Therefore, collective household decision making can help pull resources from different livelihood activities to improve food security.

Recommended Citation

Mohammed, Kamaldeen, "Impacts Of Climate Change On Food Security And Smallholder Livelihoods In Northern Ghana" (2021). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository . 7948. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/7948

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