do you use endnotes in a research paper

What Are Endnotes, Why Are They Needed, and How Are They Used?

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An "endnote" is a reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research paper, chapter, or book. Like footnotes  (which are used in this article), endnotes serve two main purposes in a research paper: (1) They acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and (2) They provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main  text .

Endnotes vs. Footnotes

"Your department may specify whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, especially for a thesis or dissertation.

If not, you should generally choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes force readers to flip to the back to check every citation. On the other hand, choose endnotes when your footnotes are so long or numerous that they take up too much space on the page, making your report unattractive and difficult to read. Also, endnotes better accommodate tables, quoted poetry, and other matter that requires special typography."

(Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2007.)

"Readers of academic and scholarly books usually prefer footnotes to endnotes because the former allows them to skim the notes without losing their place in the text. Popular wisdom, however, says that nonscholarly readers are either reluctant or unwilling to purchase a nonfiction trade book whose feet are hemmed with ribbons of tiny type; thus most trade books place (the shop term is 'bury') the notes containing sources and references at the back of the book ."

(Einsohn, Amy. The Copyeditor's Handbook,  University of California Press, 2006.)

Endnote Conventions

"An author or title mentioned in the text need not be repeated in the footnote  citation , though it is often helpful to do so. In an endnote, however, the author (or at least the author's last name) and title should be repeated, since at least some readers may have forgotten whether the note number was 93 or 94 by the time they find it at the back of a work.

Such frustration can be prevented by the devices illustrated in the examples below."

34. This and the preceding four quotations are all from  Hamlet , act 1, sc. 4. 87. Barbara Wallraff,  Word Court  (New York: Harcourt, 2000), 34. Further citations to this work are given in the text.​

(​ The Chicago Manual of Style,  University of Chicago Press, 2003.)

Endnote Numbering

"Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a chapter or article, with each new chapter or section starting over with endnote 1. The notes section at the back is then broken down by chapter or section, with the corresponding endnote numbers listed underneath.

Place endnote numbers within the text in superscript type (small typeset above the line). In the notes section, use the same number to identify the endnote with the number in the text."

(Robbins, Lara M.  Grammar, and Style at Your Fingertips,  Alpha, 2007.)

Sample Endnotes From Pennebaker's 'The Secret Life of Pronouns '

"Chapter 2: Ignoring the Content, Celebrating the Style 19. The drawing is from the Thematic Apperception Test by Henry A. Murray, Card 12F, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. 20. Throughout this book, I include quotations from people who have been in my studies or classes, from text on the Internet, or even from conversations or e-mails from friends or family members. In all cases, all identifying information has been removed or altered. 22. In this book, the terms style, function , and stealth words are used interchangeably. They have many other names as well —  junk words, particles , and closed-class words . Linguists tend to disagree about the precise definitions of each of these overlapping terms."

(Pennebaker, James W.  The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us,  Bloomsbury Press, 2011.)

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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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MLA Footnotes & Endnotes | Format & Examples

Published on August 23, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on March 5, 2024 by Jack Caulfield.

MLA style requires you to cite sources using MLA in-text citations , not notes. However, you can still use footnotes or endnotes in MLA style for other purposes:

Citing a lot of sources at once

• Providing any extra explanation needed about your citation or translation practice
• Elaborating on ideas
• Providing additional examples that don’t fit into the main text

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page, while endnotes appear at the end of the paper, just before the Works Cited list. MLA allows the use of either type, but stick to one or the other.

Any sources you cite in your footnotes or endnotes must also be included in your Works Cited list , just like sources in the main text. Scribbr’s free MLA Citation Generator can help you create accurate MLA citations.

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Table of contents

Formatting footnotes and endnotes in mla, explaining citation or translation practice, using notes to elaborate on ideas, providing more examples in notes, frequently asked questions about mla notes.

Both footnotes and endnotes are indicated by superscript numbers. The number usually appears at the end of a sentence, after the period.

If you need to use a note in the middle of a sentence to avoid ambiguity, place the number directly after a punctuation mark (with the exception of the dash , where the number comes before).

Four main factors have been determined as possible characteristics of any successful fictional work: 6 popularity, enduring fame, commercial success and scholarly appeal. Each of the case studies must possess at least one of these. 7

The note itself begins with the corresponding number, again in superscript, followed by a space, and then the content of the note. Notes should be in the same font as the rest of your document, but a smaller font size; the first line of each note is slightly indented.

Your word processing program should allow you to automatically insert footnotes .

Formatting the endnotes page

If you are using endnotes, list them on a separate page directly before the Works Cited list. The title (“Notes” or “Endnotes”) appears centered at the top of the page. Like the rest of an MLA format paper , the endnotes should be double-spaced.

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When you have a lot of sources to cite at once, you can save space in your text by placing them in a note instead. These can be sources for a statement you made in the text, or sources providing supplementary information relevant to the discussion.

Note that you don’t need to use parentheses around the page numbers when the note just consists of a list of sources.

When there’s any important information that might not be immediately obvious from your citations, you can explain it in a note at the first point where it comes up.

For example, you might use your own translations for some texts but not others, or you might cite different editions of a text in different ways. These details can be clarified in notes where relevant.

When you mention something in passing but think more information may be useful to the reader, you can add the extra information, as well as related sources if relevant, in a note.

Bear in mind that long notes with superfluous information can be distracting for readers. Use notes of this kind sparingly, and keep them brief. If a piece of information is essential to your point, you should usually include it in the main text.

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Sometimes you have more examples than you can smoothly fit into your text. In those cases, it can be worth placing further examples in a note, if you think they add something to your point. You might also provide a counterexample to acknowledge the limitations of your argument.

No, you should use parenthetical MLA in-text citations to cite sources. Footnotes or endnotes can be used to add extra information that doesn’t fit into your main text, but they’re not needed for citations.

If you need to cite a lot of sources at the same point in the text, though, placing these citations in a note can be a good way to avoid cluttering your text.

In MLA style , footnotes or endnotes can be used to provide additional information that would interrupt the flow of your text.

This can be further examples or developments of ideas you only briefly discuss in the text. You can also use notes to provide additional sources or explain your citation practice.

You don’t have to use any notes at all; only use them to provide relevant information that complements your arguments or helps the reader to understand them.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page.  Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style , footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

Some source types, such as books and journal articles , may contain footnotes (or endnotes) with additional information. The following rules apply when citing information from a note in an MLA in-text citation :

• To cite information from a single numbered note, write “n” after the page number, and then write the note number, e.g. (Smith 105n2)
• To cite information from multiple numbered notes, write “nn” and include a range, e.g. (Smith 77nn1–2)
• To cite information from an unnumbered note, write “un” after the page number, with a space in between, e.g. (Jones 250 un)

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McCombes, S. (2024, March 05). MLA Footnotes & Endnotes | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/mla/footnotes-and-endnotes/

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EndNote is a citation management software program designed to assist with formatting citations, so you can focus on your research. The University of Tennessee maintains a campus-wide annual subscription for EndNote and it is available at no cost to students, staff, and faculty. Below are descriptions of the two types of EndNote software as well as some helpful tools for using EndNote.

EndNote Desktop

The desktop version of EndNote helps you store and organize your research, download new references from library databases, create bibliographies using over 5,000 styles, use your references as you write, share with colleagues, and access and manage your research from anywhere by syncing with your EndNote online account. EndNote may be installed on a maximum of three machines per license.

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• Visit the  UTK Software Distribution site . Log in using your UTCID and password.
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EndNote online is a limited online-only version of EndNote and is perfect when you're new to research and writing. When you find yourself in need of more robust capabilities, move up to the desktop version of EndNote.

While not required in order to use EndNote Desktop, an EndNote Online account offers the important ability to sync your EndNote library to the cloud. By connecting an EndNote Online account to your EndNote Desktop, your library of references is safely backed-up to the cloud and can quickly be accessed from any computer. Note: while EndNote Online can be accessed from anywhere, you are only allowed to install EndNote Desktop on a maximum of three machines.

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Endnotes – Guide to How to Use Them Correctly

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Citing sources properly is required to give acknowledgement to the writers whose work influenced your own, to direct readers to the sources you used, and to demonstrate the scope of your research. Although endnotes are used less frequently in student or academic papers than in-text citations or footnotes, they are extremely prevalent in books, where they contribute to a cleaner page. This article provides a thorough guide to using endnotes correctly with examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Endnotes – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Endnotes
• 3 Endnotes vs. footnotes
• 4 How to use endnotes
• 5 How to insert endnotes in Word

Endnotes – In a Nutshell

• They may be used instead of a list of cited sources, depending on the writing style.
• Even with the advent of word-processing software, these notes are considerably simpler to include in a document.
• Unlike footnotes, they don’t take up much space on the page.

Definition: Endnotes

Endnotes are the notes that come at the end of the text in an academic paper. They are denoted in the text by numbers or, occasionally, other symbols.

They are employed:

• for citations in particular styles
• to add supplementary material that does not flow with the primary text

Endnotes vs. footnotes

Endnotes and footnotes are commonly mistaken. Footnotes are similarly used to offer citations or additional information; however, they appear at the bottom of each page rather than at the conclusion .

Footnotes or endnotes should typically be used consistently. Your instructor may advise you on the appropriate note format.

How to use endnotes

Endnote numbers are placed after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. Unless an em dash concludes the sentence, the number comes before the punctuation , after which it is displayed. There is no space following the number.

The general agreement now—though there are dissenting voices 1 —is that this experiment was too methodologically faulty to provide valid results. 2

Notes are consecutively numbered in the order that they occur in the text. Each endnote is assigned a unique number; do not reuse a number, even when citing the same source multiple times.

Endnotes in Chicago style

Using footnotes or endnotes for citations is standard practice in Chicago style bibliographies and notes. Either type of note may also provide additional information, such as more examples, commentary on the sources you quote, or a more in-depth analysis of concepts mentioned in the text.

Place Chicago endnotes after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. A citation note provides complete information on a source the first time it is cited, and simplified information for subsequent citations.

You should still provide a complete list of your sources in a bibliography following the notes unless you are writing a brief paper and have been instructed otherwise.

The notes page follows the bibliography and begins with the word “Notes” printed in bold and centered. The basic format of the notes is as follows:

• A blank line should separate the notes, and the notes should be single-spaced.
• Start each note with an indentation.
• Place a period and a space after the note numbers, which should be written in regular text rather than a superscript.

Endnotes in APA style

Additional information can be included in endnotes or footnotes when writing in APA style . They are not used for citations; instead, use APA in-text citations .

When applicable, copyright attributions are included using APA endnotes. In addition, they can be used to build on the text’s themes or provide further instances. However, do so sparingly, as the APA advises against including redundant information.

The notes are placed on a separate page following the reference list, with the heading “Footnotes” (APA does not use the phrase “endnotes”) bold and centered at the top.

The notes are formatted as indented, double-spaced paragraphs. Each note should begin with its number in superscript, followed by a space.

Endnotes in MLA style

Endnotes can be used instead of MLA in-text citations if you must include many references in a single paragraph.

MLA notes may also convey more information, including clarifications, further illustrations, or elaboration of concepts briefly discussed in the text.

They should appear on a separate page before the Works Cited list and be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes.” Each endnote’s first line should be indented, and the number should be superscripted, followed by a space. They must use double spacing.

How to insert endnotes in Word

Many word processors, such as Microsoft Word, make it simple to insert notes automatically. Follow the steps below:

• Click the point within the text where the note number should appear.
• Click “Insert Endnote” after opening the “References” tab at the top.
• Input text in the note that appears at the end of your manuscript.

However, if you use one of the above styles, you must alter the formatting to meet their criteria and include a heading for the notes page.

What should I write in an endnote?

Footnotes and endnotes perform the same function. These are brief clarifications, additions, or copyright information. You can improve the reader’s experience by adding an endnote example outside the text.

How do I make the endnote numbers?

Don’t enter the numbers manually! The “Insert Citation” or “Insert Reference” function in your word processing software (such as MS Word) will add the note numbers and make room for the note automatically. This function’s name differs slightly between programs.

How is an endnote supposed to look?

A five-space indentation marks the first line of each endnote, and subsequent lines are flush to the left margin. Each endnote number should be preceded by a period and space, with the right note following the space.

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How to Do Endnotes

Last Updated: March 23, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 234,760 times.

Proper citation of sources is necessary to give credit to the authors whose work informed yours, to point readers to the sources you used, and to show the breadth of your research. Though endnotes are less commonly used in student or academic papers than in-line citations or footnotes, they are quite common in books, where they make for a cleaner page. The basics of endnotes are always the same – numbered notes within the text refer to numbered entries in a notes section at the end of the document – but there are minor differences depending on whether you use Chicago or MLA (Modern Language Association) style.

Inserting Endnotes

• To avoid plagiarism, you must correctly attribute ideas and quotations, which is using someone else's ideas or material without acknowledgement (intentionally or unintentionally). If you are a student, plagiarism may result in disciplinary action. If you are an academic or professional, plagiarism will result in, at best, the rejection of your manuscript, and at worst disciplinary action. People have even their degrees revoked when plagiarism was discovered. [1] X Research source
• To allow the reader to check your work. Proper citations allow readers to look up the quotes and ideas you used in context, to see if they agree with your interpretation. [2] X Research source
• To allow interested readers to dig deeper. Endnotes allow readers interested in your topic to easily locate the sources that informed it so that they can read them as well.
• To show that you have considered a variety of sources. Endnotes allow you to show the reader that you have considered all of the major arguments regarding your given topic, or if you have not, allows them to easily see which authors you have failed to consider.

• Page number
• Author name, as well as the name of any editors or translators
• Book name, place of publishing, name of publisher, and year of publishing if a book
• Article name, periodical name, volume and series number, and date of publication

• Pushing citations to the end of a paper or work helps to create clean, uncluttered pages. This is why endnotes are often preferred in books.
• Having all the citations in one place allows the reader to digest them as a whole.
• On the other hand, not having citations on the page means the reader will have to flip to the back of your manuscript each time they want to look something up, which can be frustrating.
• Endnotes can give the impression that you are trying to hide your citations.

• Note numbers should follow punctuation. Never put a note number before a period, comma, or quotation mark.
• Note numbers should be consecutive throughout an entire paper.
• In a book, note numbers may restart with each chapter, in which case the endnotes should be divided by chapter.
• Put the superscript number at the end of the clause or sentence in which you reference someone else's materials. [5] X Research source For example: "According to Hoskins and Garrett, IQ tests are often problematic, 1 but I argue that it is still possible to implement them usefully in school settings."

• Indent the first line of each endnote half an inch (or 5 spaces) from the left margin. Additional lines within a single endnote should be flush with the left hand margin.
• Use the appropriate citation form per your style guide.

Using Chicago (Turabian) Style

• Chicago style uses endnotes (or footnotes) to cite sources, rather than providing inline citation. This is a key difference from MLA style, which uses inline citation.
• In Chicago style, it is recommended to always write the author name and title, not just the author name, in subsequent citations after the first full one.
• In Chicago style, a bibliography typically follows the endnotes. The bibliography lists all sources in alphabetical order by author’s last name. You should add entries to it every time you create a note. The format is slightly different from endnotes. See http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html for more information.

• Book (author) – Author’s First and Last Name, Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Book (editor) – Author’s First and Last Name, ed., Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Journal Article – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Journal Volume (Year): page number(s).
• Newspaper – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper , date, page number(s).
• For all source types, if there are two to three authors, list their names with commas between them. For more than three authors, write the first author's name, a comma, and “et al.” in place of any remaining authors.
• For a complete list of source types and their appropriate formats, see http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

• Author’s last name, Title, page number(s). (If the title is not fiction or poetry, you can use a shortened form of the title if it is longer than four words.)

• 1 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Love in the Time of Cholera , trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 27-28.
• 2 Ibid., 45.

• In some cases, your teacher may prefer you to single-space endnotes and leave a blank line between each entry. If you have questions, consult with your teacher. [12] X Research source

Using MLA Style

• MLA style does not recommend using endnotes to cite works. You should use inline citation in MLA style unless specifically told otherwise.
• In most cases, you will still need to provide a Works Cited page in addition to your endnotes.

• For example, "For further discussion of this phenomenon, see also King, 53; Norris, 175-185; and Kozinsky, 299-318."
• For example, "Several other studies also reach similar conclusions. For examples, see also Brown and Spiers 24-50, Chapel 30-45, and Philips 50-57."

• For example, "Although it is less commonly known than her major works, singer-songwriter Wendy's 1980 album Cookies also deals with the idea of ecofriendly agriculture."
• For example, "Johnson reiterated this point in a conference talk in 2013, although she worded it less forcefully there."

• Center the word Notes on the page. Do not use any formatting or quote marks. If you have only one endnote, use the word Note.
• Double-space endnotes in MLA style.

Community Q&A

• Other style guides may also use endnotes, although APA Style, commonly used in social sciences, does not. [16] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source If you are writing for a journal or publisher that has an in-house style guide, consult with them about endnote requirements. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/useinformationcorrectly/avoiding-plagiarism/1/
• ↑ http://web.grinnell.edu/Dean/Tutorial/EUS/IC.pdf
• ↑ https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/documentation-guide/chicago-style/footnotes-and-endnotes
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=293795&p=1956824
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/ama/intext
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-BFF71B0C-3EC5-4C37-ABC1-7C8E7D6F2D78
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-61F3FB1A-4717-414C-9A8F-015A5F3FF4CB
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/dam/jcr:e7d5f449-dd5e-42c7-89dc-a264d75f4c23/Turabian-Tip-Sheet-11.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• ↑ http://www.library.georgetown.edu/tutorials/research-guides/turabian-footnote-guide
• ↑ http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Documentation/faq0240.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_endnotes_and_footnotes.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.brandeis.edu/citations/MLA
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_and_endnotes.html

About This Article

To use endnotes in a paper, start by inserting a superscript number that corresponds with the source each time you reference it in your paper. Then, at the end of your paper, create a new page with the heading, “Notes.” List the sources, including the author’s first and last name, the title and date of the publication, and the page number for each one. Separate each element with a comma, then add a period after the page number. For two different ways to format your endnotes, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Footnotes and Endnotes: Footnotes Vs Endnotes

• Introduction
• How to add a footnote
• Footnotes Vs Endnotes

What is the difference between Footnotes and Endnotes

Footnotes and Endnotes they are basically the same.

The one difference between footnotes and endnotes is that footnotes appear at the bottom of the same page, while endnotes appear at the end of the paper.

Footnotes more likely interrupt readers flow of reading, endnotes do not interrupt the flow of reading.

Footnotes and endnotes often appear in the same discussion.

Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide references for text in a document.

Many people use footnotes for detailed comments and endnotes for citation of sources.

Things to keep in Mind

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.     Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material  (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). The numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.     Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited  in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.     In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated  and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes imply a disorganized paper.

© University of Southern California

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Using Footnotes and Endnotes

Advantages of using footnotes:

Easy to locate. readers can find footnotes at the end of the page.

Guides readers directly and instantly to the citation or the idea related to the specific part of information.

Footnotes are included automatically when printing specific pages.

Does not take time to find the note at the back of the paper to link the footnote to the subject of the text.

Readers can quickly look down the end of the page to find the extra information or identify a source.

Disadvantages of using footnotes:

Using too many footnotes in one page may clutter the page and make it difficult to read.

Adding a lot of information in one footnote may dominate the page and distract readers from the main subject.

If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables, short footnotes will be lost and need to be moved to another place.

Advantages of using Endnotes:

Endnotes are not distracting as footnotes because endnotes are usually located in a separate part of the paper.

Readers can check all detailed and supplementary information in one located section of the paper.

Readers can read all the notes at once.

Endnotes do not clutter up the page.

Disadvantages of using Endnotes:

Readers must go to another part or section to get detailed information this could be distracting.

Using endnotes can be confusing sometimes if there are different chapters. readers might need to remember chapter numbers and the endnote number to be able to find the correct endnote.

Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or some hidden disclaimers in advertising.

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• Last Updated: Nov 20, 2023 11:06 AM
• URL: https://library.ku.ac.ae/footnotes

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What are Endnotes? Most Comprehensive Guide to the Perfectly Referenced Paper

Updated 21 Jun 2024

Adding endnotes is one of the ways to give your readers more insights or citation details about a source not included in the main text. In this article, we have discussed how to use this referencing type in various citation styles ─ keep reading to get to endnotes’ examples. You will also find an answer to what endnotes are and how they differ from footnotes. 

Key things to know about endnotes 

What are endnotes? They are references or annotations at the end of a document, chapter, or section but not at the bottom of each page (like footnotes). 

• They may cover some information you want to include in your text, but it is not quite relatable to the main chapters.
• Endnotes allow you to include citations without interrupting the flow of the text.
• You can use them to credit sources used in the text.
• The text becomes cluttered with too many footnotes. 

The difference between endnotes and footnotes

They are used for the same purpose but differ in placement: while a footnote is placed at the bottom of each page, you should look for an endnote at the end of the document or section. You can also notice the difference in length, as footnotes are usually shorter. 

Use footnotes to:

• Give short explanations or comments closely related to the main text.
• Provide a citation for a source directly quoted or paraphrased in the text.
• Avoid disrupting the text flow by providing a lengthy citation.
• Provide additional information best placed on the same page as the reference.

Use endnotes to:

• Give more extensive commentary or explanation, being distractive as footnotes.
• Provide a citation for a source that is not directly quoted or paraphrased in the text.
• Avoid cluttering the page with too many footnotes.
• Write a book or article that requires a more formal and structured approach.

How to use endnotes? Important steps to follow

Keep in mind that following one of the styles covered below, you must always adjust the formatting to match their requirements. Also, add a heading for the endnotes page. 

Look out for these general formatting rules:

Place and number.

Typically, this referencing type is placed at the end of a document, chapter, or section. Make sure you assign a number corresponding to the text referenced in the note. 

In most formatting styles, use single-spaced with a double space between each note. The first line of each one is usually indented.

Include relevant information.

Depending on the note's purpose, you may need to include the cited source's author, title, publication date, and page number.

Adding endnotes in Word

• Place the cursor in the text when you want to add an endnote.
• Click on the "References" tab and choose “Insert Endnote”.
• Type the text of the endnote. You can add as many of them as you need, and they will be numbered sequentially according to their insertion order.

Endnotes in Chicago style 

Chicago format is a common citation style in the humanities, particularly history, literature, and the arts. It is known for using both endnotes and footnotes. It offers two different citation options: the notes-bibliography system , which uses either endnotes or footnotes (you can choose which to use depending on the purpose), and the author-date system , which uses in-text citations.

• Number endnotes consecutively throughout the document.
• The number for the note is superscripted in the text and appears at the beginning of the corresponding note in the according section.
• Place the number marker at the end of a sentence after the period. Otherwise, you can place them at the end of a statement or phrase within a sentence, but again it comes after punctuation like a comma or semicolon. An exception is a dash.
• The endnotes page is titled with bold and centered "Notes" after the main text and any appendices.
• The Chicago style requires a separate bibliography with full citations for all sources. The title “Bibliography” is preferred, but “Works Cited” or “Literature Cited” is acceptable. Unless you’re writing a short paper and have been told you don’t need to.

Here is a Chicago style endnotes example:

                     1. Jane Doe. "The Great Depression and Its Impact on American Society." Journal of American History 123, no. 4 (2018): 56.

Endnotes in APA style 

You will find a few cases of APA endnotes, as in-text citations and reference lists serve this purpose. Yet, they are used to add additional comments or explanations that are not essential to understanding the main text.

• Such notes are listed at the end of the document after the reference list with the heading “Footnotes” (APA style doesn’t use the “endnotes” term) in bold and centered at the top.
• APA requires double-spaced, indented paragraphs.
• Start each note with its number in superscript, followed by a space.
• Each one is numbered consecutively using Arabic numerals.
• The superscript number appears in the text immediately after the punctuation mark for the sentence or phrase it relates to.
• They should be used sparingly and only for content that cannot be easily integrated into the main text.

Endnotes in MLA style 

Endnotes are typically used when the note's content is too long or detailed to include in the main text or when the information interrupts the main text flow. Nevertheless, MLA in-text citations appear in parentheses, but you can use endnotes to avoid cluttering the text if you need a lot of citations in one place.

• In MLA style, “Notes” or “Endnotes” are listed at the end of the document before the Works Cited list.
• The superscript number for the endnote appears in the text immediately after the punctuation mark for the sentence or phrase that the endnote relates to.
• Indent the first line of each endnote, and start the note with the number in superscript followed by a space.
• Endnotes should be double-spaced.

Now you know what are endnotes used for and how to integrate them into your paper to reach maximum efficiency. To use them correctly in your paper, you must follow guidelines for required formatting that differ in styles, such as Chicago, APA, and MLA. Understanding what endnotes are and how to use them can be time-consuming, so if you need help, you might consider the option to pay someone to do my homework for accurate and properly formatted endnotes.

In which cases is using endnotes appropriate? 

The purpose of endnotes depends on the style you are using. In Chicago, an endnote is used for in-text citations. In APA and MLA, endnotes are used to provide copyright information or to clear up confusing content. Thus, you can use them to add lengthy information to your paper that looks cluttering as a footnote.

What should I add to the endnote?

It should include information that expands upon a point, references or citations to sources used in the document, and acknowledgments or other relevant notes.

Which purpose does an endnote serve? 

Endnotes can serve various purposes: citing sources, adding extra information, directing readers to other areas, etc. Thus, it offers extensive information, comments, or references to sources used in a paper, without interrupting the main text flow. 

Should endnotes be included on every page?

No, footnotes serve this purpose. While endnotes are formatted identically to footnotes, they are presented as a single list at the end of your paper. The definition of endnotes implies they are part of a different section and are not included in the bibliography section, even though they both explain sources used in a document. 

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Seasoned academic writer, nurturing students' writing skills. Expert in citation and plagiarism. Contributing to EduBirdie since 2019. Aspiring author and dedicated volunteer. You will never have to worry about plagiarism as I write essays 100% from scratch. Vast experience in English, History, Ethics, and more.

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Footnotes and Endnotes: Do You Need Them?

Table of Contents (Guide To Publication)

Part ii: preparing, presenting and polishing your work – chapter 5, 5.2.2 footnotes and endnotes: do you need them.

Footnotes or endnotes – sometimes both in combination – were once staples of a scholarly paper, but they play a much smaller part in academic and scientific papers today, and many journals will ask that they be kept to a minimum or avoided altogether. Those journals that do allow notes will usually specify which they prefer – footnotes at the bottom of the pages or endnotes at the end of the document – and many will ask that either kind of notes be restricted to additional information and not used for referencing. This is because many journals now use author-date or numerical referencing styles, and referencing via footnotes or endnotes is a different style altogether, one almost exclusively restricted to the humanities (likely because of its capacity for accommodating a wide variety of sources) that tends to be used in books more than in journals.

When you’re using an author-date or numerical in-text referencing style, footnotes and endnotes should not be used exclusively for referencing or for providing full bibliographical information about sources. This does not mean, however, that you can’t use citations in your notes: on the contrary, you should treat notes just like any other part of your text, writing and punctuating them as full sentences and providing the same kind of short references you use in your text (see the footnote here for an example).[1] Your notes have to do more than simply provide references, however; they have to add information such as details, alternative approaches, additional evidence and the like to the main discussion.

[1] The most interesting aspect of Smith’s research from my perspective is that his ‘results did not reveal the trend of rapid deterioration noted in previous studies’ (2010, p. 222).

When you’re using an in-note style of referencing, on the other hand, footnotes and endnotes can exist for no other reason than to provide references. In this referencing system the notes generally provide complete bibliographical information when a source is first cited (as footnotes 1, 5 & 6 in this Guide do: see Sections 4.3, 6.2.1 & 7.3.3) and a shorter version of the reference (usually the author’s last name and a shortened title) for all subsequent citations of the same source. Using the Chicago style of referencing within notes as an example, the citations would appear in this format:

• Full footnote/endnote reference with page number: Kathryn Kerby-Fulton, Maidie Hilmo and Linda Olson, Opening Up Middle English Manuscripts: Literary and Visual Approaches (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012), 318.
• Subsequent footnote/endnote reference with page number: Kerby-Fulton, Hilmo and Olson, Opening Up Middle English Manuscripts , 318.

With this style of referencing, a reference list isn’t strictly necessary because all the bibliographical information required to find sources has already been provided in the notes, but a bibliography is sometimes included (see Section 5.2.3).

Although the primary function of footnotes or endnotes in an in-note referencing style is to provide citations and bibliographical information on sources, additional material of all kinds can also be included in the notes, making them a useful site for comparing and contrasting theories and evidence and results, and creating a kind of secondary dialogue within the discussion of a paper. However, many publishers now view such notes as clutter on the page and often relegate them as endnotes to the end of an article or chapter or book in order to avoid what is seen as an unattractive problem. Unfortunately, notes tend to be read less often when they appear at the end of a document rather than as footnotes on each page, so this fact should be considered when deciding whether to include notes in your paper or not, regardless of which referencing system you’re using. Check the journal guidelines, comply with any requirements and as a general rule for modern publication, use notes as little as possible – that is, only when you need to do so.

When you do use notes, remember that they should be written in full sentences and correctly punctuated – footnotes and endnotes are not the place for point-form information or English that is informal or shorthand. Note numbers generally take the form of superscript Arabic numerals (as I’ve used for the footnotes in this Guide; only very rarely are Roman numerals used) placed where they are most relevant in the text, but some journals ask that note numbers be enclosed in square brackets [1] or parentheses (1). Like numerical references, they usually follow full stops and commas,[1] and precede colons and semi-colons[2]; however, most journals that allow notes will provide some guidance on how to use them, so always consult and follow the guidelines. The font used in footnotes and endnotes should be the same as the font used in the main paper (although the automatic note function in a programme such as Word will often use a different one, so do watch for this and adjust the font if necessary), but the text in notes can be a little smaller than the text in the main document (a 10-point instead of 12-point font, for instance), so long as the text remains clear and legible in relation to the size of the main text and complies with any font size requirements provided by the journal.

[1] This example shows how to place a footnote number in relation to a comma or full stop. [2] This example shows how to place a footnote number in relation to a semi-colon or colon.

This article is part of a book called Guide to Academic and Scientific Publication: How To Get Your Writing Published in Scholarly Journals . It provides practical advice on planning, preparing and submitting articles for publication in scholarly journals.

Whether you are looking for information on designing an academic or scientific article, constructing a scholarly argument, targeting the right journal, following journal guidelines with precision, providing accurate and complete references, writing correct and elegant scholarly English, communicating with journal editors or revising your paper in light of that communication, you will find guidance, tips and examples in this manual.

This book is focusing on sound scholarly principles and practices as well as the expectations and requirements of academic and scientific journals, this guide is suitable for use in a wide variety of disciplines, including Economics, Engineering, the Humanities, Law, Management, Mathematics, Medicine and the Social, Physical and Biological Sciences .

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• Translation

How to use Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

By charlesworth author services.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 28 January, 2022

How to use and write Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

Research papers and reports often include adjuncts such as charts and graphs, tables , diagrams, a hierarchy of headings, citations and references etc. Notes – whether footnotes or endnotes – are an important adjunct. They primarily serve the role of supplying additional information , which, if weaved into the main text, may reduce its ease of readability .

Footnotes vs. endnotes

• Location : By definition, footnotes appear at the foot of a page on which appears the text they support. Endnotes are placed at the end of a paper, a chapter or a book.
• Space : Footnotes, being located at the bottom of each individual page, are constrained by the amount of space available, whereas endnotes, located right at the end of the text, are afforded much more ample room.
• Amount of information (and flow) : The above point (space) is a useful distinction that tells readers what to expect. Footnotes offer small bits of information that you can choose to take in without breaking stride. You could take a quick look and return to the main text on the same page. On the other hand, endnotes may sometimes contain sizeable amounts of information, but you do not have to interrupt your reading of the main text. You can choose to read them once you have reached the end of the document.

Footnotes: Examples

As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.

• A text may mention the name of an organisation and use a footnote to explain that the organisation had a different name in the past.
• A text may mention a certain sum of money in Korean Won, and the corresponding footnotes will indicate the equivalent sum in US dollars. 

Endnotes: Examples

As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.

• While you may describe a certain method in your main text, you might use an endnote to outline in more detail some other tangential studies , perhaps from a slightly different field, which used that same method , the results they produced and why this may be of interest.
• You might cite an important quotation within the main body of your text and then include in a related endnote the full paragraph or section from which that quotation was taken, thus enabling interested readers to explore the wider context and additional insights if they wish. 

Usage in academic papers and digital documents

As an author of an academic paper, you can choose between footnotes and endnotes depending on how much additional information you want to give. Be aware, however, that footnotes and endnotes, especially endnotes, are virtually never used in research papers in the physical and biological sciences . They may sometimes be used in the social sciences and are more commonly seen in the humanities .

In digital documents, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes and their placement is less important, because the additional information can be connected to the main text with hyperlinks .

Writing footnotes and endnotes

• Superscripts and symbols : Within the main text, both footnotes and endnotes are typically signalled, or announced, using superscript numbers, although, for footnotes, other symbols such as a star or an asterisk (*), a dagger or obelisk (†), a double dagger or diesis (‡), a section mark (§), a pilcrow or blind p (¶), and so on are also employed, usually in that order. Do note that these symbols are never used with endnotes .
• Numbers : With numbered footnotes, the sequence either begins afresh on each page or can be continued throughout within a paper, a chapter (e.g. if the book has chapters by different contributors) or a book. Endnotes are always numbered and the sequence is always continuous .
• Heading for endnotes : Note that the heading for endnotes, when all of them are gathered at the end, is simply ‘Notes’ and not ‘Endnotes’.
• Footnotes for tables : Table titles, column or row headings, or specific cells within a table can all carry footnotes. Those footnotes are explained at the foot of the table in question and not at the foot of a page on which the table appears.

As a scholar, try to familiarise yourself with the idea of notes and their related mechanics as early on in your writing process as possible. These details can seem numerous at first, but once you master them, you will be able to spontaneously incorporate them into your writing.

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Footnotes and Endnotes

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This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects APA 6, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. The equivalent APA 7 page can be found here .

APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.

When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.

When using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.

Content Notes

Content notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing content notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.

Content notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.

Copyright Permission Notes

If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.

Follow the same formatting rules as with content notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.

If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “ Note .”

Note . From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title , 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

Headnotes or Footnotes? A Quick Guide on Organizing Your Research Paper

In academic writing, footnotes, endnotes, and headnotes provide additional information on a particular topic. They are placed in the document as a supplement to the main text. These notes can be inserted into the document as a footer or at the end of a chapter.

The notes should be kept as brief as possible. The objective is to provide more information without distracting the reader. We discuss the different types of notes, how to use them, and their pros and cons.

What Are They and Why Use Them?

A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or footer. They are referenced in the text in the same way as a citation i.e. the referenced text is followed by a superscript numeral ( 1 ), which corresponds to the numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. When writing your research paper , you would use a footnote for two major reasons:

• To cite sources of facts or quotations
• Provide additional information  

The two types of footnotes are:

• Content : Supplements or simplifies substantive information; not detailed.
• Copyright permission : Cites quoted text and any reprinted materials used in the text.

The format of footnotes is fairly standard (see below for specific rules) and is the same as that for references as follows:

Adrian Johns.  The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623.

When citing the same reference again, the footnote can be shortened as follows:

Johns.  Nature of the Book , 384–85.

Some older journals use “ ibid ” instead of a shortened version of the reference. Ibid is short for the Latin “ ibidem” , which means “in the same place.” This format was previously used in most printed text but rarely used now.

Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they are placed at the end your research paper instead of at the bottom of a page. In books, they can be placed after each chapter or at the end of the book.

In many cases, the book publisher decides the best placement. Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted in superscript. The format is the same as that for footnotes.

Headnotes are used as introductions in legal documents or as summaries of the text that follows them. In academic writing, headnotes are explanatory notes included with tables and figures. They are placed below the table itself or just below the figure title and typed in a font size that is smaller than the main text (e.g., 8- or 10-point font). Headnotes are used to define acronyms used, units of measure, significance, etc. Because tables and figures should be able to “stand alone” without the main text, headnotes should always be used.

Format for Footnotes, Endnotes, and Headnotes

Although the format for footnotes and endnotes is almost similar, there are specific rules depending on the journal where the paper is submitted. Most scientific journals use specific reference formats; however, some style guides do not allow footnotes and endnotes.

For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA), which deals specifically with disciplines in the humanities allows limited use of footnotes. These are to provide the reader with other sources for more information on the subject covered. The MLA style for these notes is shown in the example below and the number corresponds to the superscript number noted in the referenced text:

See [name of author], especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.

MLA suggests using “content” footnotes when necessary to avoid interrupting the text with an explanation or other details.

In contrast, the American Psychological Association (APA), the style for the behavioral and social sciences, does not usually allow footnotes. Your particular journal guidelines will provide that information.

A third style guide, the American Medical Association (AMA) , is used mostly with papers in the biological and medical sciences. AMA also discourages the use of footnotes but allows them on the title page. The information on the title page would include the authors’ names and affiliations, corresponding author, members of affiliated groups, etc.

Pros and Cons

Scientific papers do not usually include footnotes. Endnotes may be used sometimes, but sparingly. Other disciplines, such as law and history, still use them regularly . There are pros and cons to each.

The advantages of using footnotes are that they provide the reader with a fast reference and link to additional information. They are easy to insert and will automatically print. The advantage of using endnotes instead of footnotes is that their placement is less distracting. They also provide the reader with an easy reference list in one place.

According to the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), endnotes are preferred to footnotes simply because they don’t clutter up a page. CMOS does caution that it can seem disconcerting to a reader to see pages of notes at the end of a chapter or book, so use them sparingly.

Again, another disadvantage to footnotes is that they tend to interrupt the flow of the text. The reader might feel that he must stop and look at the note before moving on, which can be very distracting. Some disadvantages to endnotes are that the reader must turn to the end of the text or chapter to find the additional information. In books with several chapters, this can be tedious, especially if the endnotes are renumbered in each chapter.

As for headnotes, there are really no drawbacks to using them in tables and figures. They offer the reader helpful information that is readily available as they read the data or interpret a figure.

Bottom Line

The style to which you conform when writing your paper will ultimately depend on the journal’s guidelines. Pay careful attention to its protocols for citations and references and whether it will allow footnotes and endnotes. If allowed, be mindful of the disadvantages of both and consider either greatly limiting them or eliminating them altogether.

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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Q. How can I take notes and/or annotate articles in EndNote Desktop?

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Answered By: Katharine Tepper Last Updated: May 28, 2024     Views: 681

There are two ways to annotate articles or take notes in EndNote Desktop:

• Use the "research notes" feature. Select the citation you wish to add notes to, click "edit," and locate to the "research notes" field. This is different than the "notes" field, which usually contains citation information. From here, you can add any notes you wish. If you choose to export an annotated bibliography, these research notes will show up as annotations. Almost all other styles will exclude them automatically.
• Annotate directly onto the imported PDF of the article.  Select the citation you wish to annotate, go to the PDF, and use the features in the top left-hand corner of the PDF to add comments, highlight phrases/sections, etc. Please note that this method requires you to either import PDFs manually or use the "find full-text" feature, which auto imports the PDFs for you ( instructions on find full-text here ). 
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Footnotes or endnotes in a white paper?

You gathered a ton of evidence for your white paper., now how are you going to present it.

You have three possible ways to provide a source in a white paper:

• a footnote at the bottom of the page
• an endnote at the end of the document
• a citation within the regular flow of the text

Naturally, each approach has its own strengths and drawbacks, as summed up in the table below.

So which format do you use when?

Here are my recommendations:

Use footnotes  if you have strong research from sources you want to highlight and an audience used to somewhat more formal white papers.

Use endnotes  if you have weaker sources or so many that you don’t want to distract readers from the flow of your argument.

Use in-text citations  if you have only a few sources and don’t think your readers want to look at references.

What if you just can’t decide? In that case, choose the least intrusive approach:  endnotes.

The immediacy of footnotes

In a white paper, most footnotes give the source for a quote, fact, or number in the text.

You seldom see running commentary on the text, as in a textbook or academic journal.

Footnotes work well in the most research-based flavor of white paper, the problem/solution.

They’re somewhat useful for a backgrounder with any endorsements from third parties about the benefits of the offering being discussed.

But footnotes are not at all useful for a numbered list, where the emphasis is on provocative ideas, not scholarship.

The finality of endnotes

Since endnotes are gathered together at the end of a white paper, they’re much less evident than bottom-of-the-page footnotes.

Because endnotes are less intrusive, they also hide away much of the research that went into a white paper.

Few readers ever look at the last page of a white paper to check a reference.

But endnotes can be useful for a white paper:

• When you have few sources
• When you have so many sources that every page would be cluttered with footnotes
• When the offering being discussed is so affordable or essential that B2B buyers will not study it for long
• When the audience is mainly small to medium-sized business people, who may not have time to check sources

And whenever it’s a tossup between different approaches, I suggest endnotes.

You can let Word place all your endnotes on the very last page of your white paper, under a major heading like “References” or “Sources.”

Tip : Yes, you can get rid of that annoying thick bar that Word inserts at the top of your endnotes. Here’s how:

• On the View tab, select Draft.
• On the References tab, select Show Notes.
• From the pull-down menu at the top of the Endnotes pane, select Endnote Separator.
• Select the horizontal rule and click Delete to erase it.
• Then use the View tab to go back to the view you normally use.

Presto! One less annoying rule getting in your way.

The tidiness of in-text citations

Magazines and newspapers don’t use footnotes. Every quote and statistic is sourced with an in-text reference, something like this…

“Footnotes and endnotes are soooo old-fashioned,” declared copywriter Ima Writer in her April 2013 column in  White Papers Today . “All the cool kids today are using in-text citations.”

See how smooth this can be?

For more examples, you can pick up any magazine to see just how journalists do it.

The nice thing about in-text citations is they’re so tidy.

You don’t have to look anywhere else on the page or in the document. The whole reference is in one spot.

The only downside is that these citations add more words. And if you’re not careful, they can lead to some clunky-sounding sentences.

But in-text citations can deliver the best of both worlds.

Like a footnote, the whole reference is on the same page—but like an endnote, it doesn’t disrupt your reading experience.

This approach may be better for a backgrounder or numbered list, where you’re not trying to showcase your research.

In a problem/solution flavor, you may still prefer to use footnotes to highlight all the research that went into your white paper.

This article is a brief excerpt from  White Papers for Dummies  by Gordon Graham.

With dozens of tips and best practices for planning, producing, and promoting effective white papers,  White Papers for Dummies  is the most comprehensive guide to white papers ever published.

Want to hear whenever there’s a fresh article on this site? Subscribe here to stay in the know on long-form content . From time to time, we’ll also send you word about some great new resource or training. And you can unsubscribe any time.  

About Gordon Graham

Worked on 320+ white papers for clients from Silicon Valley to Switzerland, on everything from choosing enterprise software to designing virtual worlds for kids, for clients from tiny startups to 3M, Google, and Verizon. Wrote White Papers for Dummies which earned 60+ 5-star ratings on Amazon. Won 16 awards from the Society for Technical Communication. Named AWAI 2019 Copywriter of the Year.

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White Paper World 42: June 14, 2024

I have a feeling the text suggests that you have to choose between the 3 options. Is that really so? I believe it is quite normal to use footnotes and endnotes or even all the 3 ways together in academic papers. Say you want to use citation but you decided to go for endnotes. You can’t leave in-text citation without pointing out the source right on the spot (be it via the “magazine/newspaper way” or using footnotes), right? Does decision to use endnotes automatically mean you have to resign from in-text citation (or footnotes)?

Interesting question, Jerzy. Sure, you could say something like, “as comedienne Mercy Major joked in her recent HBO special…” and also include an endnote with more specifics. There are no absolute standards in white papers, and no authorities to impose them.

The main rule of thumb: Be consistent in how you handle sources WITHIN any one white paper, and ideally ACROSS all the white papers any one company publishes.

Thanks for your reply!

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