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• What is Agile methodology? (A beginner’ ...

What is Agile methodology? (A beginner’s guide)

Agile methodology is a project management framework that breaks projects down into several dynamic phases, commonly known as sprints. In this article, get a high-level overview of Agile project management, plus a few common frameworks to choose the right one for your team.

Scrum, Kanban, waterfall, Agile. 

Agile project management isn’t just useful for software project management—all types of teams have been successful with this dynamic methodology. If you’re looking to get started with Agile, you’ve come to the right place.

What is the Agile methodology?

Agile methodology is a project management framework that breaks projects down into several dynamic phases, commonly known as sprints. 

The Agile framework is an iterative methodology . After every sprint, teams reflect and look back to see if there was anything that could be improved so they can adjust their strategy for the next sprint.

What is the Agile Manifesto?

The Agile Manifesto is a document that focuses on four values and 12 principles for Agile software development. It was published in February 2001 by 17 software developers who needed an alternative to the more linear product development process .  

What are the 4 pillars of Agile?

As outlined in the Agile Manifesto, there are four main values of Agile project management:

Individuals over processes and tools: Agile teams value team collaboration and teamwork over working independently and doing things "by the book.”

Working software over comprehensive documentation: The software that Agile teams develop should work. Additional work, like documentation, is not as important as developing good software.

Customer collaboration over contract negotiation: Customers are extremely important within the Agile methodology. Agile teams allow customers to guide where the software should go. Therefore, customer collaboration is more important than the finer details of contract negotiation.

Responding to change over following a plan: One of the major benefits of Agile project management is that it allows teams to be flexible. This framework allows for teams to quickly shift strategies and workflows without derailing an entire project.

What are the 12 Agile principles?

The four values of Agile are the pillars of Agile methodology. From those values, the team developed 12 principles. 

If the four values of Agile are the weight-bearing pillars of a house, then these 12 principles are the rooms you can build within that house. These principles can be easily adapted to fit the needs of your team. 

The 12 principles used in Agile methodology are:

Satisfy customers through early, continuous improvement and delivery. When customers receive new updates regularly, they're more likely to see the changes they want within the product. This leads to happier, more satisfied customers—and more recurring revenue.

Welcome changing requirements, even late in the project. The Agile framework is all about adaptability. In iterative processes like Agile, being inflexible causes more harm than good. 

Deliver value frequently. Similar to principle #1, delivering value to your customers or stakeholders frequently makes it less likely for them to churn. 

Break the silos of your projects. Collaboration is key in the Agile framework. The goal is for people to break out of their own individual projects and collaborate together more frequently . 

Build projects around motivated individuals. Agile works best when teams are committed and actively working to achieve a goal. 

The most effective way to communicate is face-to-face. If you’re working on a distributed team, spend time communicating in ways that involve face-to-face communication like Zoom calls. 

Working software is the primary measure of progress. The most important thing that teams should strive for with the Agile framework is the product. The goal here is to prioritize functional software over everything else.

Maintain a sustainable working pace. Some aspects of Agile can be fast-paced, but it shouldn't be so fast that team members burn out . The goal is to maintain sustainability throughout the project.

Continuous excellence enhances agility . If the team develops excellent code in one sprint, they can continue to build off of it the next. Continually creating great work allows teams to move faster in the future. 

Simplicity is essential. Sometimes the simplest solution is the best solution. Agile aims to not overcomplicate things and find simple answers to complex problems. 

Self-organizing teams generate the most value. Similar to principle #5, proactive teams become valuable assets to the company as they strive to deliver value.

Regularly reflect and adjust your way of work to boost effectiveness . Retrospective meetings are a common Agile practice. It's a dedicated time for teams to look back and reflect on their performance and adapt their behaviors for the future.

What are the benefits of the Agile development methodology?

You commonly find Agile project management used in application development or other types of software development. This is because software is constantly changing, and the needs of the product have to change with it. 

Because of this, linear project management methods like the waterfall model are less effective. Here are a few other reasons why teams use Agile:

Agile methods are adaptable

There's a reason why they call it the Agile methodology. One of the main benefits of using Agile processes in software development is the ability to shift strategies quickly, without disrupting the flow of a project. 

Because phases in the traditional waterfall method flow into one another, shifting strategies is challenging and can disrupt the rest of the project roadmap . Since software development is a much more adaptable field, project managing rapid changes in the traditional sense can be challenging. This is part of the reason why Agile project management is favored in software development.

Agile fosters collaborative teamwork

One of the Agile principles states that the most effective way to communicate with your team is face-to-face. Combine this with the principle that encourages teams to break project silos and you have a recipe for collaborative teamwork. 

While technology has changed since Agile’s inception and work has shifted to welcome more remote-friendly policies, the idea of working face-to-face still hasn't changed.

Agile methods focus on customer needs

One of the unique aspects of software development is that teams can focus on customer needs much more closely than other industries. With the rise of cloud-based software, teams can get feedback from their actual customers quickly. 

Since customer satisfaction is a key driver for software development, it’s easy to see why it was included in the Agile process. By collaborating with customers, Agile teams can prioritize features that focus on customer needs. When those needs change, teams can take an Agile approach and shift to a different project. 

Agile methodologies

The Agile framework is an umbrella for several different variations. Here are a few of the most common Agile methodologies. 

Kanban is a visual approach to Agile. Teams use online Kanban board tools to represent where certain tasks are in the development process. Tasks are represented by cards on a board, and stages are represented in columns. As team members work on tasks, they move cards from the backlog column to the column that represents the stage the task is in.

This method is a good way for teams to identify roadblocks and to visualize the amount of work that’s getting done. 

Scrum is a common Agile methodology for small teams and also involves sprints. The team is led by a Scrum master whose main job is to clear all obstacles for others executing the day-to-day work. 

Scrum teams meet daily to discuss active tasks, roadblocks, and anything else that may affect the development team.  

Sprint planning: This event kicks off the sprint. Sprint planning outlines what can be delivered in a sprint (and how).

Sprint retrospective : This recurring meeting acts as a sprint review—to iterate on learnings from a previous sprint that will improve and streamline the next one. 

Extreme Programming (XP)

Typically used in software development, Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile framework that outlines values that will allow your team to work together more effectively.  

The five values of XP include:

Communication

Similar to daily Scrum standups, there are regular releases and iterations, yet XP is much more technical in its approach. If your dev team needs to quickly release and respond to customer requests, XP focuses on the “how” it will get done. 

Adaptive Project Framework (APF)

The Adaptive Project Framework, also known as Adaptive Project Management (APM) grew from the idea that unknown factors can show up at any time during a project. This technique is mainly used for IT projects where more traditional project management techniques don’t apply.

This framework is based on the idea that project resources can change at any time. For example, budgets can change, timelines can shift, or team members working on the project may transition to different teams. APF focuses on the resources that a project has, as opposed to the resources a project needs. 

Extreme Project Management (XPM)

This type of project management is often used for very complex projects with a high level of uncertainty. This approach involves constantly adapting processes until they lead to the desired result. This type of project involves many spontaneous changes and it’s normal for teams to switch strategies from one week to the next. 

XPM requires a lot of flexibility. This is one of the reasons why each sprint is short—only a few weeks maximum. This methodology allows for frequent changes, trial-and-error approaches to problems, and many iterations of self-correction.

Adaptive Software Development (ASD)

This Agile methodology enables teams to quickly adapt to changing requirements. The main focus of this process is continuous adaptation. The phases of this project type —speculate, collaborate, and learn—allow for continuous learning as the project progresses. 

It’s not uncommon for teams running ASD to be in all three phases of ASD at once. Because of its non-linear structure, it’s common for the phases to overlap. Because of the fluidity of this type of management, there’s a higher likelihood that the constant repetition of the three phases helps team members identify and solve problems much quicker than standard project management methods.

Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)

The Dynamic Systems Development Method is an Agile method that focuses on a full project lifecycle. Because of this, DSDM has a more rigorous structure and foundation, unlike other Agile methods. 

There are four main phases of DSDM:

Feasibility and business study

Functional mode or prototype iteration

Design and build iteration

Implementation

Feature Driven Development (FDD)

Feature Driven Development blends different Agile best practices. While still an iterative method of project management, this model focuses more on the exact features of a software that the team is working to develop. Feature-driven development relies heavily on customer input, as the features the team prioritizes are the features that the customers need. 

This model also allows teams to update projects frequently. If there is an error, it's quick to cycle through and implement a fix as the phases of this framework are constantly moving. 

Organize Agile processes with Asana

You’ll often hear software development teams refer to the Agile process—but any team can run Agile. If you’re looking for a more flexible project management framework, try Agile. 

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Burndown chart: What it is and how to use it (with example)

What are story points? Six easy steps to estimate work in Agile

Smooth product launches are simpler than you think

How Asana uses work management to streamline project intake processes

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Top 10 Project Methodology Templates with Samples and Examples

Vaishali Rai

Project management is confusing. Have you ever been in a situation like this, sitting at your project meeting, perhaps feeling out of your depth, and finding it hard to follow the conversation around you? It may be due to unstructured and unorganized execution of the project's principles. You also might need to apply a suitable project management methodology. 

What is project management methodology?

A project management methodology is a set of principles, techniques, and procedures Project Managers use to execute and manage projects. There are several methodologies and all require different workflows, deliverables, and project management software development. The project management methodologies facilitate team collaboration by directing team members to work for a common objective.

Are your projects complex or straightforward? Whatever the case may be, these Top 10 Project Management Cycle Templates will help you organize and track every bit of it!

When a project is carried out systematically, chances of success are better. Project managers are responsible for planning tasks, tracking progress, and delivering results. Here’s when a project methodology comes in. It includes certain procedures that help you structure your team’s workflow.

There are many project methodologies available for the systematic execution of a project. Choosing the best one among a landscape of methodologies can be overwhelming. Some of these work well in specific projects or industries. However, Product managers select the methodology that best suits the way their teams work. 

Here, in this blog, we'll talk about project methodologies and templates you can use in your projects. 

Let’s explore!

Template 1: Project Management Methodologies PowerPoint Presentation Slides

This PPT displays an elaborative project agenda, including the project brief essential to operate efficiently. The layout also consists of details about the company's products. Showcase the progress summary, and the milestones achieved and reflect on the potential goals. Download now!

Download now!

Template 2: Three Principles of Waterfall Project Methodology

This PPT is designed while keeping in mind the linear approach, meaning that the tasks are organized in a sequence. This template allows you to map the tasks from beginning to end and work accordingly. It includes three essential waterfall project methodology principles: low customer involvement, robust project documentation, and sequential stages that smoothen up the project management process. Download now!

Template 3: 5D Consulting Project Methodology with Implementation

This PPT Template portrays a five-dimensional visualization process for consulting projects. It includes major steps like discovering, designing, developing, designing, and determining while considering budgetary and cost requirements. It also comprises activities like process assessment, tools management, collaboration, etc., that aid in accurate project deployment and maintenance. Download now!

Template 4: Enterprise Resource Planning Consulting Project Methodology

This template displays an execution method for designing ERP software for both parties; the consulting firm and the buyer. It includes the implementation team, administrative project management, project management team, etc. Ace your resource planning game by organizing, identifying, and listing the resources required to complete a project. Get it now!

Template 5: Rotation Process Illustrating Agile Project Methodology

Agile is more of an approach than a methodology. It is collaborative, fast and effective, data-backed, and values individuals over processes. This template lets you analyze processes, provide suggestions, plan & design projects, project construction, and evaluate & monitor processes. Download now!

Template 6: Consulting Project Methodology for Supply Chain and Logistics

This template exhibits consulting project methodology for supply chain and logistics. It includes the five-step process of mapping, internal audit, gap assessment, solution design, and implementation. The topics discussed in this slide are gap analysis, solution design, implementation, internal audit, and mapping. Download this versatile template now!

Template 7: Project Management Methodology Including Planning

This methodology is the one most used by project managers. It portrays the tasks in a chronological manner involving designing, developing, testing, and deploying a project. If you're looking for a comprehensive guide to your next project, look no further than this. Download it now!

Template 8: Project Management and Implementation Methodology Overview

Project management and implementation methodology plays a significant role in ensuring successful delivery of projects. This template explains how these methods can be used to ensure the successful delivery of projects, along with some tips for implementing them. They also include a variety of practical examples to help you understand how the methodology can be applied in a real-world scenario. Get it now!

Template 9: Waterfall vs Agile Development Methodology for Project

This two-stage process template for projects is explicit and effective. It combines clarity and concise expression to achieve holistic project development by enabling client/stakeholder collaboration. It encourages frequent interaction of team members, making them resolve any complexities and meet requirements before deadlines. Download this now!

Template 10: Methodology Five Steps Indicating Project Lifecycle

Strategically important complex projects that are long-term, resource-heavy, and extensive, require flexible project management methodology. This template includes five steps of a project lifecycle that helps bring more cohesion to your project. Keep every team member on the same page with this helpful and 100% customizable template. Download now!

Manage Your Projects Well

By choosing the right project management methodology at the right time and the right place, you’ll be able to make your projects more efficient. Finding the perfect project methodology also helps implement processes right for you, your team, and your organization.

We hope that the above set of templates serves as the ultimate tool in your belt!

FAQs on Project Methodology

What is a project methodology.

A project management methodology is a detailed manual to supervise project completion. A project team uses this set of defined processes to initiate, plan, and execute the project. The type of project methodology you choose establishes the way of work organization, prioritization, and completion. 

The project management methodology aims to standardize, structure, and organize work requirements and methods. This helps focus on what works best and enables the repetition of successful aspects and learning from mistakes, resulting in a continuous improvement process.

What are the five project methodologies?

Here are five common project methodologies used by Project Managers to manage workflow:

• Agile : This method is best suited for projects which require extreme flexibility and speed. It focuses less on documentation and more on customer satisfaction. Agile methodology is good for products with a faster release cycle. 
• Scrum : Scrum methodology has an iterative project management style. It follows the principles followed in Agile methodology. In this method, the work is done in sessions known as ‘Sprints’. Here, the Scrum Master facilitates the process instead of a Project Manager. 
• Waterfall : It is based on traditional methods and mainly focuses on following the processes. Here, much emphasis is given to project documentation. 
• Critical Path Method : This methodology is a step-by-step method and works best for projects with independent tasks. Its key role is to measure and prioritize tasks.
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique : This method is commonly used along with CPM (Critical Path Method). It is mostly used by businesses that are looking for expansion. It measures progress to create timelines and budgets.
• Critical Chain Method : A separate classification, this methodology is more advanced than the CPM methodology. Here, goals are created based on constraints while focusing on cost-saving benefits.

What are the three major types of project methodologies?

Here are three major types of methodologies commonly used:

• Scrum method : Scrum is the most widely used agile methodology for project management. It allows you to do more by scheduling tasks in short cycles named sprints. It enables you to work as a dedicated team to analyze processes, meet requirements, and meet deadlines. It also helps you receive continuous feedback rather than using final evaluations. The scrum methodology is mostly used to develop new projects, compile budgets, and organize annual reports. 
• Waterfall method : This method is linear and phase-based. It arranges and organizes tasks chronologically, which helps identify major areas of errors. Documentation is a huge part of waterfall methodology. It entails precise details about what you’re doing and how you’re doing it. This methodology doesn’t provide any room for flexibility.
• Lean and Six Sigma method : Lean and Six Sigma method is famous for its ability to manage the resource and time wastage that occurs in other methodologies. It is an approach to continuous improvement that is divided into two types of initiatives- Ongoing improvement initiatives and project-based initiatives. Each of these is associated with a set of methods and tools for you to employ. Ultimately, this methodology is based on the Kaizen principle that aims at making small changes on a daily basis for continuous improvement in small, easy steps.

How do you prepare a project methodology?

A good project method will represent the convergence of many factors, such as your scope, professional experience, and the research done. Here’s how you can prepare a project methodology in five steps:

• Communicate deliverables : A solid plan requires proper research and pre-planning. So, the first step is to set clear objectives, cost & budget, project requirements, and deliverables to work upon. 
• Define the process : Choose the project methodology that best suits your team’s workflow and organizational structure. Sit with your team and draft a process that matches your work style and project requirements. 
• Communicate risks and deadlines : Analyzing the ability to manage risks while meeting project deadlines is the next step in preparing a methodology. You need to observe the level of risk you can handle based on the size of the project.
• Determine task dependencies : Next, it is important to understand if you can perform tasks while keeping room for flexibility to alter the processes.

Define client/ stakeholder collaboration : Finally, you need to oversee the level of involvement you need from your stakeholders and clients in a project. It also defines team roles and assignments to help break down bigger projects into small and easy tasks.

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24th March, 2022

How To Write A Method Statement In 5 Minutes

Writing a method statement takes time. You need to go through your activity step by step. Consider the people, the tools, the environment, and how to carry out the work safely. Then write it all down clearly so that it is understood. Ok, so how can we write one in 5 minutes?

When you do it right, a method statement will reduce confusion and create a safer work environment. Oh, and help you meet legal requirements . It's a win-win-win situation.

But writing a method statement that does all this takes time. You can't just put everything on the page and hope the next person understands it.

The trick is to write a clear method statement that communicates what's involved with the task or activity. The process. The controls. And the safety measures.

Your method statement should form part of your safe system of work. It's not just a document to be saved and stored away. It will often be the subject of the safety briefing or toolbox talk delivered before the activity starts.

A method statement is a document that describes how to do a task safely. You can think of a method statement like a set of instructions or a plan for the work. Method statements are also known as safe systems of work, safe work method statements or SWMS for short. And that's because they describe the method (or system) of work. HASpod What is a method statement?

Ok, so we know what a method statement is, but how can we write one in 5 minutes?

The slowest way

Well, your first option is to open up Microsoft Word on your computer and go from there. But as you stare at the blank page in front of you, the first thing you're likely to wonder is, where do I start?!

You're never going to be able to write a method from scratch in 5-minutes, but if you decide to take this route, here are some important items you will want to include:

• The project
• The activity
• The date of assessment
• Assessor details
• Responsibilities
• Hazards (or reference to relevant risk assessment)
• Sequence of work
• Access provisions
• Security and safety of others
• Plant and equipment
• Safety precautions
• Health precautions
• PPE requirements
• Emergency procedures
• Acknowledgement and sign off

That's quite a lot of information to cover in a single document. Just writing out those headers might take you a couple of minutes.

A quicker way

You don't need to start from scratch each time. You can use a template to help speed things up. You can create one yourself, and while this still involves the upfront work initially, you can save time when you need method statements again in the future.

We said we would help you make this easy, and so we created a free blank method statement template to do just that. It will help you get started with writing your method statements.

You can use the blank method statement template to create your method statement, and it should speed things up because we give you a standard layout, following best practices.

If you have ever started writing a document from a blank sheet, you know how much time you can end up spending just deciding how to split the document up into sections, layout, tables etc.

You don't need to download any software to use this template, and editing it is easy. Here's a guide on how to create health and safety documents with HASpod .

As with any template, add your details to turn it from a generic into a site-specific document .

Once you have finished editing the template to add the details of your activity, you can download a PDF copy of your method statement to share with your team.

Ok, we've saved you some time getting started, but what if you need help writing the content of your method statement?

The quickest way

Even with a blank template, there's still a big chunk of work to do. You need to plan the activity and write down all the details. Some of this information might get duplicated across several method statements for projects that involve similar activities.

You can create a template with this repeating information so you can reuse it rather than having to write it again each time.

To help you reduce the time spent writing health and safety paperwork even further, our health and safety experts have prepared hundreds of health and safety documents . You can browse all of the method statement templates ready to use for your tasks and activities.

You can use these method statement templates for your business and adapt them for your activities. They save you time because:

You no longer need to worry about the layout. The templates are in a consistent format to produce an easy to follow method statement for your task or activity. Select what PPE you need from the checkboxes provided, fill in the details asked for, and you are on your way.

We tell you what information is required. Project name, people involved, PPE required etc. Just enter your project-specific details where they are needed.

We pre-complete the information. General information for the task and controls needed are all pre-completed for you. You can remove any bits that are not applicable and add your project details.

Now you can create a site-specific method statement in as quick as 5 minutes!

You can choose from a range of pre-completed method statements for construction activities such as groundworks , joinery , hot works , refurbishment , plumbing , from underpinning and underground drainage , to roof installation .

Using a template makes writing your method statement in 5 minutes easy:

• Search for your task or activity in our pre-completed templates .
• Add your business name and project details.
• Edit the template to add any additional project-specific controls as required.
• Download your finished method statement.

You can start free with the blank method statement template or browse our method statement templates by activity. Whichever you choose, our online software can help you reduce the time you spend on your health and safety paperwork.

This article was written by Emma at HASpod . Emma has over 10 years experience in health and safety and BSc (Hons) Construction Management. She is NEBOSH qualified and Tech IOSH.

Need Health and Safety Documents?

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Here's What You Need to Understand About Research Methodology

Table of Contents

Research methodology involves a systematic and well-structured approach to conducting scholarly or scientific inquiries. Knowing the significance of research methodology and its different components is crucial as it serves as the basis for any study.

Typically, your research topic will start as a broad idea you want to investigate more thoroughly. Once you’ve identified a research problem and created research questions , you must choose the appropriate methodology and frameworks to address those questions effectively.

What is the definition of a research methodology?

Research methodology is the process or the way you intend to execute your study. The methodology section of a research paper outlines how you plan to conduct your study. It covers various steps such as collecting data, statistical analysis, observing participants, and other procedures involved in the research process

The methods section should give a description of the process that will convert your idea into a study. Additionally, the outcomes of your process must provide valid and reliable results resonant with the aims and objectives of your research. This thumb rule holds complete validity, no matter whether your paper has inclinations for qualitative or quantitative usage.

Studying research methods used in related studies can provide helpful insights and direction for your own research. Now easily discover papers related to your topic on SciSpace and utilize our AI research assistant, Copilot , to quickly review the methodologies applied in different papers.

The need for a good research methodology

While deciding on your approach towards your research, the reason or factors you weighed in choosing a particular problem and formulating a research topic need to be validated and explained. A research methodology helps you do exactly that. Moreover, a good research methodology lets you build your argument to validate your research work performed through various data collection methods, analytical methods, and other essential points.

Just imagine it as a strategy documented to provide an overview of what you intend to do.

While undertaking any research writing or performing the research itself, you may get drifted in not something of much importance. In such a case, a research methodology helps you to get back to your outlined work methodology.

A research methodology helps in keeping you accountable for your work. Additionally, it can help you evaluate whether your work is in sync with your original aims and objectives or not. Besides, a good research methodology enables you to navigate your research process smoothly and swiftly while providing effective planning to achieve your desired results.

What is the basic structure of a research methodology?

Usually, you must ensure to include the following stated aspects while deciding over the basic structure of your research methodology:

1. Your research procedure

Explain what research methods you’re going to use. Whether you intend to proceed with quantitative or qualitative, or a composite of both approaches, you need to state that explicitly. The option among the three depends on your research’s aim, objectives, and scope.

2. Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach

Based on logic and reason, let your readers know why you have chosen said research methodologies. Additionally, you have to build strong arguments supporting why your chosen research method is the best way to achieve the desired outcome.

3. Explain your mechanism

The mechanism encompasses the research methods or instruments you will use to develop your research methodology. It usually refers to your data collection methods. You can use interviews, surveys, physical questionnaires, etc., of the many available mechanisms as research methodology instruments. The data collection method is determined by the type of research and whether the data is quantitative data(includes numerical data) or qualitative data (perception, morale, etc.) Moreover, you need to put logical reasoning behind choosing a particular instrument.

4. Significance of outcomes

The results will be available once you have finished experimenting. However, you should also explain how you plan to use the data to interpret the findings. This section also aids in understanding the problem from within, breaking it down into pieces, and viewing the research problem from various perspectives.

5. Reader’s advice

Anything that you feel must be explained to spread more awareness among readers and focus groups must be included and described in detail. You should not just specify your research methodology on the assumption that a reader is aware of the topic.  

All the relevant information that explains and simplifies your research paper must be included in the methodology section. If you are conducting your research in a non-traditional manner, give a logical justification and list its benefits.

6. Explain your sample space

Include information about the sample and sample space in the methodology section. The term "sample" refers to a smaller set of data that a researcher selects or chooses from a larger group of people or focus groups using a predetermined selection method. Let your readers know how you are going to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant samples. How you figured out those exact numbers to back your research methodology, i.e. the sample spacing of instruments, must be discussed thoroughly.

For example, if you are going to conduct a survey or interview, then by what procedure will you select the interviewees (or sample size in case of surveys), and how exactly will the interview or survey be conducted.

7. Challenges and limitations

This part, which is frequently assumed to be unnecessary, is actually very important. The challenges and limitations that your chosen strategy inherently possesses must be specified while you are conducting different types of research.

The importance of a good research methodology

You must have observed that all research papers, dissertations, or theses carry a chapter entirely dedicated to research methodology. This section helps maintain your credibility as a better interpreter of results rather than a manipulator.

A good research methodology always explains the procedure, data collection methods and techniques, aim, and scope of the research. In a research study, it leads to a well-organized, rationality-based approach, while the paper lacking it is often observed as messy or disorganized.

You should pay special attention to validating your chosen way towards the research methodology. This becomes extremely important in case you select an unconventional or a distinct method of execution.

Curating and developing a strong, effective research methodology can assist you in addressing a variety of situations, such as:

• When someone tries to duplicate or expand upon your research after few years.
• If a contradiction or conflict of facts occurs at a later time. This gives you the security you need to deal with these contradictions while still being able to defend your approach.
• Gaining a tactical approach in getting your research completed in time. Just ensure you are using the right approach while drafting your research methodology, and it can help you achieve your desired outcomes. Additionally, it provides a better explanation and understanding of the research question itself.
• Documenting the results so that the final outcome of the research stays as you intended it to be while starting.

Instruments you could use while writing a good research methodology

As a researcher, you must choose which tools or data collection methods that fit best in terms of the relevance of your research. This decision has to be wise.

There exists many research equipments or tools that you can use to carry out your research process. These are classified as:

a. Interviews (One-on-One or a Group)

An interview aimed to get your desired research outcomes can be undertaken in many different ways. For example, you can design your interview as structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. What sets them apart is the degree of formality in the questions. On the other hand, in a group interview, your aim should be to collect more opinions and group perceptions from the focus groups on a certain topic rather than looking out for some formal answers.

In surveys, you are in better control if you specifically draft the questions you seek the response for. For example, you may choose to include free-style questions that can be answered descriptively, or you may provide a multiple-choice type response for questions. Besides, you can also opt to choose both ways, deciding what suits your research process and purpose better.

c. Sample Groups

Similar to the group interviews, here, you can select a group of individuals and assign them a topic to discuss or freely express their opinions over that. You can simultaneously note down the answers and later draft them appropriately, deciding on the relevance of every response.

d. Observations

If your research domain is humanities or sociology, observations are the best-proven method to draw your research methodology. Of course, you can always include studying the spontaneous response of the participants towards a situation or conducting the same but in a more structured manner. A structured observation means putting the participants in a situation at a previously decided time and then studying their responses.

Of all the tools described above, it is you who should wisely choose the instruments and decide what’s the best fit for your research. You must not restrict yourself from multiple methods or a combination of a few instruments if appropriate in drafting a good research methodology.

Types of research methodology

A research methodology exists in various forms. Depending upon their approach, whether centered around words, numbers, or both, methodologies are distinguished as qualitative, quantitative, or an amalgamation of both.

1. Qualitative research methodology

When a research methodology primarily focuses on words and textual data, then it is generally referred to as qualitative research methodology. This type is usually preferred among researchers when the aim and scope of the research are mainly theoretical and explanatory.

The instruments used are observations, interviews, and sample groups. You can use this methodology if you are trying to study human behavior or response in some situations. Generally, qualitative research methodology is widely used in sociology, psychology, and other related domains.

2. Quantitative research methodology

If your research is majorly centered on data, figures, and stats, then analyzing these numerical data is often referred to as quantitative research methodology. You can use quantitative research methodology if your research requires you to validate or justify the obtained results.

In quantitative methods, surveys, tests, experiments, and evaluations of current databases can be advantageously used as instruments If your research involves testing some hypothesis, then use this methodology.

3. Amalgam methodology

As the name suggests, the amalgam methodology uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches. This methodology is used when a part of the research requires you to verify the facts and figures, whereas the other part demands you to discover the theoretical and explanatory nature of the research question.

The instruments for the amalgam methodology require you to conduct interviews and surveys, including tests and experiments. The outcome of this methodology can be insightful and valuable as it provides precise test results in line with theoretical explanations and reasoning.

The amalgam method, makes your work both factual and rational at the same time.

Final words: How to decide which is the best research methodology?

If you have kept your sincerity and awareness intact with the aims and scope of research well enough, you must have got an idea of which research methodology suits your work best.

Before deciding which research methodology answers your research question, you must invest significant time in reading and doing your homework for that. Taking references that yield relevant results should be your first approach to establishing a research methodology.

Moreover, you should never refrain from exploring other options. Before setting your work in stone, you must try all the available options as it explains why the choice of research methodology that you finally make is more appropriate than the other available options.

You should always go for a quantitative research methodology if your research requires gathering large amounts of data, figures, and statistics. This research methodology will provide you with results if your research paper involves the validation of some hypothesis.

Whereas, if  you are looking for more explanations, reasons, opinions, and public perceptions around a theory, you must use qualitative research methodology.The choice of an appropriate research methodology ultimately depends on what you want to achieve through your research.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Research Methodology

1. how to write a research methodology.

You can always provide a separate section for research methodology where you should specify details about the methods and instruments used during the research, discussions on result analysis, including insights into the background information, and conveying the research limitations.

2. What are the types of research methodology?

There generally exists four types of research methodology i.e.

• Observation
• Experimental
• Derivational

3. What is the true meaning of research methodology?

The set of techniques or procedures followed to discover and analyze the information gathered to validate or justify a research outcome is generally called Research Methodology.

4. Where lies the importance of research methodology?

Your research methodology directly reflects the validity of your research outcomes and how well-informed your research work is. Moreover, it can help future researchers cite or refer to your research if they plan to use a similar research methodology.

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How To Write The Methodology Chapter

The what, why & how explained simply (with examples).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021 (Updated April 2023)

So, you’ve pinned down your research topic and undertaken a review of the literature – now it’s time to write up the methodology section of your dissertation, thesis or research paper . But what exactly is the methodology chapter all about – and how do you go about writing one? In this post, we’ll unpack the topic, step by step .

Overview: The Methodology Chapter

• The purpose  of the methodology chapter
• Why you need to craft this chapter (really) well
• How to write and structure the chapter
• Methodology chapter example
• Essential takeaways

What (exactly) is the methodology chapter?

The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research and outline the specific methodological choices you’ve made. The point of the methodology chapter is to tell the reader exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you did it this way.

Importantly, this chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological choices you made in your study. For example, the approach you took to your research (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed), who  you collected data from (i.e., your sampling strategy), how you collected your data and, of course, how you analysed it. If that sounds a little intimidating, don’t worry – we’ll explain all these methodological choices in this post .

Why is the methodology chapter important?

The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:

Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .

Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.

The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these. Every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. We’ll discuss limitations in a bit more detail later in this post, so stay tuned!

Need a helping hand?

How to write up the methodology chapter

First off, it’s worth noting that the exact structure and contents of the methodology chapter will vary depending on the field of research (e.g., humanities, chemistry or engineering) as well as the university . So, be sure to always check the guidelines provided by your institution for clarity and, if possible, review past dissertations from your university. Here we’re going to discuss a generic structure for a methodology chapter typically found in the sciences.

Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .

Section 1 – Introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.

In this section, you can also briefly mention how you’ll structure the chapter. This will help orient the reader and provide a bit of a roadmap so that they know what to expect. You don’t need a lot of detail here – just a brief outline will do.

Section 2 – The Methodology

The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.

Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover. 

Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy

Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.

While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.

Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.

Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .

These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.

Methodological Choice #2 – Research Type

The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .

Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.

Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.

Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed  approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.

Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.

Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.

Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.

Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment.  Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.

As you can see, the right research strategy will depend largely on your research aims and research questions – in other words, what you’re trying to figure out. Therefore, as with every other methodological choice, it’s essential to justify why you chose the research strategy you did.

Methodological Choice #4 – Time Horizon

The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).

The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.

Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.

Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random  (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).

The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies.

Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method

Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.

Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.

So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.

Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques

The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.

What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you’re conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis , thematic analysis and discourse analysis . In the video below, we explain each of these in plain language.

For quantitative studies, you’ll almost always make use of descriptive statistics , and in many cases, you’ll also use inferential statistical techniques (e.g., correlation and regression analysis). In the video below, we unpack some of the core concepts involved in descriptive and inferential statistics.

In this section of your methodology chapter, it’s also important to discuss how you prepared your data for analysis, and what software you used (if any). For example, quantitative data will often require some initial preparation such as removing duplicates or incomplete responses . Similarly, qualitative data will often require transcription and perhaps even translation. As always, remember to state both what you did and why you did it.

Section 3 – The Methodological Limitations

With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.

Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .

In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .

Section 4 – Concluding Summary

Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).

Importantly, this section needs to be brief – a paragraph or two maximum (it’s a summary, after all). Also, make sure that when you write up your concluding summary, you include only what you’ve already discussed in your chapter; don’t add any new information.

Methodology Chapter Example

In the video below, we walk you through an example of a high-quality research methodology chapter from a dissertation. We also unpack our free methodology chapter template so that you can see how best to structure your chapter.

Wrapping Up

And there you have it – the methodology chapter in a nutshell. As we’ve mentioned, the exact contents and structure of this chapter can vary between universities , so be sure to check in with your institution before you start writing. If possible, try to find dissertations or theses from former students of your specific degree program – this will give you a strong indication of the expectations and norms when it comes to the methodology chapter (and all the other chapters!).

Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.

If you need a helping hand with your research methodology (or any other component of your research), be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through every step of the research journey. Until next time, good luck!

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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How to Write Research Methodology

Last Updated: May 27, 2024 Approved

This article was co-authored by Alexander Ruiz, M.Ed. and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Alexander Ruiz is an Educational Consultant and the Educational Director of Link Educational Institute, a tutoring business based in Claremont, California that provides customizable educational plans, subject and test prep tutoring, and college application consulting. With over a decade and a half of experience in the education industry, Alexander coaches students to increase their self-awareness and emotional intelligence while achieving skills and the goal of achieving skills and higher education. He holds a BA in Psychology from Florida International University and an MA in Education from Georgia Southern University. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, several readers have written to tell us that this article was helpful to them, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 524,025 times.

The research methodology section of any academic research paper gives you the opportunity to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your field of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall approach – whether qualitative or quantitative – and adequately describes the methods you used. Justify why you chose those methods over others, then explain how those methods will provide answers to your research questions. [1] X Research source

Describing Your Methods

• In your restatement, include any underlying assumptions that you're making or conditions that you're taking for granted. These assumptions will also inform the research methods you've chosen.
• Generally, state the variables you'll test and the other conditions you're controlling or assuming are equal.

• If you want to research and document measurable social trends, or evaluate the impact of a particular policy on various variables, use a quantitative approach focused on data collection and statistical analysis.
• If you want to evaluate people's views or understanding of a particular issue, choose a more qualitative approach.
• You can also combine the two. For example, you might look primarily at a measurable social trend, but also interview people and get their opinions on how that trend is affecting their lives.

• For example, if you conducted a survey, you would describe the questions included in the survey, where and how the survey was conducted (such as in person, online, over the phone), how many surveys were distributed, and how long your respondents had to complete the survey.
• Include enough detail that your study can be replicated by others in your field, even if they may not get the same results you did. [4] X Research source

• Qualitative research methods typically require more detailed explanation than quantitative methods.
• Basic investigative procedures don't need to be explained in detail. Generally, you can assume that your readers have a general understanding of common research methods that social scientists use, such as surveys or focus groups.

• For example, suppose you conducted a survey and used a couple of other research papers to help construct the questions on your survey. You would mention those as contributing sources.

Justifying Your Choice of Methods

• Describe study participants specifically, and list any inclusion or exclusion criteria you used when forming your group of participants.
• Justify the size of your sample, if applicable, and describe how this affects whether your study can be generalized to larger populations. For example, if you conducted a survey of 30 percent of the student population of a university, you could potentially apply those results to the student body as a whole, but maybe not to students at other universities.

• Reading other research papers is a good way to identify potential problems that commonly arise with various methods. State whether you actually encountered any of these common problems during your research.

• If you encountered any problems as you collected data, explain clearly the steps you took to minimize the effect that problem would have on your results.

• In some cases, this may be as simple as stating that while there were numerous studies using one method, there weren't any using your method, which caused a gap in understanding of the issue.
• For example, there may be multiple papers providing quantitative analysis of a particular social trend. However, none of these papers looked closely at how this trend was affecting the lives of people.

Connecting Your Methods to Your Research Goals

• Depending on your research questions, you may be mixing quantitative and qualitative analysis – just as you could potentially use both approaches. For example, you might do a statistical analysis, and then interpret those statistics through a particular theoretical lens.

• For example, suppose you're researching the effect of college education on family farms in rural America. While you could do interviews of college-educated people who grew up on a family farm, that would not give you a picture of the overall effect. A quantitative approach and statistical analysis would give you a bigger picture.

• If in answering your research questions, your findings have raised other questions that may require further research, state these briefly.
• You can also include here any limitations to your methods, or questions that weren't answered through your research.

• Generalization is more typically used in quantitative research. If you have a well-designed sample, you can statistically apply your results to the larger population your sample belongs to.

Template to Write Research Methodology

Community Q&A

• Organize your methodology section chronologically, starting with how you prepared to conduct your research methods, how you gathered data, and how you analyzed that data. [13] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Write your research methodology section in past tense, unless you're submitting the methodology section before the research described has been carried out. [14] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Discuss your plans in detail with your advisor or supervisor before committing to a particular methodology. They can help identify possible flaws in your study. [15] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ http://expertjournals.com/how-to-write-a-research-methodology-for-your-academic-article/
• ↑ http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/methodology
• ↑ https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/dissertation-methodology.html
• ↑ https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/4245/05Chap%204_Research%20methodology%20and%20design.pdf
• ↑ https://elc.polyu.edu.hk/FYP/html/method.htm

About This Article

To write a research methodology, start with a section that outlines the problems or questions you'll be studying, including your hypotheses or whatever it is you're setting out to prove. Then, briefly explain why you chose to use either a qualitative or quantitative approach for your study. Next, go over when and where you conducted your research and what parameters you used to ensure you were objective. Finally, cite any sources you used to decide on the methodology for your research. To learn how to justify your choice of methods in your research methodology, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE:   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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The Ultimate Guide To Research Methodology

Research methodology is a crucial aspect of any investigative process, serving as the blueprint for the entire research journey. If you are stuck in the methodology section of your research paper , then this blog will guide you on what is a research methodology, its types and how to successfully conduct one. 

Table of Contents

What Is Research Methodology?

Research methodology can be defined as the systematic framework that guides researchers in designing, conducting, and analyzing their investigations. It encompasses a structured set of processes, techniques, and tools employed to gather and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of the research findings. 

Research methodology is not confined to a singular approach; rather, it encapsulates a diverse range of methods tailored to the specific requirements of the research objectives.

Here is why Research methodology is important in academic and professional settings.

Facilitating Rigorous Inquiry

Research methodology forms the backbone of rigorous inquiry. It provides a structured approach that aids researchers in formulating precise thesis statements , selecting appropriate methodologies, and executing systematic investigations. This, in turn, enhances the quality and credibility of the research outcomes.

Ensuring Reproducibility And Reliability

In both academic and professional contexts, the ability to reproduce research outcomes is paramount. A well-defined research methodology establishes clear procedures, making it possible for others to replicate the study. This not only validates the findings but also contributes to the cumulative nature of knowledge.

Guiding Decision-Making Processes

In professional settings, decisions often hinge on reliable data and insights. Research methodology equips professionals with the tools to gather pertinent information, analyze it rigorously, and derive meaningful conclusions.

This informed decision-making is instrumental in achieving organizational goals and staying ahead in competitive environments.

Contributing To Academic Excellence

For academic researchers, adherence to robust research methodology is a hallmark of excellence. Institutions value research that adheres to high standards of methodology, fostering a culture of academic rigour and intellectual integrity. Furthermore, it prepares students with critical skills applicable beyond academia.

Enhancing Problem-Solving Abilities

Research methodology instills a problem-solving mindset by encouraging researchers to approach challenges systematically. It equips individuals with the skills to dissect complex issues, formulate hypotheses , and devise effective strategies for investigation.

Understanding Research Methodology

In the pursuit of knowledge and discovery, understanding the fundamentals of research methodology is paramount. 

Basics Of Research

Research, in its essence, is a systematic and organized process of inquiry aimed at expanding our understanding of a particular subject or phenomenon. It involves the exploration of existing knowledge, the formulation of hypotheses, and the collection and analysis of data to draw meaningful conclusions. 

Research is a dynamic and iterative process that contributes to the continuous evolution of knowledge in various disciplines.

Types of Research

Research takes on various forms, each tailored to the nature of the inquiry. Broadly classified, research can be categorized into two main types:

• Quantitative Research: This type involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. It is particularly useful for testing hypotheses and making predictions.
• Qualitative Research: Qualitative research focuses on understanding the depth and details of a phenomenon through non-numerical data. It often involves methods such as interviews, focus groups, and content analysis, providing rich insights into complex issues.

Components Of Research Methodology

To conduct effective research, one must go through the different components of research methodology. These components form the scaffolding that supports the entire research process, ensuring its coherence and validity.

Research Design

Research design serves as the blueprint for the entire research project. It outlines the overall structure and strategy for conducting the study. The three primary types of research design are:

• Exploratory Research: Aimed at gaining insights and familiarity with the topic, often used in the early stages of research.
• Descriptive Research: Involves portraying an accurate profile of a situation or phenomenon, answering the ‘what,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’ and ‘when’ questions.
• Explanatory Research: Seeks to identify the causes and effects of a phenomenon, explaining the ‘why’ and ‘how.’

Data Collection Methods

Choosing the right data collection methods is crucial for obtaining reliable and relevant information. Common methods include:

• Surveys and Questionnaires: Employed to gather information from a large number of respondents through standardized questions.
• Interviews: In-depth conversations with participants, offering qualitative insights.
• Observation: Systematic watching and recording of behaviour, events, or processes in their natural setting.

Data Analysis Techniques

Once data is collected, analysis becomes imperative to derive meaningful conclusions. Different methodologies exist for quantitative and qualitative data:

• Quantitative Data Analysis: Involves statistical techniques such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and regression analysis to interpret numerical data.
• Qualitative Data Analysis: Methods like content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory are employed to extract patterns, themes, and meanings from non-numerical data.

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Choosing a Research Method

Selecting an appropriate research method is a critical decision in the research process. It determines the approach, tools, and techniques that will be used to answer the research questions. 

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data, providing a structured and objective approach to understanding and explaining phenomena.

Experimental Research

Experimental research involves manipulating variables to observe the effect on another variable under controlled conditions. It aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Key Characteristics:

• Controlled Environment: Experiments are conducted in a controlled setting to minimize external influences.
• Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions.
• Quantitative Data: Data collected is numerical, allowing for statistical analysis.

Applications: Commonly used in scientific studies and psychology to test hypotheses and identify causal relationships.

Survey Research

Survey research gathers information from a sample of individuals through standardized questionnaires or interviews. It aims to collect data on opinions, attitudes, and behaviours.

• Structured Instruments: Surveys use structured instruments, such as questionnaires, to collect data.
• Large Sample Size: Surveys often target a large and diverse group of participants.
• Quantitative Data Analysis: Responses are quantified for statistical analysis.

Applications: Widely employed in social sciences, marketing, and public opinion research to understand trends and preferences.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to portray an accurate profile of a situation or phenomenon. It focuses on answering the ‘what,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’ and ‘when’ questions.

• Observation and Data Collection: This involves observing and documenting without manipulating variables.
• Objective Description: Aim to provide an unbiased and factual account of the subject.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: T his can include both types of data, depending on the research focus.

Applications: Useful in situations where researchers want to understand and describe a phenomenon without altering it, common in social sciences and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research emphasizes exploring and understanding the depth and complexity of phenomena through non-numerical data.

A case study is an in-depth exploration of a particular person, group, event, or situation. It involves detailed, context-rich analysis.

• Rich Data Collection: Uses various data sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents.
• Contextual Understanding: Aims to understand the context and unique characteristics of the case.
• Holistic Approach: Examines the case in its entirety.

Applications: Common in social sciences, psychology, and business to investigate complex and specific instances.

Ethnography

Ethnography involves immersing the researcher in the culture or community being studied to gain a deep understanding of their behaviours, beliefs, and practices.

• Participant Observation: Researchers actively participate in the community or setting.
• Holistic Perspective: Focuses on the interconnectedness of cultural elements.
• Qualitative Data: In-depth narratives and descriptions are central to ethnographic studies.

Applications: Widely used in anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies to explore and document cultural practices.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory aims to develop theories grounded in the data itself. It involves systematic data collection and analysis to construct theories from the ground up.

• Constant Comparison: Data is continually compared and analyzed during the research process.
• Inductive Reasoning: Theories emerge from the data rather than being imposed on it.
• Iterative Process: The research design evolves as the study progresses.

Applications: Commonly applied in sociology, nursing, and management studies to generate theories from empirical data.

Research design is the structural framework that outlines the systematic process and plan for conducting a study. It serves as the blueprint, guiding researchers on how to collect, analyze, and interpret data.

Exploratory, Descriptive, And Explanatory Designs

Exploratory design.

Exploratory research design is employed when a researcher aims to explore a relatively unknown subject or gain insights into a complex phenomenon.

• Flexibility: Allows for flexibility in data collection and analysis.
• Open-Ended Questions: Uses open-ended questions to gather a broad range of information.
• Preliminary Nature: Often used in the initial stages of research to formulate hypotheses.

Applications: Valuable in the early stages of investigation, especially when the researcher seeks a deeper understanding of a subject before formalizing research questions.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research design focuses on portraying an accurate profile of a situation, group, or phenomenon.

• Structured Data Collection: Involves systematic and structured data collection methods.
• Objective Presentation: Aims to provide an unbiased and factual account of the subject.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: Can incorporate both types of data, depending on the research objectives.

Applications: Widely used in social sciences, marketing, and educational research to provide detailed and objective descriptions.

Explanatory Design

Explanatory research design aims to identify the causes and effects of a phenomenon, explaining the ‘why’ and ‘how’ behind observed relationships.

• Causal Relationships: Seeks to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Controlled Variables : Often involves controlling certain variables to isolate causal factors.
• Quantitative Analysis: Primarily relies on quantitative data analysis techniques.

Applications: Commonly employed in scientific studies and social sciences to delve into the underlying reasons behind observed patterns.

Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross-sectional design.

Cross-sectional designs collect data from participants at a single point in time.

• Snapshot View: Provides a snapshot of a population at a specific moment.
• Efficiency: More efficient in terms of time and resources.
• Limited Temporal Insights: Offers limited insights into changes over time.

Applications: Suitable for studying characteristics or behaviours that are stable or not expected to change rapidly.

Longitudinal Design

Longitudinal designs involve the collection of data from the same participants over an extended period.

• Temporal Sequence: Allows for the examination of changes over time.
• Causality Assessment: Facilitates the assessment of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Resource-Intensive: Requires more time and resources compared to cross-sectional designs.

Applications: Ideal for studying developmental processes, trends, or the impact of interventions over time.

Experimental Vs Non-experimental Designs

Experimental design.

Experimental designs involve manipulating variables under controlled conditions to observe the effect on another variable.

• Causality Inference: Enables the inference of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Quantitative Data: Primarily involves the collection and analysis of numerical data.

Applications: Commonly used in scientific studies, psychology, and medical research to establish causal relationships.

Non-Experimental Design

Non-experimental designs observe and describe phenomena without manipulating variables.

• Natural Settings: Data is often collected in natural settings without intervention.
• Descriptive or Correlational: Focuses on describing relationships or correlations between variables.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: This can involve either type of data, depending on the research approach.

Applications: Suitable for studying complex phenomena in real-world settings where manipulation may not be ethical or feasible.

Effective data collection is fundamental to the success of any research endeavour. 

Designing Effective Surveys

Objective Design:

• Clearly define the research objectives to guide the survey design.
• Craft questions that align with the study’s goals and avoid ambiguity.

Structured Format:

• Use a structured format with standardized questions for consistency.
• Include a mix of closed-ended and open-ended questions for detailed insights.

Pilot Testing:

• Conduct pilot tests to identify and rectify potential issues with survey design.
• Ensure clarity, relevance, and appropriateness of questions.

Sampling Strategy:

• Develop a robust sampling strategy to ensure a representative participant group.
• Consider random sampling or stratified sampling based on the research goals.

Conducting Interviews

Establishing Rapport:

• Build rapport with participants to create a comfortable and open environment.
• Clearly communicate the purpose of the interview and the value of participants’ input.

Open-Ended Questions:

• Frame open-ended questions to encourage detailed responses.
• Allow participants to express their thoughts and perspectives freely.

Active Listening:

• Practice active listening to understand areas and gather rich data.
• Avoid interrupting and maintain a non-judgmental stance during the interview.

Ethical Considerations:

• Obtain informed consent and assure participants of confidentiality.
• Be transparent about the study’s purpose and potential implications.

Observation

1. participant observation.

Immersive Participation:

• Actively immerse yourself in the setting or group being observed.
• Develop a deep understanding of behaviours, interactions, and context.

Field Notes:

• Maintain detailed and reflective field notes during observations.
• Document observed patterns, unexpected events, and participant reactions.

Ethical Awareness:

• Be conscious of ethical considerations, ensuring respect for participants.
• Balance the role of observer and participant to minimize bias.

2. Non-participant Observation

Objective Observation:

• Maintain a more detached and objective stance during non-participant observation.
• Focus on recording behaviours, events, and patterns without direct involvement.

Data Reliability:

• Enhance the reliability of data by reducing observer bias.
• Develop clear observation protocols and guidelines.

Contextual Understanding:

• Strive for a thorough understanding of the observed context.
• Consider combining non-participant observation with other methods for triangulation.

Archival Research

1. using existing data.

Identifying Relevant Archives:

• Locate and access archives relevant to the research topic.
• Collaborate with institutions or repositories holding valuable data.

Data Verification:

• Verify the accuracy and reliability of archived data.
• Cross-reference with other sources to ensure data integrity.

Ethical Use:

• Adhere to ethical guidelines when using existing data.
• Respect copyright and intellectual property rights.

2. Challenges and Considerations

Incomplete or Inaccurate Archives:

• Address the possibility of incomplete or inaccurate archival records.
• Acknowledge limitations and uncertainties in the data.

Temporal Bias:

• Recognize potential temporal biases in archived data.
• Consider the historical context and changes that may impact interpretation.

Access Limitations:

• Address potential limitations in accessing certain archives.
• Seek alternative sources or collaborate with institutions to overcome barriers.

Common Challenges in Research Methodology

Conducting research is a complex and dynamic process, often accompanied by a myriad of challenges. Addressing these challenges is crucial to ensure the reliability and validity of research findings.

Sampling Issues

Sampling bias:.

• The presence of sampling bias can lead to an unrepresentative sample, affecting the generalizability of findings.
• Employ random sampling methods and ensure the inclusion of diverse participants to reduce bias.

Sample Size Determination:

• Determining an appropriate sample size is a delicate balance. Too small a sample may lack statistical power, while an excessively large sample may strain resources.
• Conduct a power analysis to determine the optimal sample size based on the research objectives and expected effect size.

Data Quality And Validity

Measurement error:.

• Inaccuracies in measurement tools or data collection methods can introduce measurement errors, impacting the validity of results.
• Pilot test instruments, calibrate equipment, and use standardized measures to enhance the reliability of data.

Construct Validity:

• Ensuring that the chosen measures accurately capture the intended constructs is a persistent challenge.
• Use established measurement instruments and employ multiple measures to assess the same construct for triangulation.

Time And Resource Constraints

Timeline pressures:.

• Limited timeframes can compromise the depth and thoroughness of the research process.
• Develop a realistic timeline, prioritize tasks, and communicate expectations with stakeholders to manage time constraints effectively.

Resource Availability:

• Inadequate resources, whether financial or human, can impede the execution of research activities.
• Seek external funding, collaborate with other researchers, and explore alternative methods that require fewer resources.

Managing Bias in Research

Selection bias:.

• Selecting participants in a way that systematically skews the sample can introduce selection bias.
• Employ randomization techniques, use stratified sampling, and transparently report participant recruitment methods.

Confirmation Bias:

• Researchers may unintentionally favour information that confirms their preconceived beliefs or hypotheses.
• Adopt a systematic and open-minded approach, use blinded study designs, and engage in peer review to mitigate confirmation bias.

Tips On How To Write A Research Methodology

Conducting successful research relies not only on the application of sound methodologies but also on strategic planning and effective collaboration. Here are some tips to enhance the success of your research methodology:

Tip 1. Clear Research Objectives

Well-defined research objectives guide the entire research process. Clearly articulate the purpose of your study, outlining specific research questions or hypotheses.

Tip 2. Comprehensive Literature Review

A thorough literature review provides a foundation for understanding existing knowledge and identifying gaps. Invest time in reviewing relevant literature to inform your research design and methodology.

Tip 3. Detailed Research Plan

A detailed plan serves as a roadmap, ensuring all aspects of the research are systematically addressed. Develop a detailed research plan outlining timelines, milestones, and tasks.

Tip 4. Ethical Considerations

Ethical practices are fundamental to maintaining the integrity of research. Address ethical considerations early, obtain necessary approvals, and ensure participant rights are safeguarded.

Tip 5. Stay Updated On Methodologies

Research methodologies evolve, and staying updated is essential for employing the most effective techniques. Engage in continuous learning by attending workshops, conferences, and reading recent publications.

Tip 6. Adaptability In Methods

Unforeseen challenges may arise during research, necessitating adaptability in methods. Be flexible and willing to modify your approach when needed, ensuring the integrity of the study.

Tip 7. Iterative Approach

Research is often an iterative process, and refining methods based on ongoing findings enhance the study’s robustness. Regularly review and refine your research design and methods as the study progresses.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the research methodology.

Research methodology is the systematic process of planning, executing, and evaluating scientific investigation. It encompasses the techniques, tools, and procedures used to collect, analyze, and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of research findings.

What are the methodologies in research?

Research methodologies include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Qualitative methods involve in-depth exploration of non-numerical data, while quantitative methods use statistical analysis to examine numerical data. Mixed methods combine both approaches for a comprehensive understanding of research questions.

How to write research methodology?

To write a research methodology, clearly outline the study’s design, data collection, and analysis procedures. Specify research tools, participants, and sampling methods. Justify choices and discuss limitations. Ensure clarity, coherence, and alignment with research objectives for a robust methodology section.

How to write the methodology section of a research paper?

In the methodology section of a research paper, describe the study’s design, data collection, and analysis methods. Detail procedures, tools, participants, and sampling. Justify choices, address ethical considerations, and explain how the methodology aligns with research objectives, ensuring clarity and rigour.

What is mixed research methodology?

Mixed research methodology combines both qualitative and quantitative research approaches within a single study. This approach aims to enhance the details and depth of research findings by providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or question.

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• How to Write Your Methods

Ensure understanding, reproducibility and replicability

What should you include in your methods section, and how much detail is appropriate?

Why Methods Matter

The methods section was once the most likely part of a paper to be unfairly abbreviated, overly summarized, or even relegated to hard-to-find sections of a publisher’s website. While some journals may responsibly include more detailed elements of methods in supplementary sections, the movement for increased reproducibility and rigor in science has reinstated the importance of the methods section. Methods are now viewed as a key element in establishing the credibility of the research being reported, alongside the open availability of data and results.

A clear methods section impacts editorial evaluation and readers’ understanding, and is also the backbone of transparency and replicability.

For example, the Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology project set out in 2013 to replicate experiments from 50 high profile cancer papers, but revised their target to 18 papers once they understood how much methodological detail was not contained in the original papers.

What to include in your methods section

What you include in your methods sections depends on what field you are in and what experiments you are performing. However, the general principle in place at the majority of journals is summarized well by the guidelines at PLOS ONE : “The Materials and Methods section should provide enough detail to allow suitably skilled investigators to fully replicate your study. ” The emphases here are deliberate: the methods should enable readers to understand your paper, and replicate your study. However, there is no need to go into the level of detail that a lay-person would require—the focus is on the reader who is also trained in your field, with the suitable skills and knowledge to attempt a replication.

A constant principle of rigorous science

A methods section that enables other researchers to understand and replicate your results is a constant principle of rigorous, transparent, and Open Science. Aim to be thorough, even if a particular journal doesn’t require the same level of detail . Reproducibility is all of our responsibility. You cannot create any problems by exceeding a minimum standard of information. If a journal still has word-limits—either for the overall article or specific sections—and requires some methodological details to be in a supplemental section, that is OK as long as the extra details are searchable and findable .

Imagine replicating your own work, years in the future

As part of PLOS’ presentation on Reproducibility and Open Publishing (part of UCSF’s Reproducibility Series ) we recommend planning the level of detail in your methods section by imagining you are writing for your future self, replicating your own work. When you consider that you might be at a different institution, with different account logins, applications, resources, and access levels—you can help yourself imagine the level of specificity that you yourself would require to redo the exact experiment. Consider:

• Which details would you need to be reminded of? 
• Which cell line, or antibody, or software, or reagent did you use, and does it have a Research Resource ID (RRID) that you can cite?
• Which version of a questionnaire did you use in your survey? 
• Exactly which visual stimulus did you show participants, and is it publicly available? 
• What participants did you decide to exclude? 
• What process did you adjust, during your work? 

Tip: Be sure to capture any changes to your protocols

You yourself would want to know about any adjustments, if you ever replicate the work, so you can surmise that anyone else would want to as well. Even if a necessary adjustment you made was not ideal, transparency is the key to ensuring this is not regarded as an issue in the future. It is far better to transparently convey any non-optimal methods, or methodological constraints, than to conceal them, which could result in reproducibility or ethical issues downstream.

Visual aids for methods help when reading the whole paper

Consider whether a visual representation of your methods could be appropriate or aid understanding your process. A visual reference readers can easily return to, like a flow-diagram, decision-tree, or checklist, can help readers to better understand the complete article, not just the methods section.

Ethical Considerations

In addition to describing what you did, it is just as important to assure readers that you also followed all relevant ethical guidelines when conducting your research. While ethical standards and reporting guidelines are often presented in a separate section of a paper, ensure that your methods and protocols actually follow these guidelines. Read more about ethics .

Existing standards, checklists, guidelines, partners

While the level of detail contained in a methods section should be guided by the universal principles of rigorous science outlined above, various disciplines, fields, and projects have worked hard to design and develop consistent standards, guidelines, and tools to help with reporting all types of experiment. Below, you’ll find some of the key initiatives. Ensure you read the submission guidelines for the specific journal you are submitting to, in order to discover any further journal- or field-specific policies to follow, or initiatives/tools to utilize.

Tip: Keep your paper moving forward by providing the proper paperwork up front

Be sure to check the journal guidelines and provide the necessary documents with your manuscript submission. Collecting the necessary documentation can greatly slow the first round of peer review, or cause delays when you submit your revision.

Randomized Controlled Trials – CONSORT The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) project covers various initiatives intended to prevent the problems of  inadequate reporting of randomized controlled trials. The primary initiative is an evidence-based minimum set of recommendations for reporting randomized trials known as the CONSORT Statement . 

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses – PRISMA The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses ( PRISMA ) is an evidence-based minimum set of items focusing  on the reporting of  reviews evaluating randomized trials and other types of research.

Research using Animals – ARRIVE The Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments ( ARRIVE ) guidelines encourage maximizing the information reported in research using animals thereby minimizing unnecessary studies. (Original study and proposal , and updated guidelines , in PLOS Biology .) 

Laboratory Protocols Protocols.io has developed a platform specifically for the sharing and updating of laboratory protocols , which are assigned their own DOI and can be linked from methods sections of papers to enhance reproducibility. Contextualize your protocol and improve discovery with an accompanying Lab Protocol article in PLOS ONE .

Consistent reporting of Materials, Design, and Analysis – the MDAR checklist A cross-publisher group of editors and experts have developed, tested, and rolled out a checklist to help establish and harmonize reporting standards in the Life Sciences . The checklist , which is available for use by authors to compile their methods, and editors/reviewers to check methods, establishes a minimum set of requirements in transparent reporting and is adaptable to any discipline within the Life Sciences, by covering a breadth of potentially relevant methodological items and considerations. If you are in the Life Sciences and writing up your methods section, try working through the MDAR checklist and see whether it helps you include all relevant details into your methods, and whether it reminded you of anything you might have missed otherwise.

Summary Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your methods is keeping it readable AND covering all the details needed for reproducibility and replicability. While this is difficult, do not compromise on rigorous standards for credibility!

• Keep in mind future replicability, alongside understanding and readability.
• Follow checklists, and field- and journal-specific guidelines.
• Consider a commitment to rigorous and transparent science a personal responsibility, and not just adhering to journal guidelines.
• Establish whether there are persistent identifiers for any research resources you use that can be specifically cited in your methods section.
• Deposit your laboratory protocols in Protocols.io, establishing a permanent link to them. You can update your protocols later if you improve on them, as can future scientists who follow your protocols.
• Consider visual aids like flow-diagrams, lists, to help with reading other sections of the paper.
• Be specific about all decisions made during the experiments that someone reproducing your work would need to know.

Don’t

• Summarize or abbreviate methods without giving full details in a discoverable supplemental section.
• Presume you will always be able to remember how you performed the experiments, or have access to private or institutional notebooks and resources.
• Attempt to hide constraints or non-optimal decisions you had to make–transparency is the key to ensuring the credibility of your research.
• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

Method Statement HQ

Construction Documentation Portal

Project Construction Methodology

Construction methodology or project execution methodology  refers to the planned method of construction , taking into account all contractual and legal requirements, construction constraints, risks, and opportunities.

Project Methodology includes the temporary and permanent works and the services required to complete the construction works.

Below is given a detailed methodology for construction of a civil project, which can be used for planning a good project and to show the clients and consultants that a civil  main contracting company is able to manage a project.

This approach can be customized as per site requirements and can help planning & operation departments to prepare a professional construction methodology .

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY PLANS & PROCEDURAL APPROACH

This project implementation strategy also called construction methodology provides general information of the methods procedures and sequencing to be used fur the project. Where specific areas of work are of a difficult nature, safety concern or there is a specific requirement a detailed method statement will be prepared in the future

In developing the planning the site location should be considered nod it will be necessary to mobilize and establish at the site various temporary facilities and equipment prior to commencing the works.

It is also necessary to establish and hare certain staff at the site for the works. this will be at an agreed location with the client.

Initial planning, preparation of shop drawings, detailing material procurement and arrangement of sub contractors will be carried out from the head office.

PROJECT CONTROL SYSTEM

The planning and documentation requirements listed here are considered adequate control for the works and no further criteria for the detailed plans or procedures are deemed necessary.

This will address in detail the requirements of the contract and specifically the procedures and plans outlined in the various annexure for schedule project control services.

ORGANISATION CHART

The company organization chart of the project shows both the head office personnel and the sue personnel. Initially all administrative and technical personnel would be based at company head office. However when the project is fully mobilized the staff would be located at site.

CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY PROJECT PLANNING

The construction methodology or execution planning services will be provided in accordance with contract requirements. The level I works master schedule will be based on the tender scheme program and will be submitted initially after the contract award.

Following the review and approval of the level I program the more detailed levels of programs will be prepared.

Project control is required for the following documentation.

a) Shop drawing preparation.

b) Material procurement.

c) Arranging subcontractors.

d) Material delivery

The program dates for these items will he derived from the overall project schedule.

Exporting these items from the primavera database to a spreadsheet will be done to implement this.

This will allow the preparation of customizable report showing the status on each of these activities.

Initially all of the planning activities will be carried out in the company head office using a senior planner.

The work carried out on a project will comprise of monitoring progress, updating the schedule and providing short term look ahead programs.

Actual progress of the works is continuously monitored and compared with the schedule.

Variances are defined and assessed In case of any delay, a recovery plan is prepared along With costs and resources impact.

CONTRACT & SHOP DRAWINGS

On the award of the contract the contract-drawing list as per the front index sheet will be prepared as a spreadsheet.

This will be used as the basis for the drawing register for the project.

 Additional columns or fields will be added to indicate when the drawing is distributed to a particular party or subcontractor.

In the event that any of the contract drawings are modified and reissued a new entry will be added to the list. The spreadsheet will contain an additional field for the revision number and date.

At the start of the contract a thorough review would be carried out of the construction methods.

Based on the complexity of the particular work and the level of detail in the contract drawings a master list of shop drawings envisaged will be prepared.

Consultation will be held with subcontractors to verify the draft drawing list shop for their work.

The master list of shop drawings will include the following information on a spreadsheet

a) Drawing reference.

b) Drawing title,

c) Discipline

d) Drawing originator

e) Preparation date.

f) Issue for approval date.

SUBCONTRACTORS SELECTION METHODOLOGY

At the tender stage a preliminary list of subcontractors will be prepared and used for Inquiries.

However upon award of the contract a thorough review would be carried out of the list of subcontractors At the start of the project a list of all the subcontracts will be prepared.

The scope of work for the subcontractors will be precisely defined and identified by using the bill of quantities stern numbers.

The bill of quantities will be prepared on a spreadsheet and this will allow specific activities / work relevant to one subcontract to be edited out.

This will provide financial control reporting on information obtained from the spreadsheet.

Additional columns will be introduced in the spreadsheet to identify which subcontract the work is allocated to.

In the case of one bill item being split between the main contractor and different subcontractors the bill item will be split.

The drawings relevant to each subcontract will be identified.

A standard form of the contract will be prepared that is specific to the project. This will reflect the contract terms and conditions of the main contract with the client.

The standard form of subcontract will identify the facilities, services, temporary works, plant and equipment to be provided by the main contractor and by the subcontractor.

CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PROCUREMENT STRATEGY 

This section of the project construction methodology plan covers the procurement of the permanent works equipment, materials and services which can either be arranged as

• A material supply contract from a local company
• A material supply contract from an overseas company
• As sub contracted work where the sub contractor provides plant, equipment, materials and labor for the installation or construction.
• A material supply, which is under prime cost and will be decided during the project.

On the award of the contract a comprehensive list of all the permanent works materials will be prepared along with the work elements to be subcontracted.

Based on this list inquiries will be sent out to potential suppliers or subcontractors. Inquiries will include relevant bill of quantities sections, contract drawings, specifications sections and program dates. Suppliers / subcontractors will be given a set time period to respond.

This period will depend on the complexity of the supply or subcontractors works. The returned material or subcontract offers will be reviewed for their compliance with the contract documents for quality and ability to meet program.

The cost and commercial terms of each offer will be reviewed based on the best quality and ability to meet program and cost. A potential material supplier or subcontractor will be identified and submitted to the client for approval. After approval of the material supplier or subcontractor an award will be made using the standard format terms and condition for the supply. After the award the precise programme dates will be discussed in detail with the supplier or subcontractor.

The subcontractor will prepare shop drawings relevant to his scope of work. Once an order is placed, regular follow-ups with the supplier/ subcontractor are carried out to ensure compliance with the delivery schedule.

MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL  METHODOLOGY

In order to establish the required standard of supplied materials samples of the material will be supplied where appropriate. These will be kept on site and referenced as the submission sample.

These will be available for inspection by the client and the consultant and can be used in comparison with the supplied materials. On receipt of the product. QC personnel inspect the items to ensure compliance with norms and approvals.

This work shall be carried out in advance of the program dates for the main work.

COMMUNICATIONS & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

It is imperative that good communications are established between the company head office and the site. A priority will be to establish telephone and fax line connections to the site and this would be done using the best options.

To allow the quick and efficient transfer of information between the company head office and the site a dial up internet connection will be arranged with service provider which will allow the transfer of documents us attachments between the head office and the site.

On the site a number of desktop personal computers will be provided and these will be connected to a local area network as a peer-to-peer network. This will allow common project documents and information to be viewed after designation of drives or directories are shared.

The type of computer software envisaged for the project will be as follows:

a) Windows operating system.

is) Microsoft Office including word, excel and access

METHODOLOGY FOR COORDINATION WITH SUBCONTRACTORS

Due attention and instruction will be given to our subcontractors in their activities and regular meetings will be arranged to coordinate their works together and with the contractor’s main activities as per the program set forth.

Upon Nomination, Separate meeting will be held with M.E P. Subcontractor, Aluminum / Curtain Wall Subcontractor and Lifts Subcontractor in order to establish proper coordination between all activities and to follow program of works.

TASKS PERFORMED AT HEAD OFFICE

Engineering:

a) Design and drawing.

b) Technical clarification.

c) Quality plan and procedures.

d) Inspection and test plan.

e) Safety and Environmental manual and procedures.

a) Preparation and modification of Master Program.

b) Assignment and control of manpower.

c) Assignment and control of plant equipment.

Procurement:

a) Sourcing and submittal of subcontractors.

b) Sourcing of Material suppliers.

c) Procurement of materials as per site requirement

TASKS PERFORMED AT SITE OFFICE

Site office will carry out all activities necessary to complete the project as per contract requirements. The project manager will be liaising with the head office.

Project manager will be authorized to communicate directly with the client and the consultant on matters concerning the selection of subcontractors and vendors, the procurement of material / equipment and decisions on Financial matters related to progress payments on to variations.

The project manager will follow the general guidelines set by the company management and will report thereto through the projects manager/ management coordinator

Download Civil Project Execution Method Statements

PROJECT MOBILIZATION  PLANNING  METHODOLOGY

  PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT:

Based on the project schedule, detailed manpower histogram will be prepared for whole period of the project. The histogram is then copied to the Support Service Department to analyze the requirements, coordinate and make necessary arrangements for the availability of the personnel as and when needed.

The project manager will review the histogram periodically and instruct update I amendment as necessary. The Contractor has main plant yard in the area. Most machinery. equipment, scaffolding, tools. etc. necessary for the construction are available at that yard. Main machinery (e.g. cranes) will be provided on initial stage of the project. Further equipment will be provided from the plant yard, or hired in particular requirements in line with the works programme.

LIFTING EQUIPMENT

To ensure the programme is aunt it is critical that adequate lifting equipment be available for the lifting of material, equipment, false work and formwork.

Tower cranes would be provided as per the approved site requirements. The proposed arrangements will be submitted in due course.

The tower crane would be utilized for the:

a) Erection, stripping and movement of formwork & lifting of reinforcing bar

b) Lifting & placement of precast

c) Lifting of construction materials and equipment.

Concreting would be carried out by a concrete stationary/ mobile pump as is required and Crane & Racket system. Mobile crane will be provided as and when required.

Mobile crane will be used for unloading, loading and other construction activities when the tower cranes are engaged in ocher activities. Following progress of concrete structure personal/material hoist will be fixed.

SITE FACILITIES AND LAYOUT

Temporary (portable) buildings will be installed on site for the Contractors use. Adequate space will be allocated the client and his representative. Those facilities will be separate from the buildings under construction (permanent). They will be established on suitable location approved by the client.

Electricity and water wilt be connected for temporary use during construction. Drainage lines wail also be installed and disbursed in sewerage lines if available and allowed.

The site facilities would comprise the following :

a) Main contractor’s offices.

b) Subcontractors offices.

c) Carpentry shop.

d)   Steel rebar lay down area, cutting and bending areas.

e) Material lay-down area

f) Covered store.

g) Small temperature controlled store.

A detailed site layout plan is submitted separately.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY & SETTING OUT

Upon award of the contract a request will be made to the client for the survey and setting out benchmarks. This information should be in writing and give the levels and plan coordinates of the benchmarks and their unique reference number.

This information will be shown on an overall layout drawing and will be used to plan the establishment of a series of temporary benchmarks for the setting out of the works. These benchmarks will be arranged on orthogonal lines offset from the building edge.

Some extra benchmarks will be provided so that in the case of any benchmarks being damaged or disturbed others can be used. A number of survey rounds will be carried out to check the accuracy of the plan and level co-ordinates for the benchmarks.

This information will be submitted to the consultant or client for review and approval.

Upon approval of the benchmark co-ordinate and level information this will be issued to site personnel for construction.

All available drawings and documents on existing services will be thoroughly examined.

GEO TECHNICAL EVALUATION

Upon award of the contract a thorough review will be carried of the site investigation report for any anomalies or inconsistencies on the site investigation report.

Any queries on the site investigation report will be raised in writing to the client and consultants.

Before foundation work on any structure, a visual inspection will be carted of the formation to check that this is consistent with what was envisaged in the site investigation report.

Any differences will be brought to the attention of the client or consultant prier to casting die blinding concrete

SITE ACCESS

Within the Contractors part of the site temporary access tracks will be established to allow safe and easy passage delivery vehicles, plant, equipment and personnel to the building block locations.

The transport of small items of construction materials and equipment to the different levels on a building would be arranged by use of an access hoist/ crane.

Labor access to different levels on the building would be by the concrete staircase and hoist cranes.

Whilst work is being earned onion the staircase adder access via scaffold would be provided.

DEMOBILIZATION

After substantial completion and commencement of testing and commissioning, as built drawings and other documents necessary for maintenance will be provided. The project manager will plan carefully the demobilization on site in order to allow smooth transitioning of the site on time in the client.

This will include dismantling and removal of machines, disconnection of temporary services, removal of temporary buildings, stores and associated areas, general cleaning and reinstatement of any sidewalks, services etc. that might be required.

CIVIL WORKS CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY

Contractor will commence the project following the Client’s requirements. Upon award of contract site inspection and site take over will be done. Any differences will be brought ho time attention oldie client or consultant prior commencement of works. Site clearance works & excavation for foundations (pile caps) will be done with machines and labor where necessary.

Pile head treatment will follow excavation and completion of blinding. Pile head protection will be done in accordance to the drawings and specifications.  Raft foundation (Pile Cap) with he constructed by conventional cast insitu concrete.

Certain part of forms will be carried out as solid block work ready for application of waterproofing. Formwork will be prepared on a modular basis and comprise timber facing and timber stiffening horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal waterproofing will be applied to blinding as specified then protected with the cement sand screed before construction activities for raft stab (fixing of reinforcement, forms for construction joints and pouring of concrete).

Vertical waterproofing will be applied onto plastered surface of block wall and protected with bituminous boards. Superstructure will be carried our according to the drawings arid specifications. Vertical and horizontal members will be cast insitu concrete elements.

Concrete walls will be constructed as an insitu pour cast as a single lift for each level Forms wall be timber suitably braced to ensure proper level and alignment and would ho prepared on modular basis for reuse on each level. Tie rods and supports will be provided to ensure proper alignment and bracing of the shutters.

To ensure the program is met it is critical that adequate crane is available for the lifting of material, equipment and formwork. Tower cranes will be provided at appropriate locations which will cover complete plot. The tower cranes would have a span of 30/45 meters. The cranes will be utilized for the erection, stripping and movement of formwork; lifting of reinforcing bars, lifting of construction material and equipment etc.

Concrete pumps will carry out concrete. Simultaneously with the progress of concrete structure first fixing of M.E.P works will follow. Hoists will carry our vertical transportation of material and labor. Erection of hoists will be in several stages following vertical progress of main structure.

On completion of concrete works for some of the floors, the block work, plaster and screed work will proceed. Tiling (ceramic, e.g.) will then proceed. All completed floor tiling will be protected by means of gypsum plaster or plywood covering which will be removed and cleared before handover.

Building finishes will be applied, by completing wet building finishes on one section before starling dry building finishes Where possible building finishes will start from top to bottom to avoid damaging previously completed work. Work will also proceed linearly over a particular part of rooms; wet finishes on half of the block will be completed before dry finishes start.

Dry finish like false ceiling, framing carpentry, aluminum etc. will then proceed together with priming for paint. Commencement of aluminum (Curtain wall will start from the bottom to top. Upon completion half of the concrete structure for building, fixing of curtain wall will start.  Progress of curtain wall and finishes will be followed with the second fixing of electromechanical works.

Installation of chillier units will be advanced in order to commencement air conditioning of certain portions of the building, which can provide completion of all finishes. Installation of lifts will be in advance as soon as concrete structure is finished. Painting will be completed except for the last coat. which will follow the completion of all dry finisher and MEP pre-commissioning activities.

External pavement and kerbstones will commence after completion of external envelope.

Block Work Methodology

Detailed method statement for block work shall be prepared specifically identifying material types, quality of finish and other important aspects. Block work will commence upon removal of scaffolding and formwork.

Block work in the ground will commence after completion of slab for 2nd floor.  Concrete blocks supplied for site will be certified by Consultant.

Mortar will be mixed on site according to the specifications and trail mixes approved by consultant’s. Standard accessories with approvals by consultant will be used. Alignment and level of the adjacent concrete works have been checked prior to placing block work.

Adequate arrangements for curing of block work will be provided according to the specifications. All junction details with reinforced concrete frame will be carried out according to the previous approved drawings. Upon completion of block work.

Chasing of walls will commence to provide all necessary’ conducting. Preparation for plastering, fixing of angle beads and other accessories and applying of rush coat will follow

Plastering Methodology

Before commencement of plaster work it will be ensured that block work has been laid to the true line and Level.  All cut outs or voids in the block work will be filled or treated. Block work will be properly filled with mortar and pointed. Required Building services will he installed prior to commencement of plaster work. Trial panel area of work will completed and approved before commencement of plastering on all areas.

CERAMIC FLOOR AND WALL TILES, GRANITE AND TERRAZZO TILES

Ceramic tiles and fixing method will be as approved by consultant prior to procurement of same and delivery to site. Detailed method statement will be prepared specifically identifying material types, quality of finish and other important aspects upon award of the contract. Before commencement of tiling works in wet areas waterproofing of the floor will be tested and approved by consultant.

Pattern of laying tiles will be identified and clearly marked. Also setting out of the tiles level end datum will be established. Tiles delivered to site will be checked for, dimensions, integrity, quality and conformance with the material submission.

PAINTING METHODOLOGY

The specific methods to be used for the construction activity will be per contract specification and drawings.  Before painting works commence paint system has to be approved. Paint materials delivered to site have to be checked against the material approval.

Trial area of painting will be carried out and approved by the consultant. Before commencement with application surfaces will be dry and prepared for the paint as per manufacturers recommendations. Adequate protection will be arranged to avoid damage from paints spillage. Appropriate clean brushes, rollers or sprayers as required will be available for application of the painting material.

ALUMINIUM WORK

Detailed method statement will be prepared specifically identifying material types, quality of finish and other important aspects prior to commencement of aluminium works. All aluminium works will be carried out by approved subcontractor.

Material and system will be as  approved. Materials delivered to site will meet the material approval sample. Workshop drawings have to be approved by consultant. Delivered components to site will be protected from damage due to handling and transportation. Damaged components will be segregated and clearly labeled.

Every delivery will contain certification for thickness of protection coatings. Furthermore, dimension of fabricated members will be checked against approved drawings.

SUSPENDED CEILINGS

The specific methods to be used for the construction activity will be as per contract specification and drawings.  Supply and fixing of suspended ceiling system will be carried out by approved subcontractor. Before commencement of works on site materials and suspended system have to be approved by the   consultant.

Reflective ceiling plan for the layout will be prepared in close liaison with MEP Subcontractor. Co-ordinate mechanical and electrical drawing will be prepared In close liaison with MEP Subcontractor. Adequate supports will be provided for all light fixtures and diffusers.

Spacing of supports and installation of system will be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Installation level of the suspended ceiling has to be set out according to the approved shop drawings.

EXTERNAL WORKS CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY

• The external structures will be constructed according to the specifications and drawings. Installation of the interlock paving for footpaths would follow. The method statement for the external paving would be prepared.
• Grading to prepare earthworks formation.
• Spread granular sub base under paving.
• Place kerb bedding.
• Lay precast concrete kerb to level and line.
• Carry out level and alignment checks and obtain client approval.
• Place concrete foundation and haunch backing to kerb. Complete laying of sub base.
• Laying of the concrete interlocking pavers would follow.

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Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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• Productivity

How to Work Effectively: 13 Simple Strategies to Work Smarter

May 16, 2022 - 7 min read

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Productivity at work is something that ebbs and flows. We all have off days where we feel we could have done more. But the important thing to remember is that productivity is a habit — it's something you can build over time and become better at every day by choosing the methods and tricks that work for you.

No matter your job or industry, we all want to learn how to be effective at work and achieve our professional goals. But true productivity is more than simply checking tasks off a to-do list—it’s about doing more of what matters. Luckily, all it takes is a few adjustments to your daily work habits to see an improvement, so start with these simple tips and watch your productivity soar. 

13 ways to be more effective at work 

Trim your task list .

We all know how paralyzing it can be to start a big project or tackl e a crazy to-do list. So don’t overwhelm yourself with a massive task list! Give yourself three to five  important items  you need to accomplish in one day, and focus on those. If you get them done early, you can always add a few more things to your list, but keeping it manageable will keep you productive — instead of just keeping you busy. 

Swap your to-do list for a schedule

Sit down, look at your available time for the day, and be realistic about what you can get done. Then make a game plan: Schedule specific slots of time for each of your important tasks—and be sure to include breaks. By dedicating time and structuring your day, you can take advantage of the times of day you're naturally more focused and motivated , make tangible progress on important work, and ensure you take the necessary breaks to stay mentally fresh. 

Stop while you’re still on a roll

One of the biggest reasons we procrastinate is that we simply don’t know where to start. But if you stop working on a task for the day knowing exactly what you need to do next, it’s much easier to get started again . End every task with a defined “next step” to quickly get back in the zone next time. 

Stay organized

Highly effective people have systems in place to help them find the exact information they need right when they need it. A simple system like David Allen's Getting Things Done method (GTD) can ease the mental burden of storing reminders and ideas and free up brain space for more meaningful and effective work. Get a 20-second overview of the famous GTD method here .

Make bad habits more difficult to indulge

Constant distractions tank your productivity and IQ, and you can't work effectively if you're not performing at your best. So create some simple barriers to help you focus. If you’re constantly pulling out your phone while you work to text a friend or check social media, for instance, put your phone in a locked desk drawer and keep the key in an upstairs closet, or ask a trusted co-worker to hold on to it until lunch. 

Prioritize 

A big part of being effective at work is learning to say no. Figure out what really matters — which tasks actually move the needle on your primary goals? Which projects have the biggest impact on your bottom line? Cut the busy work that doesn’t actually amount to anything. Using a data-driven goal-setting technique like OKRs (objectives and key results) is a practical way to focus your daily efforts on clearly-defined, measurable goals that directly contribute to larger business objectives. 

Tackle your most important tasks first

Your motivation and creativity are at a high point in the morning, So instead of starting your day by checking emails (which can quickly derail your plans, as what you intended to accomplish gets pushed off or lost among incoming requests), wait a few hours to check your inbox and work on a more significant project while your mental energy is still high. 

Plan tomorrow tonight

While you shouldn't stay up agonizing over all the work waiting for you tomorrow, creating a short list of simple to-dos at night can help you hit the ground running in the morning, establishing a productive momentum that will carry you through the rest of the day. Try to include at least one moderately challenging task in your list —  according to Dr. Mihaly Csiksgentmihalyi , there's a sweet spot where your brain more easily enters that "flow" state where your brain is humming and you're doing your best work. It happens when the degree of challenge and your abilities intersect at a high point. (If the task isn't challenging enough, you'll get bored, and if it's too high, you'll get anxious and stressed). 

Use idle time to knock out admin tasks

Waiting in line at the grocery store, bus stop, bank, etc., doesn't have to be wasted time. Bring a book you’ve been meaning to read, clear a few emails, or catch up on status updates. Or simply let your mind wander and observe the world around you. You never know when your next great idea will hit you! 

Schedule meetings with yourself

Create a distraction-free zone where you can go to focus when necessary. Block time off on your calendar where you won’t be disturbed, turn off your email and message notifications (or better yet, disconnect from the internet entirely), and focus on a single important task for an hour or two. 

Change your self-talk  

Instead of saying, “I have too much to do today!” and “I’m so stressed out right now!” say, “These are the two things I need to focus on today." A simple shift in perspective can do wonders for your motivation and energy levels.

Communicate and clarify 

We all have to collaborate with others at some level to do our jobs, so learning how to work effectively with others is an essential part of improving your effectiveness at work. One of the best ways to avoid unnecessary rework and wasted time is to eliminate misunderstandings and miscommunications. Get it right the first time, and you’ll save yourself a ton of time and mental energy revising and redoing tasks. 

Find ways to do more of the work you enjoy

When you're interested in, challenged by, and good at your work, you're more engaged — and more effective . Consider which aspects of your job you look forward to, which skills you get the most praise for, and which types of projects your colleagues ask you for help with. 

While not everything you do at work can be a passion project, with a little creativity, even tedious tasks can be fun or challenging. The next time you have to generate a timesheet or expense report, time yourself and see if you can beat your personal high score. Do your best to learn something new every day , or push yourself to try something you haven't before. 

More tips and resources to improve effectiveness at work

Whether you work in marketing, project management , software development, or any other field, our collection of tips and tools on productivity and motivation will help you learn how to be more effective at work. 

Using a work management system like Wrike can help you take your productivity to the next level by looking after the small tasks so you can concentrate on the big ideas. Features like 400+ app integrations to collaborate across platforms, intuitive automation to free up time spent on admin, and customizable workflows and work views to suit your needs all lead to doing the best work of your life with software that works for you. Try it now with a free two-week trial . 

Emily Bonnie

Emily is a former Content Marketer of Wrike. She specializes in leadership, collaboration, and productivity. Her brain is stuffed with obscure grammar rules, an embarrassing amount of Star Wars trivia, and her grandmother’s pie recipes.

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Dark Matter of Work: The Cost of Work Complexities in Professional Services

Over the past few years, modern work complexities have been eating away at your bottom line through an invisible yet powerful presence in your organization — what we call the Dark Matter of Work. Just as CERN identified Dark Matter as the “invisible” content that makes up 95% of the mass of the universe, the Dark Matter of Work represents activity and details that we can’t immediately see but that have a significant influence on everything around them. From the tools we use to conduct our work to where and when we execute it, work complexities have truly exploded in recent years and will only become more complicated over time — making it increasingly difficult for employees and business leaders to get visibility and truly understand work in progress.  Wrike is focused on shining a light on the Dark Matter of Work. That’s why we recently commissioned research to investigate its impact on professional services leaders, employees, and organizations as a whole. We wanted to understand to what extent Dark Matter exists and discover the financial cost of Dark Matter affecting us all. The results are staggering and can point business leaders towards key ways they can increase efficiency to endure the unknown economic future. Let’s dive into what we found. Impact on professional services While we cannot “see” the Dark Matter of Work, we can identify where it exists. It lives in asynchronous applications and unstructured work, such as instant message threads and video calls, as well as the gaps between systems and applications that aren’t integrated. Without a single work platform that is powerful and versatile enough to track, manage, action, and align all work to goals across an organization, there exists a dangerously low level of visibility amongst knowledge workers and leaders. At present, most professional services leaders generally have little visibility into the work their teams are doing and can’t track the progress of much of that work in real time. And if we ask knowledge workers, they say employer visibility into their work is even lower — suggesting there may be more Dark Matter of Work than we think.  Wasted time Time wasted on activities such as repeating work that’s already been done, attending unproductive meetings, or following up on actions and statuses costs the average enterprise millions. The cost of the Dark Matter of Work The total cost of Dark Matter for professional services teams is quite substantial and will continue to increase exponentially unless addressed. Low visibility For business and professional services leaders, visibility into work has only increased slightly since 2020 — from 51% to 57%. And other professional services workers are struggling to view their assignments and expectations. More human costs Amid the Great Resignation, mass layoffs, and continuing remote work environment, professional services teams must work to address the human costs of the Dark Matter of Work, as well. Too many applications As hybrid work continues, professional services teams rely more and more on applications to connect them. But many of these tech tools don’t integrate with each other, decreasing visibility, increasing wasted time, and resulting in duplicative work. Plus, app integration is also moving at a slow pace from 2020 (46%) to now (53%). Illuminating the path ahead If left unchecked, Dark Matter will increase by 49% in the next five years. According to the survey, the projected cost of Dark Matter in 2027 looks to be: How can you minimize these costs? A single source of truth is essential. Professional services teams need an approach that is robust enough to manage and orchestrate complex workflows and simple enough for team members to use. The organization with full visibility into these workflows and applications and the data they create will be best equipped to overcome the impacts of the Dark Matter of Work and come out on top. For more on the Dark Matter of Work, its costs, and the solutions, check out the full report here — and usher in a new age of digital collaboration. Or start a free two-week trial of Wrike today to see how our work management solution can centralize work and increase efficiency for your professional services team!

4 Ways You Can Work Seamlessly Between Spreadsheets and Project Management Tools

Project management apps, customer relationship management platforms, dynamic databases … it seems like there’s no shortage of tools for every kind of task. And yet spreadsheets are still everywhere. Should you be trying to replace them at every turn? Or should you just learn to embrace them after all? Neither, really. Instead, you should be bringing spreadsheets and your other tools together. That way, you avoid endless copying and pasting of data and other manual work. Here are four ways you can consolidate your work and make the most out of using spreadsheets with your other tools. Try Wrike for free Recognize when they’re the best tool for the job Despite how truly massive the SaaS market has become in recent years, some still prefer spreadsheets for some jobs. 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You can easily find ways to integrate spreadsheets into your workflow, even if the majority of your work happens in a project management tool like Wrike. Just make sure to plan where they’ll fit in your process, and take steps to make that inclusion as seamless as possible — whether that’s by outlining best practices in your workflow process or using an integration. Learn to rely on the spreadsheet experts Every team has that one spreadsheet master that can do just about anything with a few minutes, a couple of rows, and some data. Whether it’s building a detailed report, creating a dashboard, or finding ways to solve specific problems for your team — like taking attendance in big meetings — a spreadsheet expert can really make these tools sing. Even if you have the best-in-class tools for project management, scheduling, managing databases, or any other function, spreadsheets are still a great tool to have. 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Think of accountants, data analysts, and human resources specialists. When you spend a lot of time in spreadsheets, it’s easy to see them as the solution for every problem. You could try convincing these teams to get their work out of their spreadsheets. But is that really the best use of anyone’s time? It might be best to just accept that some teams will use spreadsheets for everything. Because guess what? There’s a way you can work with them seamlessly, even if you use Wrike for the majority of your work. Pair their strengths with your favorite tools With the right platform, you don’t even have to worry about teams who work exclusively out of spreadsheets. You can collaborate with them seamlessly without ever leaving your tool of choice — or even noticing that they’re working out of a spreadsheet. How? With Wrike Sync by Unito. Work from Wrike all while benefiting from the spreadsheets other teams are building. 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Conquer Productivity: Tackling Common Challenges with Creating an Excel To-Do List

Productivity has become a buzzword. Whether you're a student trying to manage your assignments or a professional dealing with multiple projects, staying productive is essential for success. However, many of us are guilty of succumbing to distractions and procrastination, leading to low productivity levels. The good news is that there are effective strategies to boost productivity, and one such strategy is creating an Excel to-do list. Understanding the Importance of Productivity Productivity plays a crucial role in both personal and professional life. It allows us to accomplish tasks efficiently, maximizing our output and achieving our goals.  When we are productive in our personal lives, we are able to manage our time effectively. We can give enough attention to our work responsibilities while also making time for our loved ones, which leads to a greater sense of fulfillment and happiness. Professionally, productivity is highly valued by employers as it leads to increased efficiency, higher quality work, and faster project completion. When we are productive in our professional lives, we are able to meet deadlines, exceed expectations, and deliver exceptional results. The Impact of Low Productivity on Work Performance While productivity brings numerous benefits, low productivity can have detrimental effects on work performance. It can lead to missed deadlines, decreased job satisfaction, and increased stress levels. When we are not productive in our work, we may find ourselves struggling to complete tasks on time, resulting in a negative impact on our overall performance. Low productivity can also hinder our career growth and limit our professional opportunities. When we consistently fail to meet expectations and deliver quality work, it becomes challenging to progress in our careers. The Power of To-Do Lists in Enhancing Productivity There's a reason why to-do lists have been used for centuries as a productivity tool. They provide a visual representation of tasks and serve as a reminder of what needs to be done. Psychologically, to-do lists help reduce anxiety by breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps. They also give a sense of accomplishment and motivation as items are checked off the list. Benefits of Using To-Do Lists To-do lists offer numerous benefits that enhance productivity. Improve organization by helping you prioritize tasks and set realistic goals. Act as a safety net, preventing tasks from slipping through the cracks and decreasing stress.  Serve as a visual reference point for tracking progress and evaluating productivity.  Promote focus and concentration, since you have a clear reminder of your goals and tasks. Introduction to Excel To-Do Lists If you're looking for a versatile and customizable platform to manage your tasks, then Excel is the perfect choice. As one of the most widely used spreadsheet software, Excel offers a range of advanced features that can help you stay organized and on top of your to-do list game. Here is a brief overview: Flexible and customizable platform for creating your to-do lists. Wide range of features that allow you to add deadlines, track progress, and prioritize tasks. Collaboration capabilities allow for multiple users to work all at once.  Basic Features of an Excel To-Do List Let's explore some of Excel's basic features more in-depth. Create a grid-like structure using rows and columns. Columns can be used to label categories such as task description, deadline, priority, and status. Rows represent individual tasks, and can be used to add, update, or move tasks around as necessary. Utilize formatting options to help you manage your to-do list effectively. H Highlight important tasks. Add visual cues. Create conditional formatting rules to automatically change the appearance of tasks based on status or deadline. Common Challenges in Creating an Excel To-Do List There are several obstacles that get in the way of you getting a satisfactory Excel to-do list. Technical Difficulties and How to Overcome Them One of the common challenges faced when creating an Excel to-do list is technical difficulties. These can range from difficulties in navigating the program to understanding advanced features. Overcoming these challenges involves investing time in learning the basics of Excel, exploring online tutorials, and seeking help from experts. With practice and patience, these technical obstacles can be overcome, enabling you to utilize Excel to its full potential. When it comes to navigating Excel, it is essential to familiarize yourself with the various menus, ribbons, and shortcuts available. Excel offers a wide range of functionalities, such as conditional formatting, data validation, and formulas, which can enhance the effectiveness of your to-do list. Online tutorials and resources can also be invaluable in expanding your Excel skills. Many websites and forums provide step-by-step guides, tips, and tricks for creating efficient to-do lists in Excel. These resources can help you understand complex concepts, such as pivot tables, macros, and data analysis, which can take your to-do list to the next level. Additionally, joining online communities or forums dedicated to Excel can provide a platform for seeking advice and learning from experienced users. Don't be afraid to seek help from experts or attending Excel training courses for additional support. Excel professionals can provide personalized guidance, address specific challenges you may be facing, and offer insights into advanced techniques. Organizational Challenges and Effective Solutions Another challenge is organizing tasks effectively. It's essential to align your to-do list with your workflow and priorities. Consider categorizing tasks based on urgency, importance, or project timelines. Breaking down larger tasks into smaller subtasks can also help with organization. Additionally, setting realistic deadlines and periodically reviewing and updating your to-do list ensures that it remains relevant and manageable. When organizing tasks, it can be helpful to create different sheets or tabs within your Excel workbook. Each sheet can represent a different project, category, or timeframe, allowing you to compartmentalize your tasks and focus on specific areas. Also, color-coding tasks or using different formatting styles can enhance visual organization. Assigning different colors to tasks based on priority or status can help you quickly identify urgent or completed items. Utilizing conditional formatting rules in Excel can automate this process, making it easier to manage and update your to-do list. Finally, regularly reviewing and updating your to-do list is crucial for maintaining its effectiveness. Priorities may change, deadlines may shift, and new tasks may arise. By dedicating time to review and adjust your to-do list, you can ensure that it remains accurate and up to date. This practice also allows you to evaluate your progress, identify bottlenecks, and make necessary adjustments to optimize your workflow. Step-by-Step Guide to Creating an Effective Excel To-Do List Open Excel and create a new spreadsheet. Name the first column as "Task Description" and label the subsequent columns based on your desired categories. Populate the rows with tasks, providing a concise description in the "Task Description" column. Add relevant details such as deadlines, priorities, and status to the corresponding columns. Save your Excel to-do list to have easy access to it for regular updates. Tips for Maintaining and Updating Your List Maintaining and updating your Excel to-do list regularly is crucial for its effectiveness. Dedicate a specific time each day to review and update your list. Prioritize tasks based on urgency and importance. Consider color-coding tasks to highlight their status or level of priority. Track progress by marking completed tasks. Regularly evaluate your to-do list and make adjustments as needed to optimize productivity and ensure the list remains aligned with your goals. By conquering common challenges and utilizing the power of Excel to-do lists, you can take control of your productivity. Keep in mind that productivity is a continuous process, and adjusting your approaches and techniques will help you achieve your goals effectively. Start implementing an Excel to-do list today and experience the positive impact it has on your productivity levels. Conquer your productivity challenges with Wrike. Begin your free trial and tackle issues with creating an Excel to-do list for a more organized working process. Note: This article was created with the assistance of an AI engine. It has been reviewed and revised by our team of experts to ensure accuracy and quality.

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6 simple work methodologies to transform your learning culture.

Becoming A Learning Organization: How To Transform Your Learning Culture

The methods harnessed by startups are beginning to catch the attention of more and more companies, and for good reason: startups are easily the most inventive of ecosystems in terms of learning engagement and working methodologies. (Watch this series of videos [1] made with the Galion Project if you’re not convinced!) But this trend goes beyond the popularization of trendy work methodologies: the way we work is changing .

We recently had the opportunity to speak at a Café Connect [2] event organized by the Hub de Bpifrance [3], an event dedicated to startup work methodologies. The focus was aimed at showing how large organizations can leverage the methodologies used by startups with hyper-growth to improve their operational excellence. The overall theme was built around one question: how do you effectively develop your internal execution skills?

At 360Learning, the answer is simple: developing the agility of your organization and its ability to grow depends, above all, on the corporate culture.

Not so fast – we’re not talking about ping pong tables and beer on tap here . No, we’re talking about work and execution practices that are upheld by all within an organization. If everyone in the company is able to work in the most efficient and decentralized way possible then you can be certain you’re on the right track. The trouble is, though, how does an organization get there?

At 360Learning, we have experienced an average growth rate of 300% per year for the last three years. And as you can imagine, the task of maintaining and improving performance rates and execution at scale became a challenge as we grew. But if we have learned anything in recent months, it’s that these working methods are not only applicable to startups.

Large groups, SMEs, associations – experience has shown us that effective work methodologies can be replicated within organizations of all sizes. And when implemented properly, will lead to agility, quality of execution, increased performance and involvement.

Over the past 2 years, the team here at 360Learning has identified the 6 main organizational principles that enabled us to achieve operational excellence and execution capacity. We hope this will be useful to you!

1. Give People Autonomy!

The disengagement of employees will cost the American economy $500 billion a year, according to a 2013 report by Gallup [4]. But you’ve heard figures outlining the danger of low employee engagement before, this isn’t new information. So how can we reverse this trend?

At 360Learning, we are convinced that the solution lies in complete autonomy for employees . Not only will self-management motivate employees by empowering them, but it will also elicit a feeling of trust and commitment. And when an employee feels committed to his organization, productivity increases and overall work satisfaction is improved.

Another advantage? Maximum autonomy avoids the bottleneck effect for managers, which frees up time for them to focus on facilitating rapid decision-making at all levels of the organization.

Here are some ways to get there:

• Define clear action + decision boundaries for each person, and make them known and recognized. For example: displaying them publicly.
• Implement the principle of "one task per one person" (vs. 2 or more), where each action item is assigned to a single person, who publicly takes responsibility for carrying it out.
• Value the work of employees by collectively sharing their successes, failures, and lessons learned.

2. Manage Information In A Transparent And Decentralized Manner To Improve Execution

Transparency is key to autonomy. This work methodology does not work if information is not completely transparent and shared by all internally. How can we make a decision on a subject if we are missing parts of the essential information?

To avoid this, try to ensure that all information related to the business and ongoing, past, and future projects is accessible to everyone at all times. This can be done by using an online project management tool that allows such information to be easily accessed by all. Take for example Trello, which has become core to 360Learning’s culture and is how we keep everyone updated on our scopes and workflows. Trello allows anyone within the company to track a project and way in on decisions or provide feedback, removing the need for middle management or timely face to face meetings. The biggest advantage? The ability to capitalize on information by creating constantly updated documentation company-wide.

Which brings us to the next point…

3. Stop The Endless Meetings And Email Loops!

2 hours of weekly meeting with 5 people = 10 hours less production time. Do the math over a month and the time wasted by unnecessary meetings is simply frightening.

To counter this, try to strive for asynchronous interactions as much as possible . Focus on the written word, using your tools and interfaces, by exchanging information in a shared space. We also strongly advocate for avoiding internal emails at all costs, since they don’t allow for visibility and could lead to important information being missed by some. By systematically using a centralized project management tool, you are enabled to:

• Avoid dispersing information, by centralizing everything in the same place and making it easy to search for relevant information from any point in time.
• Avoid information asymmetries: no need to wonder for hours about who to CC on which email or who to invite to the meeting... The collaborators know where to find the information they need since everything is logged online.
• No longer be limited by a physical workspace. With remote work on the rise with 70% of the global workforce working from home at least once a week [5], a work methodology that relies on in-person meetings is doomed to fail. By centralizing information you remove the need for time-consuming meeting and pave the way for a more autonomous synchronized workforce.

My weekly schedule – 3 meetings at a maximum of 30 minutes with full slots of consecutive working hours in a row. My days are spent working on my projects and objectives with virtually 0 interruptions, My time is spent productively, and I never feel like I run out of time to complete tasks. This is not cheating, just an effective way to organize your working time 🙂

• Some tips to help you replicate this within your company:
• Invest in an online project management tool: the cost is low and some have free versions that are more than complete. (We really can’t recommend Trello enough, it’s embedded in our blood and is responsible for our work efficiencies!)
• Stop holding meetings: write down your points, track everyone's commitments, and then dispatch the actions.
• Ask the person what they want to discuss
• He will respond with a subject that he will begin to formulate
• Ask him what his opinion is on the subject
• The person will present his point of view and continue to formulate it
• Respond with your vision if necessary, or simply "OK, that sounds good".
• Well done, you’ve just avoided a 1-hour meeting 🙂

4. Create Permanent Internal Feedback Mechanisms

Operational excellence is achieved when you are able to analyze the ROI of each of your actions and optimize the proceeding actions accordingly. We all have a multitude of tasks to perform at any given time – but have you hear the saying “Work Smarter, Not Harder?”. Instead of taking on more things than you handle (which we’ve all been guilty of), try to focus on a smaller number of tasks that create maximum value, and eliminate unnecessary or time-consuming tasks that do not have a direct impact on the business.

A few simple tips to get there:

• As soon as an action is completed, set an appropriate time limit to consider the impact of the action. On D Day, analyze the action and adjust accordingly: Continue and optimize if the action was a success, and re-calibrate (or abandon it altogether) if the task was ineffective.
• Get your teams into the habit of sharing feedback in writing. They will be used to documenting what works/doesn’t work which is highly helpful for the team and will create an accessible knowledge base that is very useful for new hires.
• Give continuous feedback to your teams every day – and make sure they do the same. Feedback, especially when it is critical and constructive, is a goldmine for improving its functioning. The more frequent and rational it is, the more objective it will become - meaning fewer feathers will ruffle in the process.

5. Continuous Training

The theory behind these different methodologies is that they are shared internally, and in order for that to happen, you must train your people. For these methodologies to be effective they must be adopted copy-wide and instilled as a part of the culture – which much easier said than done.

Instead of training your employees on your values and principles, encourage them through concrete working methods. This will condition the way they interact and work on a daily basis while allowing them to be much more efficient by focusing their working hours on things they feel invested in. This is what will really define your corporate culture, by laying the foundations for a "way of doing" specific to your organization .

Some keys to this:

• Create very clear onboarding programs to train all your newcomers in these work methodologies.
• Be very concrete and only train people on things that will actually be useful to them on a daily basis (such as how to manage their inbox for example).
• Have your internal experts document their best practices and encourage them to train others. It is rewarding for them and it transforms the company into a learning organization; resilient and able to capitalize on its knowledge.
• Continuously check the acquisition of your employees' skills and model progression paths: it is stimulating to know your future possibilities and to see where you stand in your career path.

At 360Learning, we use our own product to continuously train everyone in work methodologies and best practices – accelerating the pace of our onboarding!

6. Learn To Think Scalably

When you are faced with a decision-making process, always think in terms of device: How can I ensure that the intellectual work I provide here will be usable by others? How can I make sure that the solution I am sketching today for 3 people is easily usable for 50 tomorrow?

This is the key to building intelligent and scalable processes and creating a true corporate culture based on operational excellence with the ability to deliver quality execution at all levels of the organization. Remember, it is the shared work practices within your organization that will determine your corporate culture!

We hope that these few practical tips will help you to improve the efficiency of your organization and the quality of internal execution. If this article has piqued your interest and you’d like to discover all the practices that guide our corporate culture, learn more about our Convexity Culture here https://www.swipe.to/5618x?p=K4dPJ1g7T.

To learn more about how to transform your learning culture, download our eBook Digital Culture At Scale .

References:

[1] 360Learning Videos

[2] Le Hub Bpifrance

[3] Le blog du Hub déménage

[4] Unhappy Workers Cost the U.S. Up to $550 Billion a Year (Infographic)

[5] 70% of people globally work remotely at least once a week, study says

• 5 Simple Actions To Transform Your Learning Culture
• How L&D Teams Can Lead Learning Culture Transformation And Help Build A Learning Organization [eBook]
• Creating A Culture Of Learning
• The Learning Culture Officer [eBook Launch]
• The Key Ingredients For Creating A Continuous Learning Culture

• Agile project management
• Lean Methodology

What is Lean methodology?

Browse topics.

Like NASA mission control specialists, project managers must track numerous aspects to ensure their team delivers projects without incident. But while NASA manages spacecraft, project managers monitor deliverables.

Lean methodologies can help prevent project management disasters akin to the Apollo 13 catastrophe, allowing you to deliver projects on time and within budget. 

Lean methodology facilitates an ongoing process of incremental adjustment, significantly accelerating product delivery by optimizing resources and effort and allowing teams to work efficiently and effectively.

In this article, you will learn more about Lean methodology, its benefits, and how  Jira can help your software team implement its principles.

History of Lean methodology

Lean methodology aims to fully optimize your team’s process and output through continuous improvements. When done well, Lean allows teams to deliver customer value efficiently. 

Toyota Founder Kiichiro Toyoda developed the Lean methodology after World War II to conserve resources and eliminate waste. After observing the purchasing and restocking of items at a supermarket, he conceived the just-in-time concept, which focuses on making products exactly when customers need them. 

Toyoda's concept morphed into the Toyota Production System , which eventually became the Lean methodology. From these small beginnings, Lean evolved into the foundation of Agile project management —several industries, including software development, construction, and healthcare, now use Lean methodology.

Overview of Lean methodology

Lean methodology rests on two pillars that provide a framework for all Lean projects: Continuous improvement and respect for people.

• Continuous improvement : An ongoing feedback loop helps teams make progressive changes to processes, products, and personnel to improve systems continuously. By identifying, evaluating, and modifying existing processes or systems – one cog at a time – teams can eliminate waste and improve efficiency on the whole.
• Respect : Managers recognize the value of team contributions and customer feedback, and take those insights and ideas seriously. Lean managers distribute work throughout the workflow in the most efficient manner to encourage close collaboration and maximize value to customers. 

The core principles of Lean methodology have been developed with both of these factors.

Principles of Lean methodology

It’s essential to consider the impact your work will have on the customer experience. Lean’s five core principles help teams organize tasks and provide project managers with oversight. These five core principles include:

1. Identify value

To deliver value to your customers, you must first understand their needs. You can do this by:

• Engaging directly with customers to learn about their pain points.
• Identifying how your product helps mitigate those pain points.

Next, you need to define your product’s value in meeting customer needs and communicate this with your team. You can do this by framing the team’s work around how it impacts the customer experience and researching the best tools to help your team deliver value to your customers.

Identifying value saves time and money by ensuring your team builds only features that add value for your customers. 

2. Map the value stream

The activities needed to deliver quality customer experiences form part of the value stream. Value stream mapping uses diagrams to help visualize the project process, aiding in value stream management , which is critical to eliminating waste. 

Value stream mapping involves the following activities: 

• Identify the problem and choose the right team : Identify your customers’ main pain points, and then choose a team with the skills to solve these problems. 
• Bound and map the process : Limit the project's scope to necessary activities. You can then map the process using the Scrum board template in Jira and set dates for each deliverable. 
• Collect data : Understand what resources are needed by tracking data such as the hours the team spends working on the project.
• Assess and adjust : To ensure continuous process improvement, constantly assess processes and ask the question, “Is there a better way to do this?”

3. Create a flow

A flow state is when the team is in a groove and work is moving smoothly, so much so that we don’t notice the passage of time. Creating a flow state increases team engagement and performance. 

Team flow reflects the efficiency of the value stream, which you can continuously fine-tune using the ongoing feedback loop. Lean methodology requires a smooth and continuous flow to reduce delays and minimize handoff times.

“When implementing Lean, focus on flow,” says Atlassian’s Modern Work Coach Mark Cruth. “Flow is at the center of each element of Lean, whether it’s reducing waste, eliminating silos, or continuously improving…all elements come back to flow!”

You can improve your team’s flow by implementing the following: 

• Cross-functional collaboration : Silos are the kryptonite of Lean. Your team should participate in the entire process and collaborate with other teams, if necessary, to accomplish their tasks. For example, this might involve looping in customer success teams and getting their input on customer pain points. Moreover, your team can deepen their knowledge of how other departments operate.

Task tracking : Kanban boards , or the Kanban template in Jira, can help you assign tasks, visualize work, and coordinate your team. These cards help teams track the progress of tasks throughout the project lifecycle . 

4. Establish pull

With a pull system, teams only work on what the customer needs when they need it, producing according to actual customer demand, not forecasted projections. 

To accurately assess customer needs, the team must talk to customers and seek their input.

5. Seek perfection

Lean requires a growth mindset and strives for perfection through continuous improvement, using an ongoing feedback loop to help the project manager, team, and company reduce waste and enhance efficiency. 

Benefits of Lean methodology

As a project manager, you’ve probably encountered a project hiccup or two, such as waiting for stakeholder feedback. If the feedback comes too late, the entire project stalls. Lean methodology has many benefits that alleviate such roadblocks, such as:

• Increased efficiency : By mapping the value stream, you can center work around customer needs, eliminating unnecessary work on products and services customers do not want. 
• Fewer issues : Lean mitigates issues, such as lack of communication and unrealistic deadlines, before they become larger problems. In the case of communication, Lean provides tracking and transparency so everyone is clear on tasks, responsibilities, and deadlines. Since the team participates more closely in the process, they can also push back on any unreasonable timelines. 
• Reduced costs : By creating a clear plan and eliminating roadblocks, you can save money by producing just enough to meet customer demand. That way, you’re not producing more stock than necessary, which is especially important for physical products. 
• Improved customer relationships : By focusing on customer value, you create stronger customer relationships, which is crucial to a business. 
• Continuous improvement : Lean’s ongoing feedback loop helps refine and continually improve processes to deliver value efficiently. 
• Team investment : Because Lean requires more involvement upfront from your team, they’ll be more engaged with the outcome. They’ll have a say on what they’re working on and when they expect to complete it. An empowered team is an engaged one. 

Potential challenges of Lean methodology

Despite its numerous benefits, practicing Lean may present some challenges that project managers should recognize and learn to overcome. These challenges include:

• Fix : Get the team’s buy-in as early as possible and show them how Lean can help.
• Fix : When onboarding the team, provide adequate training in Lean methodology. You can enroll your team in a Lean certification program that will provide hands-on training. With a certification, you’ll be confident that they have the proper knowledge of Lean methods. 

Focus on tools rather than culture : Putting tools before people decreases team engagement. An emphasis on tools in Lean may dehumanize and devalue your team and their work. When a team doesn’t feel valued, they’re less likely to give their best.  

Fix : Build a culture of trust using Lean's philosophy of continuous improvement . Providing continuous feedback and opportunities for growth shows that you, as a manager, are interested in your team’s career development.

• Fix : Pay attention to the metrics to measure project success and look for improvement areas to develop your team.

Use Jira for project management

Lean accelerates your project management and keeps team agile by eliminating waste and continually streamlining processes. 

Jira can help software teams stay lean and deliver more customer value. Contextual insights empower teams to build and train muscles to continuously learn and improve their way of working. Scrum and Kanban boards give your team full visibility into what’s next so you can continuously deliver maximum output in minimal time. With Jira as the backbone of collaboration, all teams can stay in lockstep with each other and the rest of the organization.

Jira  also enables enterprises to visualize value streams. With this, your enterprise can:  

• Set up process flow automation . Give your teams time back and reduce manual work with Jira’s powerful automation engine.Align work with business needs. See how day-to-day work ladders up to the strategic objectives and keeps important stakeholders informed with ready-made agile reports. 
• Track investments . Understand what resources are being used and the time invested in any project so you can allocate efforts appropriate for the next. 
• Uncover roadblocks . Identify potential roadblocks and prevent them before they happen. 
• Deliver continuous value . With more clarity and insight, your team will be able to consistently deliver value to customers and the company as a whole.

This solution also works well for other methods such as Agile, Open DevOps , and value stream management. 

Lean methodology: frequently asked questions

What is the difference between agile and lean.

At first glance, it seems challenging to distinguish between Lean methodology vs. Agile. While both focus on efficiency and customer value, they emphasize different aspects of project management. Lean focuses on waste elimination, process, and delivering value, whereas Agile focuses on customers, mitigating uncertainty, and delivering working software.

Let’s break that down: 

• Focus : As a top-down approach, Lean is concerned with process improvements. However, Agile is a bottom-up approach where work is broken down into smaller iteration loops. 
• Product delivery : Both Lean and Agile teams work fast to deliver products as soon as possible. However, Agile is less concerned with speed than it is with feedback. So Agile teams build smaller, get feedback, and iterate. Lean is focused on improving the overall process to deliver faster.  
• Frameworks : Lean doesn't have specific frameworks, whereas Agile does. Scrum and Kanban are two Agile project management frameworks that allow you to apply Agile principles. Jira offers a Scrum template and a Kanban template to help project managers get started with the Agile methodology.

What is the difference between DevOps and Lean?

DevOps creates functional collaboration between development and operational teams, allowing for faster software delivery. This is the core philosophy of DevOps: Continually deliver value to the business through a culture of understanding and collaboration.  

In contrast, Lean’s core philosophy is to deliver value through process improvements and waste elimination. 

Lean and DevOps are customer-centric methodologies, but they differ in two main areas:

• Customer value: DevOps creates customer empathy image maps, framing business goals into customer value. Lean chooses customer value activities based on need. 
• Focus : DevOps integrates development and operations with documentation and collaboration. Lean optimizes processes, resources, and effort. 

In addition, DevOps automates mundane tasks, such as pull requests—which the DevOps beginner's guide delves more deeply into. 

If you already use DevOps, Open DevOps —an out-of-the-box DevOps foundation powered by Jira with an open-tool approach and automation—can help your Agile team focus on shipping and operating quality software and ensure the "you build it, you run it" practice associated with DevOps principles.

Can you use Agile, Lean, and DevOps at the same time?

Yes! These methodologies complement each other in their aim to deliver quality and value to customers. DevOps breaks down silos to integrate the development and operations teams. Agile encourages continuous improvement. Lean puts continuous improvement ideals into practice. 

Using all three can speed up product delivery and customer value. For example, your company might be using all three but not in concert. Lean can help improve your Agile process. And Agile’s iterative approach can help with Lean’s continuous improvement. With DevOps, you can improve your cross-collaboration. 

Using all three, your company would become a powerhouse, delivering customer value through more efficient practices. 

You can connect these methodologies using Atlassian’s suite of project management tools.

Lean principles: advancing DevOps efficiency

Explore the power of Lean Principles and DevOps in streamlining project management, enhancing efficiency, and delivering value faster.

Lean Process Improvement [What is it & How to Implement]

Eliminate waste with lean process improvement. Explore how lean process improvement techniques can work with other principles for better project management

• Sustainability

Microplastics Are Everywhere. Here’s How to Avoid Eating Them.

By Katie Okamoto

Katie Okamoto is an editor on the discovery team. She’s covered the intersections of products, sustainability, and health for more than a decade.

Microplastics and nanoplastics are everywhere.

The teeny tiny pieces of plastic have been found in everything from drinking water to chicken nuggets, apples, and broccoli.

Recent studies have linked these pollutants to heart disease , lung disorders , and more worrying health issues.

But unfortunately, microplastics are now so pervasive that they’re nearly impossible to avoid.

If you’re concerned about the health effects linked to microplastics, the experts I spoke with said that you can lower your risk by taking care of your general health: getting plenty of sleep and exercise, eating a balanced diet, lowering stress, and seeking preventative care.

Still, it’s probably a good idea to lower your exposure to microplastics even if you can’t avoid them completely. Although you can cut back your exposure in as many ways as there are sources of plastic, the experts I spoke with recommended focusing on exposures from water, food, and air.

I talked to three doctors and a research scientist for tips on how to reduce the amount of tiny plastics and their chemicals that you (or your kids ) might ingest. Here’s what they recommend.

1. Cut back on bottled water

Some research indicates plastic bottled water may be a significant source of microplastics. While scientists are still studying just how significant, one study from 2019 of water and other commonly consumed food and drink found it to be the most concentrated source .

There is emerging evidence that on average, bottled water contains more microplastics than tap. (One study published in 2024 suggests that we have underestimated measured concentrations.)

Drinking bottled water in a pinch isn't the end of the world, but if you have concerns about it, you could always consider carrying a reusable steel or glass bottle or tumbler when out and about.

2. Get an NSF-certified water filter

Switching to tap water from plastic bottled water will likely significantly reduce your routine exposure to plastics. But while the average plastic water bottle contains more microplastics and nanoplastics than tap, research shows that tap water may also be a source of microplastics.

Several of our water filter picks are specifically NSF/American National Standards Institute–certified to reduce microplastics, which means they’ve been rigorously tested in an accredited lab. They’re certified only to reduce since the filters cannot guarantee total elimination. Our picks include under-sink filters , such as the Aquasana AQ-5200 , and the Brita Elite , a pitcher filter .

Aquasana AQ-5200

Exceptional, affordable under-sink filtration.

Certified for the most contaminants, widely available, affordable, and compact.

Buying Options

$100 + FS w/code AQWC50

Brita Elite Filter

Ace filtration, long lifespan.

This 10-cup, user-friendly model is rated to last six months between replacements.

Yes, it’s ironic that most NSF/ANSI-certified water filters contain plastic. But any microplastic shedding from using the plastic filter is likely to be minimal, as long as you avoid running hot water through the filter and store your water in the fridge, since heat accelerates plastic degradation.

Research suggests that boiling tap water, cooling it, and then filtering it may be especially effective at reducing microplastics, although it’s less practical for most people than simply using a filter.

3. Don’t use plastic to store food

Plastic food storage and packaging is so common that it’s difficult to avoid entirely. But your safest bet is to avoid storing food or liquid in plastic when possible and to minimize exposing any plastic (even those that say they’re BPA-free or microwave-safe) to high heat. Sunlight, acids, and physical erosion can also degrade plastic.

4. Don’t reuse single-use plastics for food and drinks

It’s great to reuse single-use plastic —just not for food. Unless you’re using the plastic in the freezer, save it for something that isn’t food storage or reheating, said Dr. Gillian Goddard, an endocrinologist and author at ParentData , a science-based online resource for parents. That means don’t reuse plastic takeout containers, breastmilk bags, or drink bottles.

5. Don’t microwave in plastic

Avoid microwaving or heating food or water in plastic—even if it says it’s microwave-safe, said Tracey Woodruff, director of the Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment at University of California San Francisco. Instead, consider glass or ceramic. The Pyrex Simply Store 18-Piece Set is our pick for the best food storage containers , and they survived our drop tests, stack neatly, and come with user-friendly lids (although you may not want to microwave the plastic lids). Our runner-up, the leakproof Glasslock 18-Piece Container Set , is another great option.

Pyrex Simply Store 18-Piece Set

The best glass container set.

The Pyrex Simply Store containers stack neatly and are made from durable tempered glass. The colorful lids make it easier to match their shape to the corresponding container, though you may need to replace them over time.

Glasslock 18-Piece Container Set

The best leakproof glass container set.

The Glasslock containers have locking lids that will prevent leaks. But these lids also put stress on the lips of the containers, so the glass may be prone to chipping over time.

6. Wash plastic by hand

Dishwasher temperatures run very hot and can degrade plastic—even dishwasher-safe plastic—and lead to microplastic shedding. Try to wash your plastic food containers by hand.

7. Use wood or bamboo cutting boards

Some research suggests that plastic cutting boards can be a significant source of microplastics in your diet, since repeated cutting on their surface can dislodge particles that adhere to food. Wood cutting boards also have some other advantages: They’re better for your knife blades and last longer than plastic when properly maintained.

Teakhaus Medium Professional Carving Board with Juice Canal 109

The best wood cutting board.

This beautiful teak board requires more careful cleaning than a plastic board, but it feels better under a knife and is easier to maintain than the other wood boards we tested.

Our cutting board pick, the Teakhaus Medium Professional Carving Board with Juice Canal 109 , is made from sustainably harvested teak. If you still prefer plastic for certain uses, use it sparingly and replace it after heavy scarring.

8. Clean your air

The air we breathe is also a potential source of microplastics, in the form of dust. Reducing airborne dust in your home, then, may reduce your exposure to inhaled microplastics.

SEBO Airbelt K3 Premium

The best canister vacuum.

This bagged canister vacuum excels on both bare floors and carpets, and has many adjustment options and useful attachments. It should last for the long haul.

7-Year Standard Warranty

10-Year Extended Warranty

That means doing boring stuff, like vacuuming regularly with a bagged, sealed-system vacuum that has a HEPA or S-class filter and mopping and wiping down surfaces with a damp sponge or cloth (since dusting kicks those tiny particles back up into the air).

Coway Airmega AP-1512HH Mighty

Exceptional, efficient, affordable.

Perfect for bedrooms, playrooms, and living rooms, this air purifier is one of the highest-performing, most-durable, and most-economical models we’ve tested.

You should also take care of seasonal chores like cleaning fans and AC unit filters and changing HVAC filters, and consider getting an air purifier if you live near a busy road.

Take special steps for infants and young children

Infants may be exposed to microplastics and nanoplastics in much higher concentrations than adults. Research shows that this exposure may be cause for concern, particularly at critical stages of early development. But much like health risks to adults, it’s important to think of microplastics exposure as just one piece of a child’s overall health.

“I emphasize that before putting much energy and resources into minimizing unknown risks, it is worth attending to reducing the risks we know about,” said Dr. Carlos Lerner, a pediatrician and professor of clinical pediatrics at UCLA Health. He cited following safe sleep recommendations for infants, avoiding secondhand smoke, and practicing good nutrition as examples.

If you want to take a more precautionary approach, avoid using plastic to warm formula or breastmilk. This is the main point of advice from the experts I spoke with, as well as the Cleveland Clinic .

1. Avoid microwaving or heating formula in plastic

Recent evidence shows that polypropylene-bottle-fed babies may swallow very high levels of tiny plastics due to the high temperatures used to sterilize bottles and prepare formula, as well as shaking the bottles to mix. If you want to feed your baby warmed formula and use plastic bottles, consider premixing the formula in a glass container, then cooling it down before transferring it to the feeding bottle.

2. Rinse heat-sterilized plastic bottles before adding formula or breastmilk

If you use heat to sterilize plastic bottles, leave them to cool then rinse them several times before filling them with formula or breastmilk, Lerner suggested.

3. Consider glass or silicone over plastic bottles

If your baby prefers warmed milk or formula, consider heating it in a glass or silicone bottle. (If you don't use a bottle warmer, we have advice about how to safely do this without one.) The Philips Avent Glass Natural Response Baby Bottle  is our recommendation for the best glass baby bottle.

Philips Avent Glass Natural Response Baby Bottle

Our favorite glass bottles.

With only three pieces and a large, easy-to-screw-on collar, this glass bottle is simple to use and didn’t leak in our test. But the very wide nipple may not work well for all babies.

4. Wash hands before eating

For young kids who eat with their hands, try to establish a habit of handwashing before eating, said Woodruff. While handwashing is not always possible, it can help reduce exposure from touching microplastics in dust and soil (and maybe, just maybe, stem the tide of germs).

How worried should you be about microplastics?

Scientists are still studying the exact connections between these teeny tiny pieces of plastic and human health. But it’s clear that exposure to plastic—whether it’s those tiny particles, the chemicals they leach, or a combination—is being linked to a variety of worrying health issues.

Some of those connections still require more research, such as ties to colon cancer , respiratory disease , metabolic function , and disruption to endocrine systems , while others—like a recent study that found those with levels of plastics in their arteries were at a higher risk for heart attacks, strokes, and death—seem a little more clear.

It’s important to remember that these links point to concerns about the impact of microplastics on public health, but they are not specific, predictable outcomes. “What I’m thinking about is population risk, not a risk to a specific individual,” said Goddard.

The tricky thing is that microplastics and nanoplastics are impossible to avoid, no matter how diligent you are: They’re in the air we breathe , our drinking water , and our food. But scientists aren’t sure what levels of microplastics and nanoplastics we’re each taking in from those sources.

The oft-cited estimate that the average person eats a credit card’s worth of plastic every week has been called into question . But our bodies are certainly taking in plastic, and that’s more than nature intended.

Given the growing body of evidence, it’s possible that we’ll start to see more public health measures that address microplastic pollution. Until then, taking care of your overall health is the first line of defense, followed by taking reasonable steps to reduce microplastic exposure.

This article was edited by Christine Cyr Clisset and Ben Frumin.

Tracey Woodruff, director of the Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment at UCSF , phone interview , April 25, 2024

Gillian Goddard, MD, endocrinologist and adjunct assistant professor at NYU Langone Hospital and author of “Hot Flash” newsletter from ParentData , phone interview , April 26, 2024

Carlos Lerner, MD, pediatrician at the Children’s Health Center at UCLA and professor and Jack H. Skirball endowed chair in Pediatrics at UCLA , email interview , April 26, 2024

Hayley Goldbach, MD, board-certified physician and dermatologic surgeon at Brown University , email interview , April 29, 2024

Meet your guide

Katie Okamoto

Katie Okamoto is an editor on the discovery team and leads Wirecutter’s sustainability coverage. She has been covering products—from food to furniture—and their intersections with environmental impact and environmental health for more than a decade. Previously, Katie was an editor at Metropolis Magazine.

Mentioned above

• With eight different picks, we’ve found water bottles suited for everyone from gym rats to frequent travelers. The 8 Best Water Bottles  
• The affordable, leak-resistant Simple Modern Classic Tumbler keeps drinks cold (or warm) for hours, and it comes with both a straw lid and a flip-top lid. The Best Tumbler  
• After more than 30 hours researching hundreds of models, we’ve found the best under-sink water filtration systems for most people. Here’s what we recommend. The Best Under-Sink Water Filter  
• Water filters and pitchers are the simplest, most affordable way to get reliable filtered water at home. The Best Water Filter Pitcher and Dispenser  
• Most plastic isn’t actually recycled. These 12 tips can help you reduce your overall plastic use—and make a difference in the global plastic pollution problem. 12 Ways to Break Up With Single-Use Plastics  
• After years of using and abusing food-storage containers, we recommend the glass Pyrex Simply Store 18-Piece Set and the Snapware Total Solution 20-Piece Set. The Best Food Storage Containers  

Further reading

Silicone Kitchen Gear Isn’t As Sustainable As Many People Think. Try These Solutions Instead.

by Katie Okamoto

We share how to get the most out of silicone items you may already own, and we recommend swaps you should consider instead of buying new tools and gadgets.

The Best Reusable Produce Bags, Beeswax Wraps, and Other Ways to Reduce Plastic Waste

by Anna Perling

Our favorite alternatives to plastic or disposable food storage include silicone food-storage bags, beeswax wraps, and cloth produce bags.

Laundry Detergent Sheets Are Poor Cleaners. And Their Sustainability Claims Are Debatable.

by Andrea Barnes

Laundry detergent sheets claim to be a more-sustainable option than traditional liquid, powder, or pod detergents. Unfortunately, they don’t clean well.

Expert Tips for Freezing Food and Reducing Food Waste

by Anna Perling and Katie Okamoto

We have the best freezer containers, plus expert advice on saving money and reducing waste by getting the most from your freezer.

• How to use the Microsoft Authenticator
• Change two-step verification settings
• Common problems with two-step verification for work or school accounts
• Manage app passwords for two-step verification
• Set up a mobile device as a two-step verification method
• Set up an office phone as a two-step verification method
• Set up an authenticator app as a two-step verification method
• Work or school account sign-in blocked by tenant restrictions
• Sign in to your work or school account with two-step verification
• Manage front line users with My Staff
• My Account portal for work or school accounts
• Change your work or school account password
• Find the administrator for your work or school account
• Change work or school account settings in the My Account portal
• Manage organizations for a work or school account
• Manage your work or school account connected devices
• Switch organizations in your work or school account portal
• Search your work or school account sign-in activity
• View work or school account privacy-related data
• Sign in using two-step verification or security info
• Create app passwords in Security info (preview)
• Set up a phone call as your verification method
• Set up a security key as your verification method
• Set up an email address as your verification method
• Set up security questions as your verification method
• Set up text messages as a phone verification method
• Set up the Authenticator app as your verification method
• Set up Security info from a sign-in page
• Join your Windows device to your work or school network
• Register your personal device on your work or school network
• Troubleshooting the "You can't get there from here" error message
• Organize apps using collections in the My Apps portal
• Sign in and start apps in the My Apps portal
• Edit or revoke app permissions in the My Apps portal
• Troubleshoot problems with the My Apps portal
• Update your Groups info in the My Apps portal
• Set up password reset verification for a work or school account
• Reset your work or school password using security info
• Change your work or school account password using security info

Set up the Microsoft Authenticator app as your verification method

You can follow these steps to add your two-factor verification and password reset methods. After you've set this up the first time, you can return to the  Security info  page to add, update, or delete your security information.

If you're prompted to set this up immediately after you sign in to your work or school account, see the detailed steps in the Set up your security info from the sign-in page prompt article.

If what you're seeing on your screen doesn't match what's being covered in this article, it means that your administrator hasn't turned on this experience yet. Until this experience is turned on, you must follow the instructions and information in the  Set up my account for two-step verification  section.

Note:  If you don't see the authenticator app option, it's possible that your organization doesn't allow you to use this option for verification. In this case, you'll need to choose another method or contact your organization's help desk for more assistance.

Security versus password reset verification

Security info methods are used for both two-factor security verification and for password reset. However, not all methods can be used for both.

Set up the Microsoft Authenticator app from the Security info page

Depending on your organization’s settings, you might be able to use an authentication app as one of your security info methods. You aren't required to use the Microsoft Authenticator app, and you can choose a different app during the set up process. However, this article uses the Microsoft Authenticator app.

Important: 

If you have set up the Microsoft Authenticator app on five different devices or if you've used five hardware tokens, you won't be able to set up a sixth one, and you might see the following error message:

You can't set up Microsoft Authenticator because you already have five authenticator apps or hardware tokens. Please contact your administrator to delete one of your authenticator apps or hardware tokens.

To set up the Microsoft Authenticator app

On the  Add a method  page, select  Authenticator app  from the list, and then select  Add .

On the  Start by getting the app  page, select  Download now  to download and install the Microsoft Authenticator app on your mobile device, and then select  Next.  For more information about how to download and install the app, see  Download and install the Microsoft Authenticator app .

If you want to use an authenticator app other than the Microsoft Authenticator app, select  I want to use a different authenticator app .

Open the Microsoft Authenticator app, select to allow notifications (if prompted), select  Add account  from the  Customize and control  icon on the upper-right, and then select Work or school account.

Note:  The first time you set up the Microsoft Authenticator app, you might receive a prompt asking whether to allow the app to access your camera (iOS) or to allow the app to take pictures and record video (Android). You must select  Allow  so the authenticator app can access your camera to take a picture of the QR code in the next step. If you don't allow the camera, you can still set up the authenticator app, but you'll need to add the code information manually. For information about how to add the code manually, see see Manually add an account to the app.

Scan the provided code with the Microsoft Authenticator app QR code reader, which appeared on your mobile device after you created your work or school account in Step 6.

The authenticator app should successfully add your work or school account without requiring any additional information from you. However, if the QR code reader can't read the code, you can select Can't scan the QR code  and manually enter the code and URL into the Microsoft Authenticator app. For more information about manually adding a code, see  Manually add an account to the app .

Delete your authenticator app from your security info methods

If you no longer want to use your authenticator app as a security info method, you can remove it from the  Security info  page. This works for all authenticator apps, not just the Microsoft Authenticator app. After you delete the app, you have to go into the authenticator app on your mobile device and delete the account.

Important:  If you delete the authenticator app by mistake, there's no way to undo it. You'll have to add the authenticator app again, following the steps in the Set up the authenticator app section of this article.

To delete the authenticator app

Select  Yes  when asked to confirm to delete the authenticator app. After the authenticator app is deleted, it's removed from your security info and it disappears from the  Security info  page. If the authenticator app is your default method, the default changes to another available method.

Open the authenticator app on your mobile device, select Edit accounts, and then delete your work or school account from the authenticator app.

Your account is completely removed from the authenticator app for two-factor verification and password reset requests.

Change your default security info method

If you want the authenticator app to be the default method used when you sign-in to your work or school account using two-factor verification or for password reset requests, you can set it from the Security info page.

Note:  If your default sign-in method is a text or call to your phone number, then the SMS code or voice call is sent automatically during multifactor authentication. As of June 2021, some apps will ask users to choose  Text  or  Call  first. This option prevents sending too many security codes for different apps. If your default sign-in method is the Microsoft Authenticator app ( which Microsoft recommends ), then the app notification is sent automatically.

To change your default security info method

Select  Confirm . The default method used for sign-in changes to the Microsoft Authenticator app.

Additional security info methods

You have additional options for how your organization contacts you to verify your identity, based on what's you're trying to do. The options include:

Mobile device text: Enter your mobile device number and get a text a code you'll use for two-step verification or password reset. For step-by-step instructions about how to verify your identity with a text message (SMS), see Set up security info to use text messaging (SMS).

Mobile device or work phone call: Enter your mobile device number and get a phone call for two-step verification or password reset. For step-by-step instructions about how to verify your identity with a phone number, see Set up security info to use phone calls.

Security key: Register your Microsoft-compatible security key and use it along with a PIN for two-step verification or password reset. For step-by-step instructions about how to verify your identity with a security key, see Set up security info to use a security key.

Email address: Enter your work or school email address to get an email for password reset. This option isn't available for two-step verification. For step-by-step instructions about how to set up your email, see Set up security info to use email.

Security questions: Answer some security questions created by your administrator for your organization. This option is only available for password reset and not for two-step verification. For step-by-step instructions about how to set up your security questions, see the Set up security info to use security questions article.

Note:  If some of these options are missing, it's most likely because your organization doesn't allow those methods. If this is the case, you'll need to choose an available method or contact your administrator for more help.

Sign-in using the Microsoft Authenticator app, following steps in the  Sign in using two-step verification or security info  article.

Reset your password if you've lost or forgotten it, from the Password reset portal or follow the steps in the  Reset your work or school password  article.

Get troubleshooting tips and help for sign-in problems in the  Can't sign in to your Microsoft account  article.

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1. Learn about solar eclipses

2. start making your pinhole camera, 3. tape on the foil, 4. poke a hole, 5. read this important safety note, 6. try it out, 7. get creative, 8. what else can you use as a pinhole camera, 9. how it works.

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How to Make a Pinhole Camera

You don't need fancy glasses or equipment to enjoy one of the sky's most awesome shows: a solar eclipse. With a few simple supplies, you can make a pinhole camera that lets you watch a solar eclipse safely and easily from anywhere.

2 pieces of white card stock

Aluminum foil

Pin, paper clip, OR pencil

Watch the video above to learn about how the Moon plays an important role in solar eclipses. Then find out more about solar eclipses from NASA's Space Place.

• ¿Qué es un eclipse solar?
• Eclipses lunares y solares

Cut a 1-inch to 2-inch square or rectangular hole in the middle of one of the pieces of card stock.

+ Expand image

Tape a piece of aluminum foil over the hole.

Flip over your paper and use your pin, paper clip, or pencil to poke a small hole in the aluminum foil.

Your pinhole camera will let you see an image of the Sun that is safe to look at. But remember to never look directly at the Sun without equipment that's specifically designed for looking at the Sun . Note that sunglasses, binoculars, and telescopes do NOT count as proper protection.

For more information on safe eclipse viewing, visit the NASA Eclipse website .

Place your second piece of card stock on the ground and hold the piece with aluminum foil above it (foil facing up). Stand with the Sun behind you and view the projected image on the card stock below! The farther away you hold your camera, the bigger your projected image will be.

To make your projection a bit more defined, try putting the bottom piece of card stock in a shadowed area while you hold the other piece in the sunlight.

For extra fun, try poking multiple holes in your foil to make shapes, patterns, and other designs. Each hole you create will turn into its own projection of the Sun, making for some neat effects.

Grab a helper to take photos of your designs for a stellar art project you can enjoy even after the eclipse has ended.

Look for items around the house or classroom with small holes in them – like a colander – to act as your pinhole camera. As before, hold it over the card stock on the ground to see the projected image. What do you notice about the light shining through different objects? What about when you move the objects closer to your projected image or farther away?

For a different kind of pinhole viewer, try printing out and building the SunRISE pinhole viewer (PDF) pictured above and modeled after NASA's SunRISE spacecraft , which are part of a mission designed to study space weather. (Printing on 11x17 cardstock is recommended, but other printer papers work, too.) As you build, learn about the mission's six toaster-size cubesats and how they will study solar activity, creating 3D maps of the Sun's radio emissions and magnetic field lines.

You can also challenge yourself to make your own cereal box eclipse viewer, like so:

A pinhole camera works because the small hole you made with your pin, paper clip, or pencil acts like a tiny camera lens.

Light from the Sun enters the pinhole (or the holes in an object like a colander), it gets focused, and then it is projected out of the other side of the hole. When the projected light reaches a surface, like the second piece of paper, you can see the image that passed through the pinhole.

Learn more in the video above from artist Bob Miller's Light Walk at the Exploratorium in San Francisco, California.

Science and the scientific method: Definitions and examples

Here's a look at the foundation of doing science — the scientific method.

The scientific method

Hypothesis, theory and law, a brief history of science, additional resources, bibliography.

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It is also the body of knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in the universe. 

The word "science" is derived from the Latin word "scientia," which means knowledge based on demonstrable and reproducible data, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary . True to this definition, science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis, a process known as the scientific method. Science is based on fact, not opinion or preferences. The process of science is designed to challenge ideas through research. One important aspect of the scientific process is that it focuses only on the natural world, according to the University of California, Berkeley . Anything that is considered supernatural, or beyond physical reality, does not fit into the definition of science.

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement) that is designed to support or contradict a scientific theory .

"As a field biologist, my favorite part of the scientific method is being in the field collecting the data," Jaime Tanner, a professor of biology at Marlboro College, told Live Science. "But what really makes that fun is knowing that you are trying to answer an interesting question. So the first step in identifying questions and generating possible answers (hypotheses) is also very important and is a creative process. Then once you collect the data you analyze it to see if your hypothesis is supported or not."

The steps of the scientific method go something like this, according to Highline College :

• Make an observation or observations.
• Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what's been observed, and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
• Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
• Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between observations and theory. "Replication of methods and results is my favorite step in the scientific method," Moshe Pritsker, a former post-doctoral researcher at Harvard Medical School and CEO of JoVE, told Live Science. "The reproducibility of published experiments is the foundation of science. No reproducibility — no science."

Some key underpinnings to the scientific method:

• The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, according to North Carolina State University . Falsifiable means that there must be a possible negative answer to the hypothesis.
• Research must involve deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning is the process of using true premises to reach a logical true conclusion while inductive reasoning uses observations to infer an explanation for those observations.
• An experiment should include a dependent variable (which does not change) and an independent variable (which does change), according to the University of California, Santa Barbara .
• An experiment should include an experimental group and a control group. The control group is what the experimental group is compared against, according to Britannica .

The process of generating and testing a hypothesis forms the backbone of the scientific method. When an idea has been confirmed over many experiments, it can be called a scientific theory. While a theory provides an explanation for a phenomenon, a scientific law provides a description of a phenomenon, according to The University of Waikato . One example would be the law of conservation of energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics that says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. 

A law describes an observed phenomenon, but it doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it. "In science, laws are a starting place," said Peter Coppinger, an associate professor of biology and biomedical engineering at the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. "From there, scientists can then ask the questions, 'Why and how?'"

Laws are generally considered to be without exception, though some laws have been modified over time after further testing found discrepancies. For instance, Newton's laws of motion describe everything we've observed in the macroscopic world, but they break down at the subatomic level.

This does not mean theories are not meaningful. For a hypothesis to become a theory, scientists must conduct rigorous testing, typically across multiple disciplines by separate groups of scientists. Saying something is "just a theory" confuses the scientific definition of "theory" with the layperson's definition. To most people a theory is a hunch. In science, a theory is the framework for observations and facts, Tanner told Live Science.

The earliest evidence of science can be found as far back as records exist. Early tablets contain numerals and information about the solar system , which were derived by using careful observation, prediction and testing of those predictions. Science became decidedly more "scientific" over time, however.

1200s: Robert Grosseteste developed the framework for the proper methods of modern scientific experimentation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. His works included the principle that an inquiry must be based on measurable evidence that is confirmed through testing.

1400s: Leonardo da Vinci began his notebooks in pursuit of evidence that the human body is microcosmic. The artist, scientist and mathematician also gathered information about optics and hydrodynamics.

1500s: Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the understanding of the solar system with his discovery of heliocentrism. This is a model in which Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun, which is the center of the solar system.

1600s: Johannes Kepler built upon those observations with his laws of planetary motion. Galileo Galilei improved on a new invention, the telescope, and used it to study the sun and planets. The 1600s also saw advancements in the study of physics as Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion.

1700s: Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning is electrical. He also contributed to the study of oceanography and meteorology. The understanding of chemistry also evolved during this century as Antoine Lavoisier, dubbed the father of modern chemistry , developed the law of conservation of mass.

1800s: Milestones included Alessandro Volta's discoveries regarding electrochemical series, which led to the invention of the battery. John Dalton also introduced atomic theory, which stated that all matter is composed of atoms that combine to form molecules. The basis of modern study of genetics advanced as Gregor Mendel unveiled his laws of inheritance. Later in the century, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays , while George Ohm's law provided the basis for understanding how to harness electrical charges.

1900s: The discoveries of Albert Einstein , who is best known for his theory of relativity, dominated the beginning of the 20th century. Einstein's theory of relativity is actually two separate theories. His special theory of relativity, which he outlined in a 1905 paper, " The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies ," concluded that time must change according to the speed of a moving object relative to the frame of reference of an observer. His second theory of general relativity, which he published as " The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ," advanced the idea that matter causes space to curve.

In 1952, Jonas Salk developed the polio vaccine , which reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by nearly 90%, according to Britannica . The following year, James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA , which is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

2000s: The 21st century saw the first draft of the human genome completed, leading to a greater understanding of DNA. This advanced the study of genetics, its role in human biology and its use as a predictor of diseases and other disorders, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

• This video from City University of New York delves into the basics of what defines science.
• Learn about what makes science science in this book excerpt from Washington State University .
• This resource from the University of Michigan — Flint explains how to design your own scientific study.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Scientia. 2022. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientia

University of California, Berkeley, "Understanding Science: An Overview." 2022. ​​ https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/intro_01  

Highline College, "Scientific method." July 12, 2015. https://people.highline.edu/iglozman/classes/astronotes/scimeth.htm  

North Carolina State University, "Science Scripts." https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Black/science/science_scripts.html  

University of California, Santa Barbara. "What is an Independent variable?" October 31,2017. http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=6045  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Control group." May 14, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/control-group  

The University of Waikato, "Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and Laws." https://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/Theories.shtml  

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Robert Grosseteste. May 3, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grosseteste/  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Jonas Salk." October 21, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/ biography /Jonas-Salk

National Human Genome Research Institute, "​Phosphate Backbone." https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Phosphate-Backbone  

National Human Genome Research Institute, "What is the Human Genome Project?" https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/What  

‌ Live Science contributor Ashley Hamer updated this article on Jan. 16, 2022.

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The Complete Guide to Building a Sales Forecast

Set your company up for predictable revenue growth with the right forecasting processes and tools.

By: Paul Bookstaber Writer, Salesblazer November 9, 2023 | 11 min read

Building a sales forecast is both an art and a science. Accurate sales forecasts keep your leaders happy and your business healthy. In this guide, we’ll explain everything you need to know about sales forecasting — so you can get a clear picture of your company’s projected sales and keep everyone’s expectations on track.

We’ve organized this reference guide by the top questions sales teams have about the sales forecasting process, based on our internal conversations and more than 20 years of experience developing sales solutions & sales analytics software .

What you’ll learn:

What is a sales forecast, why is sales forecasting important, who is responsible for sales forecasts, who uses sales forecasts, what are the objectives of sales forecasting, how do i design a sales forecasting plan.

• What happens to sales forecasting in unpredictable times?

How accurate are sales forecasts?

What tools do you use to forecast sales revenue and how do crm systems forecast revenue, how is forecasting better with crm vs. other methods.

If you’re a sales leader who’s already well-versed in the who and what of sales forecast techniques , skip to the sections on designing a sales forecasting plan and tools to improve sales forecasts for more relevant knowledge. Sales forecasting can become especially tough when we face an unexpected turn of events, so head to the section on what happens to sales forecasts in unpredictable times for more on that.

A sales forecast is an expression of expected sales revenue. A sales forecast estimates how much your company plans to sell within a certain time period (like quarter or year). The best sales forecasts do this with a high degree of accuracy, and they’re only as accurate as the data that fuels them.

A strong data culture is at the heart of an accurate sales forecast. This means all sales data is available to everyone at the company, and all teams do their part in keeping it updated, leaning on AI and automation to help. More on that in the section on tools used to forecast sales revenue .

All sales forecasts answer two key questions:

• How much: Each sales opportunity has its own projected amount it’ll bring into the business. Whether that’s $500 or $5 million, sales teams have to come up with one number representing that new business. To create the number, they take everything they know about the prospect into account.
• When: Sales forecasts pinpoint a month, quarter, or year when the sales team expects the revenue to hit.

Coming up with those two sales projections is no easy feat. So sales teams factor in the important ingredients of who, what, where, why, and how to make their forecasts:

• Who: Sales teams are responsible for sales forecasting.
• What: Forecasts should be based on the exact solutions you plan to sell. In turn, that should be based on problems your prospects have voiced, which your company can uniquely solve .
• Where: Where is the buying decision made, and where will the actual products be used? Sales teams see better accuracy when they get closer (at least for a visit) to the center of the action.
• Why: Why is the prospect or existing customer considering new services from your company in the first place? Is there a compelling event making them consider it now? Without a forcing function and a clear why, the deal may stall inevitably.
• How: How does this prospect tend to make purchasing decisions? If you’re not accounting for how they do it now and how they’ve done it in the past in your forecast, it may be fuzzy math.

Hit your forecast with real-time pipeline insights

What could you do with AI-powered insights at your fingertips? Sell smarter, take action, and hit your forecasts.

Forecasting lets leaders set realistic sales targets, create attainable and motivating quotas for sales reps, and gauge expected revenue, aiding in budgeting and spending decisions for the whole company. If forecasts are inaccurate, businesses may overspend (putting themselves in a risky spot), and set unreachable quotas (which is demoralizing for reps).

To understand why sales forecasting is so important to business health, think about two example scenarios: one with a car manufacturer and another with an e-commerce shop.

In the case of a car manufacturer, cars take a long time to build. The manufacturer has a complex supply chain to ensure every car part is available exactly when they need to build cars, so the number of cars available to purchase will meet demand.

When you buy something online, whether that’s from a large marketplace or a small boutique, you get a delivery estimate. If your delivery comes a day or a week after it’s promised, that’ll affect your satisfaction with the company — and decrease your willingness to want to do business with them again.

Sales forecasting is similar in both cases. Sales forecasts help the entire business plan resources to ship products, pay for marketing, hire employees, and beyond. Accurate sales forecasting yields a well-oiled machine that meets customer demand, both today and in the future. And internally on sales teams, sales revenue that delivers in its estimated time period keeps leaders and collaborators happy, just like a shipment that arrives on time.

If forecasts are off, the company faces challenges that affect everything from pricing to product delivery to the end user. Meanwhile, if forecasts are on point and sales quotas are met, the company can make better investments, perhaps hiring 20 new developers instead of 10, or building a much-needed new sales office in a prime new territory.

Each organization has its own sales forecast owners. These are some of the teams who are usually responsible:

• Product leaders: They put a stake in the ground for what products will be available to sell when.
• Sales leaders: They promise the numbers that their teams will deliver. Depending on the seniority of the leader, how they forecast varies. For example, first-line managers forecast collections of opportunities, where third-line managers consider a wide set of numbers and traditional close rates to come up with an overall forecast.
• Sales reps: They report their own numbers to their managers.

No matter how a company calculates its sales forecasts, the process should be transparent. And at the end of the day, sales leadership has to be responsible to call a number. Whether met, exceeded, or missed, the forecast responsibility falls on them.

Sales forecasts touch virtually all departments in a business. For example, the finance department uses sales forecasts to decide how to make annual and quarterly investments. Product leaders use them to plan demand for new products. And the HR department uses forecasts to align recruiting needs to where the business is going.

At some level, sales forecasting affects everyone in the company.

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The main objective of sales forecasting is to paint an accurate picture of expected sales. Leaders are looking to these numbers when they’re building out their operational roadmap and budget. If they’re confident in the projected growth, they can get to planning.

They could decide to staff more customer service touchpoints, fund more external marketing events, or invest more in the community. They could get ahead of purchasing new equipment or upgrades that get more expensive the longer they wait. Without a sales forecast, leaders are making critical spending decisions in the dark. If sales don’t go as planned, it could lead to cutting workforce, reducing support, or halting product development.

Sales forecasting is a muscle, not an item to check off your to-do list. While you should absolutely design a framework for your sales forecasting plan each year, you should also change up your strategies from time to time so new muscles develop.

Craft a sales forecasting plan with your team by focusing on three primary activities:

• Calculating number and time period: Your plan should explain how you’ll calculate the estimated monetary amount and what the timeframes will be. See the section on how a CRM can help with forecasting later in this guide for more on the sales forecasting tools you can use to do this.
• Reviewing and revising: You should also plan to review the forecast at key milestones and revise it if necessary. Most sales leaders track progress against their forecast daily! But you’ll also want to schedule designated check-ins throughout the quarter. Make sure you’re reviewing the latest numbers with sales automation software & tools that sync your CRM’s forecast data.
• Breaking the patterns: Even the best sales organizations need to shake up their sales process once in a while. Breaking your patterns can help you find new ways of crafting even more accurate forecasting. Try skip-level forecasting, ask different questions, have executive sponsorship reviews, and take different angles of the data.

What happens to sales forecasts in unpredictable times?

Unpredictable events have an enormous impact on your sales forecast. Extreme weather or economic crises all dramatically change your forecast. What you thought you knew about expected revenue growth can be suddenly flipped on its head.

As soon as an extraordinary event hits, sales and finance leaders at your company will quickly want to know:

• How’s our sales pipeline looking today?
• What are the best- and worst-case scenarios?
• How has the forecast changed from a week or a month ago?

Your forecast implicates resourcing, headcount, and more (see the section on sales forecasting objectives). So although things may be changing quickly, you don’t want to give up on your forecast.

Rather than attempt to recalculate your forecast based on dubious estimates or conjecture, your best bet is to rely on sales analytics software & tools to get an accurate view of deal status and pipeline in real time.

During a crisis, reps need to feed their CRM with data as events unfold so leaders have clear visibility into the rapidly evolving pipe. That data enables those leaders to support their reps with corporate-level decisions about where they should be focusing their time — and craft the new forecasts. Your forecast is only as good as the data coming into it from your sales teams.

In uncertain times, quick access to sales data and the ability to pivot sales territory and resource deployment accordingly can make the difference between business continuity and dissolution. There’s no silver bullet to forecast perfectly in a crisis or unforeseen scenario. But vigilantly updating what’s in the pipeline and analyzing sales data more frequently than usual will help you see trends and retool your forecast accordingly.

Empathy and care are always fundamental, but this is especially true in these situations. Empathizing with your customers’ challenges and caring for your own sales reps should come before anything else. Build trust with internal and external partners. That trust will help you grow again in the future. Learn more about maintaining customer relationships as a sales leader .

This brings us back to embracing a strong data culture . To get a more accurate forecast, everyone in the sales cycle — from reps to managers to execs — should have a stake in making sure those numbers reflect the latest reality. Reps can keep all prospect info up to date, managers can track pipeline progress, and leaders can review how all teams are tracking toward those forecast numbers, with AI playing backup to spot any inaccuracies or chances to adjust along the way.

A CRM gives sales leaders a real-time view into their entire team’s forecast. The tool forecasts revenue by giving you:

• An accurate view of your entire business. Comprehensive forecasts in a CRM come with a complete view of your pipeline.
• Tracking of your top performers. See which reps are on track to beat their targets with up-to-the-minute leaderboards.
• Forecasting for complex sales teams. Overlay splits allows you to credit the right amounts to sales overlays, by revenue, contract value, and more.

A forecast is based on the gross rollup of a set of opportunities. You can think of a forecast as a rollup of currency or quantity against a set of dimensions: owner, time, forecast categories, product family, and territory. You can collaborate on forecasts with all the necessary people to see how opportunities are stacking up. Drill down into opportunities by sales leader, operating unit, manager, and individuals.

We also love a CRM with reports and dashboards . These highlight where the business challenges are, in plain and simple terms. It could be that four of five selling teams are at the right growth rate, and we just need to focus on another one. It could be that a certain product is challenged. The data opens up new doors to grow sales and see what could be working more effectively.

Another thing that’s great about a CRM is the guidance from AI. An AI for sales tool offers a neutral perspective on what’s actually happening in sales. For example, AI might note that an opportunity has been pushed out three quarters in a row — a finding that would’ve taken an individual reviewing the data longer to discover. Think of AI as your personal data scientist, taking your forecasting and entire sales operations to a new level.

Predictive AI tools take a look at historical sales data to give you a glimpse of what you might expect in the future. The AI will analyze factors like win rate or number of customer meetings. It takes some of the guesswork out of sales forecasting and helps you get to more accurate numbers. Try to analyze sales data for at least 12 months. Otherwise, there may not be enough data to get accurate sales predictions.

Sales forecasting is significantly more accurate when using a CRM instead of a spreadsheet. When a company is just starting out, sales teams usually rely on spreadsheets or back-of-the-napkin ways to calculate their sales forecasts. This may work for a while, but eventually, you’ll find this doesn’t scale.

The reality is, selling is more complex than ever. It involves everything from how demand generation campaigns are performing to how your phone calls to prospects are landing. The more you want to sell, the more you’ll want to rely on a CRM.

See how Salesforce manages forecasts with confidence

The secret to an accurate forecast? Reliable, well-maintained pipelines. See how we manage both efficiently (with the help of the right technology), and use our best practices in your business.

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11 Good Study Habits to Develop

Good study habits include finding a quiet location to study, taking breaks, settings goals, and taking practice tests. Here's the full list, and the psychological reasons why they work.

Studying can be hard. The good news is that anybody can develop good study habits to make studying more effective, efficient, and enjoyable.

Want to develop good study habits? Start small—don’t expect to do everything in this list, at least not right away; pick one or two instead. It’s also important to set realistic and achievable goals for yourself. 

Good study habits to develop

Here are 11 tips to improve your study habits:

Find a good place to study.

Minimize distractions.

Take breaks.

Space out your studying.

Set study goals for each session.

Reward yourself.

Study with a group.

Take practice tests.

Use your own words.

Ask for help.

Take care of yourself.

Let's take a closer look at how you can implement each of these habits.

1. Find a good place to study.

Finding a good location to study is one of the most important elements of studying well. Look for a quiet place with minimal distractions—someplace where you’ll be able to focus, and won’t be interrupted by loud sounds or people who constantly want your attention.

A school or public library, a coffee shop, or a quiet corner of your house can all be good places to start. 

Should I stick to one place to study?

Not necessarily. Some studies show that occasionally changing where you study can help retain information. This is because studying the same material in different locations helps your brain create multiple associations with that material, making it easier for you to remember it [ 1 ]. It can be beneficial to find three or four places you like to study and switch locations when you’re feeling stuck or need a change of pace. That said, everybody is different. Find what works best for you.

2. Minimize distractions.

Picking a good location to study can be the first step in keeping yourself focused on your work. But there are many types of distractions that can reach you no matter where you choose to work. Here are some tips on minimizing these distractions:

Turn off your wifi: If you’re working on a computer and you don’t need your wifi, try turning it off. This can keep you from inadvertently wandering into the distracting parts of the internet.

Be mindful of your phone: It’s no secret that our smartphones can be hugely distracting. Turning off your notifications, keeping your phone out of sight in your bag, or giving it to a friend to keep you from checking it too often can help you stay focused. You might also try a focus app, like Forest or Focus To-Do , that can block distracting apps and set timers for study sessions.

Study with a friend: Sometimes studying with a friend or two, whether or not you’re working on the same material, can help keep you accountable and focused. Make sure you each are on the same page about studying and keeping one another distraction-free, at least until it’s time to take a break.

Should I listen to music while I study?

Listening to music while you study has some benefits; it can boost your mood and calm anxiety or stress. But studies show that reading comprehension tends to fall when the music is too loud, fast-paced, or contains lyrics [ 2 ]. Stick with calming, wordless songs while studying, and save the upbeat numbers for breaks.

3. Take breaks.

Taking intentional breaks has been linked to better retention, increased attention, and boosts in energy. Research shows that working for around 50 minutes, then giving yourself a 15- to 20-minute break, can lead to optimum productivity [ 3 ]. Here are a few ways you can give yourself a break:

Take a short walk

Listen to a mood-boosting song

Relax with a friend

Zone out and daydream

Have a snack

Take a shower

Clean your desk or room

Not all breaks are created equal. Checking your phone or social media as a study break has actually been linked to a decrease in performance [ 4 ]. 

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4. Space out your studying.

Cramming can still help you get a good grade on a test, but studies show that you’re much more likely to forget that information as soon as the test is over. Really holding onto the material you learned (and making exam seasons less stressful) requires consistent and well-spaced study sessions.

Instead of saving your studying for before a test, briefly review material you learned once a week. If you are studying for an exam, space out your studying up to several weeks (or even months, depending on the test) leading up to the exam day. This can help you retain the information long term. 

5. Set study goals for each session.

Set study goals for each session of studying you have. These can be time-based or content-based. For example, you might aim to study for two hours, or review three chapters of your textbook—or both.

Don’t be too harsh on yourself if you didn’t get through as much as you had planned; sometimes studying can take longer than expected. Keep taking well-spaced breaks, and schedule another study session.

6. Reward yourself.

Rewarding yourself with treats—“bribing” yourself—has been linked to better self-control, and can be helpful in forming good habits [ 5 ]. Telling yourself you’ll get a small reward if you finish the section you wanted to get through, or perhaps a larger reward if you have a productive day of studying, can be good motivation to get to your goal. 

Small rewards can be a candy bar, a hot drink from your favorite coffee shop, a quick game of your choice, or a short episode of a TV show. Bigger rewards for a long day of studying or getting done with an exam can include getting your favorite meal, spending some time relaxing with friends, or making time for your favorite activity. 

7. Study with a group.

There are several benefits to forming a study group. Group members can help one another work through difficult problems, provide encouragement, hold each other accountable to studying goals, provide different perspectives, and make studying more enjoyable. Even explaining difficult concepts to others can help with comprehension and retention. 

If you have a group study session, set a goal the group will work towards and take periodic breaks as you would studying by yourself.

8. Take practice tests.

Tests and practice tests have been long seen as useful tools to help students learn and retain information. Besides revealing gaps in knowledge and reducing exam anxiety, being tested makes us retrieve information from memory—a powerful, study-backed way of holding onto information we’ve learned [ 6 ].

Don’t have a practice exam? There are several ways you can “test” yourself and gain the same benefits. Try the following methods:

Create flashcards

Write your own questions

Search for practice questions online

Have a friend quiz you

9. Use your own words.

Expressing an idea in your own words increases your understanding of a subject and helps your brain hang on to information. After you read a section of text, summarize important points by paraphrasing. 

10. Ask for help.

You might find yourself stuck on a problem or unable to understand the explanation in a textbook. Somebody who is able to walk through the issue with you might provide the fresh explanation you need. Approach your teacher or professor, teaching assistant, friend, or study group member for new ways to understand what you’re stuck on. Feel like you can benefit from being coached through a subject? Consider looking for a tutor.

And don’t forget the myriad online tools that might be at your disposal, like the Khan Academy . A quick search through Google or YouTube can also surface helpful articles or videos on subjects you’re trying to grasp.

11. Take care of yourself.

At the end of the day, your brain is an organ in your body—take care of it by taking care of yourself. Get regular exercise, eat well, don’t overdrink, get good sleep, and take care of your mental wellbeing. 

Sleep: Studies have linked sleep deprivation to decreased cognitive function, including reduced attention spans and doing worse on tests [ 7 ]. Everybody’s sleep needs are different, but people typically need between seven and eight-and-a-half hours of sleep a night. Plus, getting more sleep can make you happier and benefit your social life.

Food: Try to incorporate more fruits, vegetables, plant sources of proteins, nuts, and unsaturated oils like olive oil into your diet, all of which have been linked to better cognitive performance [ 8 ]. 

Exercise: Exercise brings oxygen to the part of your brain responsible for thought, encourages the development of new nerve cells, and boosts brain cell connections [ 8 ]. This makes for brains that are more neuroplastic and efficient—plus it brings a host of other health benefits, like lower blood pressure, reduced mental stress, and weight control.

Mental wellness: Mental health is important because it helps us deal with stress, improves our relationships with others, allows us to live more meaningfully, and be more productive in our work. Exercising, eating well, and getting good sleep can each boost our mental health. But there are other ways of fortifying mental strength, such as connecting with others, practicing gratitude, meditating, and developing a sense of meaning in life [ 9 ].

Getting started

Forming good habits can be difficult, but starting with small, achievable steps can set you up to have consistent study habits for the rest of your life. Explore more personal development courses from leading universities and institutions on Coursera. Sign up for a free 7-day trial and start learning today.

Looking to get a degree? Knowing what’s out there is a good first step. Take a look at bachelor’s and master’s degrees on Coursera .

Article sources

New York Times. " Forget What You Know About Good Study Habits , https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/07/health/views/07mind.html." Accessed July 27, 2022.

University of Wollongong Australia. " Is it OK to listen to music while studying? , https://www.uow.edu.au/media/2019/is-it-ok-to-listen-to-music-while-studying.php." Accessed July 27, 2022.

TIME Magazine. " The Exact Perfect Amount of Time to Take a Break, According to Data , https://time.com/3518053/perfect-break/." Accessed July 27, 2022.

Bustle. " A New Study Says Scrolling Through Social Media Doesn’t Actually Give You A Mental Break , https://www.bustle.com/p/taking-a-break-by-looking-at-social-media-doesnt-help-your-mind-reset-a-new-study-says-18682642." Accessed July 27, 2022.

PsychCentral. " The Pscyhology of Rewarding Yourself with Treats , https://psychcentral.com/blog/psychology-rewarding-yourself-with-treats." Accessed July 27, 2022.

KQED. " A Better Way to Study Through Self-Testing and Distributed Practice , https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/49750/a-better-way-to-study-through-self-testing-and-distributed-practice." Accessed July 27, 2022.

Forbes. " New Studies Show What Sleep Loss Does To The Brain And Cognition , https://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2019/11/29/new-studies-show-what-sleep-loss-does-to-the-brain-and-cognition/." Accessed July 27, 2022.

Harvard Health Publishing. " 12 ways to keep your brain young , https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/12-ways-to-keep-your-brain-young." Accessed July 27, 2022.

MedlinePlus. " How to Improve Mental Health , https://medlineplus.gov/howtoimprovementalhealth.html." Accessed July 27, 2022.

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