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http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8111-2730 Gabrielle Samuel 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7885-9136 Cristina Richie 2
1 Department of Global Health and Social Medicine , King's College London , London , UK
2 Philosophy and Ethics of Technology Department , Delft University of Technology , Delft , Netherlands
Correspondence to Dr Gabrielle Samuel, Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London - Strand Campus, London, London, UK; gabrielle.samuel{at}kcl.ac.uk

In this paper we argue the need to reimagine research ethics frameworks to include notions of environmental sustainability. While there have long been calls for health care ethics frameworks and decision-making to include aspects of sustainability, less attention has focused on how research ethics frameworks could address this. To do this, we first describe the traditional approach to research ethics, which often relies on individualised notions of risk. We argue that we need to broaden this notion of individual risk to consider issues associated with environmental sustainability. This is because research is associated with carbon emissions and other environmental impacts, both of which cause climate change health hazards. We introduce how bioethics frameworks have considered notions of environmental sustainability and draw on these to help develop a framework suitable for researchers. We provide a case study of data-driven health research to apply our framework.

research ethics

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https://doi.org/10.1136/jme-2022-108489

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Introduction

Dominant research ethics paradigms often revolve around ethics principles that are concerned with the protection, rights, safety and welfare of individual research participants. These paradigms can be traced back to a number of historical ethics frameworks developed in response to atrocities in biomedical/clinical research in the 20th century, 1 and include the 1968 Declaration of Helsinki 1 and the subsequent 1979 Belmont Report. 2 These frameworks aim to guide physicians and researchers in appropriate clinical research ethics conduct, with relevant ethical principles including the need for research to respect individual research participants in group or individual settings; the need to ensure that research design minimises individual risk while maximising potential societal benefit; and the need to ensure fair practices in the selection of individuals for participation in research studies.

While individualised risk has long been a focus of research ethics frameworks, strong criticism exists around it. In an interconnected world it is difficult to argue that the impacts of individual research treatment would not affect others, particularly in the closer communities of friend and family groups. Carol Gilligan’s work on care ethics 4 and the notion of relational autonomy both point to the networks that impact ethical decision-making within healthcare. Furthermore, concerns have long been raised about the appropriateness of placing individual risk ahead of communitarianism , especially in research areas that are less concerned with individual health, such as global health research. Public health scholars have long pointed to the moral status of the community in research ethics considerations, 5–8 whereby community harms are more than the sum of individual values and interests and relate to questions associated with whether communities will be beneficiaries of the research, or even whether they share the same goals as the researchers. 9–11 Multiple authors have pointed to the abusive practices and problematic studies conducted with tribes, indigenous populations, and minoritised and marginalised communities worldwide over the past decades, which have failed to consider community harms associated with violating widespread trust or taking ownership of a community’s stories. 10 For these reasons Emmanuel and Weijer 9 emphasise the importance of an ethical principle of ‘respect for community’ alongside more individual principles related to risk and exploitation, such that scholars need to devote careful attention to understanding the sociopolitical impact of research on communities as a whole and not only to individuals, 7 12 13 remembering that individuals are part of the whole community.

While concerns about community harm have expanded moral status considerations beyond those focused on individual risk alone, they are anthropocentric and have stopped short of considering environment-related harms associated with the research process. The environmental impact of the medical industry and health research can be measured by carbon emissions and resource use. The carbon emissions of global healthcare activities, including research, make up 4%–5% of the total world emissions. 14 The Lancet reports that the Sustainable Clinical Trials Group calculated nearly 350 000 national and international trials registered on ClinicalTrials.gov ‘using the average…(to) give a carbon consumption of an estimated 27.5 million tonnes, which is just under a third of the total annual carbon emissions of Bangladesh, a country of 163 million people’. 15 The impact of carbon emissions includes not only climate change, but also health hazards like pollution, significant environmental destruction, use of scarce resources, loss of biodiversity and diminished quality of life for humans. 16 People affected by climate change require medical care, which is predicated on medical research. 17 These treatments release more carbon, locking healthcare into a self-destructive cycle whereby medical research, care and treatments cause medical needs. Hence, healthcare research has a special interest in carbon reduction, not only as a matter of international priority, but also as a commitment to health. In this paper we draw on the concept of sustainability to provide an ethical basis for the inclusion of such environmental harms in health research.

Environment and (bio)ethics

In 1927 Fritz Jahr described bioethics (German: bio-ethik ) as ‘the assumption of moral obligations not only towards humans, but towards all forms of life’. 18 Jahr drew on Rudolf Eisler’s Bio-Psychik , declaring: ‘Respect every living being on principle as an end in itself and treat it, if possible, as such!’ (p230). Almost half a century later in 1971, the term ‘bioethics’ appeared in English with a parallel scope when Van Rensselaer Potter used it to describe a life-ethic for an industrialised society in a precarious ecosystem. For Potter, bioethics was rooted in an intrinsically practical approach to ecologically sustainable life, inclusive of the earth and other organisms. 19 20 Despite bioethics’ environmental origins, since Beauchamp and Childress’ 21 1979 proposition of ‘biomedical ethics’, which focused on the patient–physician relationship through four principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice, ‘bioethics’ has become widespread conflated with ‘biomedical ethics’. This has erased the ecological origins of bioethics while simultaneously giving rise to the ‘new’ discipline of environmental bioethics. 22

Nevertheless, an increasing number of scholars have advocated bioethics readopt a broader perspective that aims to explore the relationships between individuals and the natural environment. 23–29 They reject that the land and ecosystems are just instrumentally valuable—good because of how humans can use them—but rather argue that our moral sentiments need to extend to the biotic community, to the soils, waters, plants and animals that make up our planet 30 since nature is both inherently valuable—good in itself—and because humans are a part of, not separate from, nature. 30 Most widely recognised ethical theories acknowledge interconnectedness (with people and communities), and it makes moral sense to include the biotic community within this moral framework. 31 They call for a systems approach that considers individuals, populations and environmental factors in understanding (health) practices and policies (for instance, see Lee 25 ; also see Richie 32 ).

Some effort has ensued in the research ethics community in this regard. The European Commission’s Ethics for Researchers —designed for researchers who are preparing an application for research funding from the European Union—includes respect for biodiversity, the environment and ecological balance as one of its 12 golden rules to ethical research conduct. 33 Equally, the All European Academies Code of Conduct for Research Integrity points to the need not to ‘waste resources and [expose the] environment to unnecessary harm’ during research. 34 The National Institutes for Health Research (NIHR) Carbon Reduction Guidelines ‘highlight areas where sensible research design can reduce waste without adversely impacting the validity and reliability of research’.[ 2 ] Similarly, the UK’s research funding body, UKRI (UK Research and Innovation), emphasises that ‘public funds should be deployed with due consideration to value for money and environmental impact across all activities’. 35

At the same time, a recent review of international research ethics frameworks by RAND suggests that such environmental concerns are primarily applied in non-human-centric disciplines; within human participant research, harm is generally considered anthropocentrically in human terms only. 36 If moral reflections are to consider the environment, key unanswered questions include how we should give respect to non-human worlds, especially since human endeavours will always inevitably lead to the destruction of at least some of the biotic community and ecosystems, and how this respect should or could be weighed next to humans (p235). 37 [ 3 ] Despite this, moral obligations to the environment still exist, even if they are anthropocentric and instrumentalising for reasons of self-preservation. The planet and its ecosystems sustain us. Without these ecosystems, humans can neither survive nor flourish, 37 and indeed the destruction of our ecosystem has led to a diminished quality of life for billions of people, including early death, increased morbidity and psychological suffering. 38

In the following section we argue that in research ethics frameworks, moral decision-making should extend to the environment. Drawing on the concept of sustainability, we map out what such a research ethics framework would look like.

A research ethics framework based on sustainability

As scholars in healthcare increasingly shift to a broader vision of bioethics and take into account factors associated with non-humans and ecosystems, sustainability has become an important concept. 27 31 32 39–47 Following from the well-cited ‘Brundtland Report’, sustainability is viewed as a forward-looking concept for guiding a wide variety of choices that are grounded on the commitment to the well-being of both current and future populations. 48 , 4

In her work on green bioethics, Richie 26 draws on environmental ethics to propose a green bioethics framework for evaluating the sustainability of medical developments, techniques and procedures. This framework includes four normative principles: distributive justice takes a broad view of the moral community and requires the allocation of basic medical resources before special interest access; resource conservation to provide healthcare needs before healthcare wants; simplicity to reduce dependence on medical interventions; and ethical economics to promote humanistic healthcare instead of financial profit. 26 We draw on this and other frameworks of restraint and justice from environmental bioethics (eg, see Potter and Lisa 49 in Jameton and Pierce 31 ). We modify it to be more aligned with current research ethics frameworks (eg, see Weinbaum et al 36 and Emanuel et al 50 ), thus making it intelligible and persuasive for researchers. In the following sections we map our research ethics framework of five substantive ethics principles: social value, scientific quality, respect for persons, communities and environment, justice, and favourable risk to benefit ratio.

Scientific quality

Proposed research must be conducted in a methodologically rigorous manner, using reliable and valid research design and methods. 51 52 Special attention to possible sample bias or underpowered research is important. Execution of the study is also important to ensure results are valid and answer the research question. A lack of quality leads to wasted resources and time. All research has a carbon footprint even if the results of the study are not published, or unusable for reasons of lack of replicability or lack of reproducibility. Hence, the NIHR suggests a thorough literature review prior to developing a research proposal.[ 5 ]

Social value

Research must be beneficial to the participants, community, society 50 51 and environment. More than just refraining from harming the individual, community, society or environment, it should proactively lead to improvements in health, the environment or well-being, or act as a preliminary step towards this. Anything short of this could expose individuals to harms without there being a worthy pursuit (especially if clinical research), or more broadly divert resources from other valuable pursuits. Since all research requires resources, maximal benefits should be prioritised since the consequence of research is increased carbon emissions and risks of climate change health hazards.

Respect for persons, communities and environment

Respect for persons extends further than respect for autonomy, and considers one’s moral attitude towards others and the actions towards others that result from and exemplify this attitude. 53 Respect for communities allows a broadening of this concept to include a variety of cultural norms, including those which place less emphasis on individual autonomy and autonomous decision-making than is the norm in some cultures. 54 Procedural principles to help with respecting persons and communities include, for example, the need for trustworthiness, transparency, privacy and ownership, accountability, autonomy, engagement, the need for consent, and the right to withdraw. 36 51 53 Respect for the environment includes taking environmental destruction into consideration by considering the environmental impacts associated with the research endeavour, particularly when that destruction occurs in places which may not directly benefit from the outputs, for example, clinical trials in the developing world, or in places where natural resources are used, not replenished and not properly compensated for (eg, harvesting of medicinal plants in a rainforest, mining).

This has historically referred to fair participant selection based on the scientific goals of the proposed research. 50 51 This also refers to the fair treatment of individuals and communities beyond research-based activities to ensure that those individuals or communities who take part in research are those most likely to benefit. It also refers to environment-associated harms and benefits associated with the research endeavour. This adheres to Nancy Fraser’s 54 work on justice, which proposes an ‘all subjected principle’, such that ‘all those who are subject to a given governance structure have moral standing as subjects of justice in relation to it’ and that ‘for any such governance structure, the all subjected principle matches the scope of moral concern to that of subjection’. Brock’s work is useful here too. She sees a role for both state-bound and global justice when considering duties in healthcare. 55 She explains that we should give special attention to those within our own state, but we have a moral obligation to make low or reasonable modifications to our own governance structures because of the negative duty to refrain from harming others. Following this premise, if low or reasonable modifications to our own governance structures would decrease harm caused to others, we have a moral responsibility to make these modifications. This is particularly pertinent for people living in affluent countries and their obligations for those who live in extreme poverty in developing countries, and particularly links to the risk to benefit ratio principle that requires finding the optimum research methodology that allows these risks to be minimised.[ 6 ]

Favourable risk to benefit ratio

This is a key aspect of research ethics frameworks that is also related to principles of proportionality, beneficence and non-maleficence. Historically, a favourable risk to benefit ratio involves weighing the individual risk versus individual and/or collective benefit from the research in a utilitarian way (and more recently assessing community risk/benefit). To be truly utilitarian, and to consider all links within a consequentialist pathway, risk to benefit ratios must include environment-related risks. 31 Jameton and Pierce 31 argue that when these harms are put into the research ethics risk/benefit balance, ‘everyday decisions unquestioned by ethicists and regarded as rational and even praiseworthy may be seen as questionable and possibly maleficent’ (p119). 31

Our proposed principles have direct relevance for health research. In the next section, we present a case study and then apply the principle to demonstrate the feasibility and agility.

Case study: data-driven health research

Health research is becoming increasingly data-intensive. Through the capture and analysis of vast swaths of clinical, imaging and genomic data, other biomarkers, as well as data from wearable devices, social media and environmental exposures, researchers aim to improve detection, diagnosis and treatment of patients and the public. While data-driven health research and any technologies that emerge are viewed as a panacea towards better health and healthcare, they have adverse environmental impacts. This is because they rely on digital infrastructures that are not ‘virtual’ as implied by the metaphors describing them, but have materiality—they involve mining, manufacturing, transport, use and waste, all of which have carbon emissions, and all of which produce toxic and hazardous chemicals as well as other environmental and public health impacts. For health research approaches that rely on artificial intelligence (AI), such as diagnostic tests and healthcare disease prediction, we know that the largest AI models are doubling in necessary compute every 3–4 months, thereby severely outpacing the increasing efficiency of hardware.[ 7 ] Mining and e-waste also have associated environmental, health and well-being harms. 56 58 For example, unregulated resource recovery from e-waste landfills has led to the generation of hazardous by-products shown to be present in those living around informal e-waste sites, at levels vastly exceeding recommended safety levels (see Gabrys 59 and Ngo et al 60 ).

Over the past decades, the digital sector has worked hard to drive efficiency gains.[ 8 ] However, the most recent estimate of the sector’s contribution to global carbon emissions has been calculated between 2.1% and 3.9% global emissions. 61 While health research only comprises a small proportion of all digital technology, health is the fastest growing sector in the datasphere 62 and will become an increasingly important contributor, with proteomics, metabolomics and genomics all data-intensive solutions. Communication and media scholar Mel Hogan emphasised that by 2025, between 100 million and 2 billion human genomes will have been sequenced globally, using some 40 exabytes of data. 63 The UK 100,000 Genomes Project, which has sequenced 100 000 genomes, is 21 petabytes, 64 and by 2025 the UK Biobank database—a leading biobank internationally—is expected to grow to 15 petabytes, an amount of data equivalent to that created annually by the Large Hadron Collider.[ 9 ]

Moreover, as other sectors decrease their environmental impacts, the digital sector, including the digital aspect of health research, will increase consumption as it acts as an enabling technology. Backfire is also a concern, whereby the move towards increased digital efficiency, without constraints, results in more, not less, consumption. For example, app-based ridesharing increases use of vehicles instead of carbon neutral forms of transportation like walking and biking, thus ‘cancelling out 68% to 77% of CO 2 emission reductions and 52% to 73% of aggregated social benefits (including congestion, air quality, carbon dioxide emissions, noise) expected from ridesharing’. 66 While increasing the efficiency of digital technologies has historically been drawn upon as a solution to increased consumption, these efficiency gains are slowing.

The move to renewables is also only a partial solution because of its large dependency on mining, as well as its poor recycling prospects. Finally, while health research promises to lead to better health, there is often a lack of clarity about whose health and whether those who will benefit are those who are already experiencing greater access to healthcare. For those not receiving these benefits, health research may amount to only health risks in the form of environmental impacts. 67

In the following sections we map out how researchers, ethicists and healthcare professionals can think about these issues through our principle-based research ethics framework.

Data should not be collected and analysed without ensuring that the research outputs will be of sufficient quality (considering issues of bias, etc). The storage and processing of data are not harm-free and should only be collected and/or analysed if there is an appropriate reason for doing so, such as translatability to significant medical progress, deep gains in knowledge, and the potential for widespread and just dissemination of any developments.

Research should cobenefit humans, communities, society and environment. Social value could mean prioritising more low-tech research rather than energy-hungry data analyses, especially when low-tech research is likely to produce positive health benefits that are equal or greater than high-tech. For example, addressing social, economic, commercial and political determinants of health is likely less impactful on the environment. This is because it is often based on preventive medicine and low-tech interventions, rather than high-tech, reactive solutions that may only lead to benefit for the few who have access to medical infrastructures and sophisticated medical care.

Respect for persons, communities and the environment

For data-driven health research, respect for persons and communities entails respecting all of those affected by the research. It involves community and individual engagement, the availability of readable and digestible information, transparency on how the data are regulated and the protections in place for individuals and communities whose data may be used, and accountability pathways. 53 This can be collected and published online in an easily searchable database. Moreover, how this is used should be part of open-access articles and reports for the benefit of those in the broader scientific community.

Respect for the environment includes awareness of the environmental impact of the research and taking steps to reduce this. At one level, this could involve, for example, optimising algorithms to ensure they have as minimal impact on resource use and carbon emissions or choosing data centres with considerations of sustainability in mind (eg, if the energy they use to power them is ‘dirty’ or ‘clean’, non-renewable or renewable). A range of calculators can help researchers assess the environmental impact of their data-driven practices, and there are various guidelines and frameworks to assist. 68 At a higher level, as researchers use more data, consumption and environmental impact will increase and this must be considered. Respecting the environment means minimising our data use as much as feasibly possible.

For data-driven health research, this refers to, for example, the fair collection, storage, use, linkage and sharing of data, 53 as well as attention to equity and benefit sharing of research outcomes. Consideration must also be given to environment-related harms. This includes those involved in mining minerals used in digital technologies, manufacturing them and recycling/disposing of them. This also includes aspects of social justice, for example, questioning the inequalities associated with the use of turks to analyse data. Justice must also consider how research results will be used in terms of the long-term implications and carbon expenditures.

Risk to benefit ratios need to include weighing up individual, community and environmental risk against benefit. As historically noted, this decision will include some measure of subjectivity, but overall should focus on minimising harm as much as possible. This can be achieved by, for example, buying repurposed machines where possible, using data centres that are powered by renewables and having appropriate recycling infrastructures for digital technologies. However, reliance on ‘recycling’ still requires resources. Hence, the familiar environmental manta ‘reduce, reuse, recycle’ is relevant: recycling should be the last resort on the path to sustainability, not the default.

As the levels of atmospheric carbon are already over safe levels of 350 parts per million, 69 research must be done parsimoniously in ways that neither suppress scientific invention and creative nor threaten the health of people and the planet. We have mapped out a research ethics framework that allows us to do this.

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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
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Funding This work received funding from Wellcome (222180/Z/20/Z).

Competing interests None declared.GS is the guarantor. CR's research was partially funded by the Technology University of Delft/ Erasmus Medical College Convergence ethics project.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

↵ Such as World War II, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the Henrietta Lacks case. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was a longitudinal study conducted by the US Public Health Service in Tuskegee, Alabama, in which approximately 600 African Americans participated between 1932 and 1972. In 1972 it was revealed that the participants had received a dishonest explanation for their involvement in the research, and despite existing treatment for their condition—penicillin—they had been prevented from getting this treatment so that the research could continue. Lacks was an African American woman whose biospecimens were collected during a cervical cancer biopsy and later developed into the profitable HeLa cell line without her consent. 3

↵ See https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/the-nihr-carbon-reduction-guidelines/21685 .

↵ Holmes Rolston III discusses that obligations to protect non-human worlds are perhaps better understood at the species and ecosystem level. 30 He also provides more detail on the various ways in which value is ascribed to non-humans.

↵ In this report, sustainable development is defined as ‘meet(ing) the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

↵ https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/the-nihr-carbon-reduction-guidelines/21685 .

↵ Also see Mancini et al 56 and Hickel et al . 57

↵ Open AI, “AI and Compute,” May 16, 2018, at https://openai.com/blog/ai-and-compute/ .

↵ Mainly for business reasons, but more recently to address considerations of the environment. 65

↵ https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/learn-more-about-uk-biobank/news/uk-biobank-creates-cloud-based-health-data-analysis-platform-to-unleash-the-imaginations-of-the-world-s-best-scientific-minds .

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Finding common ground: environmental ethics, social justice, and a sustainable path for nature-based health promotion.

1. Introduction

2. ecosystem services and public health benefits, 3. ecosystems’ public health benefits and the role of environmental ethics, 4. environmental justice as an expression of environmental ethics, 5. balancing environmental ethics, environmental justice and health, 6. conclusions, acknowledgments, author contributions, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

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Jennings, V.; Yun, J.; Larson, L. Finding Common Ground: Environmental Ethics, Social Justice, and a Sustainable Path for Nature-Based Health Promotion. Healthcare 2016 , 4 , 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4030061

Jennings V, Yun J, Larson L. Finding Common Ground: Environmental Ethics, Social Justice, and a Sustainable Path for Nature-Based Health Promotion. Healthcare . 2016; 4(3):61. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4030061

Jennings, Viniece, Jessica Yun, and Lincoln Larson. 2016. "Finding Common Ground: Environmental Ethics, Social Justice, and a Sustainable Path for Nature-Based Health Promotion" Healthcare 4, no. 3: 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4030061

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Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volume 39, 2014, review article, environmental ethics.

Clare Palmer 1 , Katie McShane 2 , and Ronald Sandler 3
View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 Department of Philosophy, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77845; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Philosophy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1781; email: [email protected] 3 Department of Philosophy and Religion, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115; email: [email protected]
Vol. 39:419-442 (Volume publication date October 2014) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-121112-094434
First published as a Review in Advance on August 13, 2014
© Annual Reviews

Environmental ethics—the study of ethical questions raised by human relations with the nonhuman environment—emerged as an important subfield of philosophy during the 1970s. It is now a flourishing area of research. This article provides a review of the secular, Western traditions in the field. It examines both anthropocentric and nonanthropocentric claims about what has value, as well as divergent views about whether environmental ethics should be concerned with bringing about best consequences, respecting principles and rights, or embodying environmental virtues. The article also briefly considers two critical traditions—ecofeminism and environmental pragmatism—and explores some of the difficult environmental ethics questions posed by anthropogenic climate change.

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Environmental Ethics Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to environmental ethics research paper topics is designed to provide students and researchers with a wide array of subjects in the field of environmental ethics. The topics are carefully categorized into ten distinct areas, each offering ten unique research themes. This guide also provides expert advice on how to select a topic and how to write a compelling research paper on environmental ethics. Furthermore, it introduces iResearchNet’s professional writing services, which can assist students in crafting custom research papers on any given topic.

100 Environmental Ethics Research Paper Topics

The field of environmental ethics is a vast and diverse area of study that intersects with various disciplines such as philosophy, ecology, and sociology. It explores the moral relationship of human beings to the environment and its non-human contents. Here, we provide a comprehensive list of environmental ethics research paper topics, divided into ten categories, each with ten topics.

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Theoretical Foundations of Environmental Ethics

The role of anthropocentrism in environmental ethics.
Biocentrism and its implications for environmental conservation.
Ecocentrism: A holistic approach to environmental ethics.
Deep ecology versus shallow ecology: A comparative study.
The concept of intrinsic value in nature.
The Gaia hypothesis and its ethical implications.
Ecofeminism: A critical analysis.
The role of religion in shaping environmental ethics.
The concept of environmental justice.
The principle of sustainability in environmental ethics.

Environmental Ethics and Wildlife Conservation

Ethical considerations in wildlife conservation.
The moral status of animals in environmental ethics.
The ethics of hunting: A critical analysis.
The ethical implications of animal captivity.
The role of zoos and wildlife parks in conservation: An ethical perspective.
The ethics of animal experimentation.
The ethical implications of species extinction.
The ethics of biodiversity conservation.
The ethical dimensions of wildlife trade.
The ethics of animal rights versus conservation needs.

Environmental Ethics and Climate Change

The ethical implications of climate change.
The ethics of climate change mitigation strategies.
The ethical dimensions of climate change adaptation.
The concept of climate justice.
The ethics of intergenerational equity in the context of climate change.
The ethical implications of geoengineering solutions to climate change.
The ethics of carbon trading.
The moral responsibility of developed nations in climate change.
The ethical dimensions of climate change denial.
The ethics of climate change communication.

Environmental Ethics and Pollution

The ethical implications of pollution.
The ethics of plastic pollution.
The ethical dimensions of air pollution.
The ethics of water pollution.
The ethical implications of soil pollution.
The ethics of noise pollution.
The ethical dimensions of light pollution.
The ethics of electronic waste.
The ethical implications of nuclear pollution.
The ethics of pollution control measures.

Environmental Ethics and Resource Management

The ethical implications of resource extraction.
The ethics of deforestation.
The ethical dimensions of water management.
The ethics of land use and land management.
The ethical implications of overfishing.
The ethics of agricultural practices.
The ethical dimensions of mining activities.
The ethics of waste management.
The ethical implications of energy production and use.
The ethics of sustainable resource management.

Environmental Ethics and Technology

The ethical implications of green technology.
The ethics of genetic engineering in the context of environmental conservation.
The ethical dimensions of nanotechnology.
The ethics of biotechnology in agriculture.
The ethical implications of geoengineering.
The ethics of renewable energy technologies.
The ethical dimensions of information technology and the environment.
The ethics of technology and waste management.
The ethical implications of technology in wildlife conservation.
The ethics of technology in climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Environmental Ethics and Urbanization

The ethical implications of urbanization.
The ethics of urban sprawl.
Theethical dimensions of urban green spaces.
The ethics of urban planning and design.
The ethical implications of urban agriculture.
The ethics of urban waste management.
The ethical dimensions of urban water management.
The ethics of urban air quality.
The ethical implications of urban biodiversity.
The ethics of sustainable urban development.

Environmental Ethics and Food Production

The ethical implications of industrial agriculture.
The ethics of organic farming.
The ethical dimensions of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
The ethics of animal farming and animal rights.
The ethical implications of aquaculture.
The ethics of food waste.
The ethical dimensions of food labeling.
The ethics of food security and food sovereignty.
The ethical implications of dietary choices.
The ethics of sustainable food systems.

Environmental Ethics and Human Health

The ethical implications of environmental health hazards.
The ethics of environmental health policies.
The ethical dimensions of environmental diseases.
The ethics of health and environmental justice.
The ethical implications of environmental toxins and human health.
The ethics of occupational health and safety in environmentally hazardous industries.
The ethical dimensions of climate change and human health.
The ethics of health impacts of pollution.
The ethical implications of the health-environment nexus.
The ethics of health in the Anthropocene.

Environmental Ethics and Environmental Education

The ethical implications of environmental education.
The ethics of environmental literacy.
The ethical dimensions of environmental awareness campaigns.
The ethics of environmental activism.
The ethical implications of environmental values in education.
The ethics of teaching sustainability.
The ethical dimensions of environmental justice education.
The ethics of environmental education in policy-making.
The ethical implications of youth involvement in environmental issues.
The ethics of interdisciplinary approaches in environmental education.

In conclusion, the field of environmental ethics offers a rich array of topics for research papers. These topics span a wide range of issues, from theoretical foundations to practical applications, and from local to global scales. They invite us to critically examine our relationship with the environment and to explore new ways of thinking and acting that promote environmental sustainability and justice.

Environmental Ethics Research Guide

Environmental ethics plays a critical role in our understanding of environmental issues and the development of sustainable solutions. As students studying environmental science, it is essential to delve into the realm of environmental ethics and explore its significance in shaping our relationship with the natural world. This page aims to provide a comprehensive guide on environmental ethics research paper topics, helping you navigate the complexities of ethical considerations in environmental decision-making.

In today’s world, environmental challenges are more pressing than ever before. From climate change and deforestation to pollution and resource depletion, our planet faces numerous threats that require urgent attention. However, addressing these issues goes beyond scientific and technical solutions. It requires an ethical framework that guides our choices and actions, taking into account the moral and philosophical dimensions of environmental problems.

The field of environmental ethics explores the moral values and principles that inform our relationship with nature, the rights of non-human beings, and the responsibilities we hold towards future generations. By examining different ethical theories and perspectives, we gain insights into the ethical dilemmas surrounding environmental issues and can develop informed and ethical solutions.

This page serves as a valuable resource for students like you who are tasked with writing a research paper on environmental ethics. Whether you are new to the field or seeking inspiration for your next paper, the following sections will provide a wealth of information, guidance, and topic ideas to help you embark on a successful research journey.

Throughout this page, we will explore various aspects of environmental ethics, including different ethical frameworks, the concept of environmental justice, the ethics of sustainability, and the ethical considerations associated with specific environmental challenges. By delving into these environmental ethics research paper topics, you will develop a deeper understanding of the ethical dimensions of environmental science and be better equipped to critically analyze and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.

It is important to note that environmental ethics is a dynamic field with evolving perspectives and ongoing debates. As you navigate through the research paper topics and expert advice provided on this page, keep in mind that the goal is not to arrive at definitive answers but to foster critical thinking, engage in ethical deliberation, and contribute to the growing body of knowledge in environmental ethics.

Choosing an Environmental Ethics Topic

Choosing a compelling and relevant research topic is essential for crafting a successful environmental ethics research paper. With the wide range of issues and perspectives within the field, it can be overwhelming to narrow down your focus. To help you navigate this process, we have compiled ten expert tips to guide you in choosing environmental ethics research paper topics that are engaging, thought-provoking, and academically valuable.

Identify your area of interest : Begin by reflecting on your personal interests and passions within the field of environmental ethics. Consider the ethical dimensions of specific environmental issues that resonate with you. This will help you stay motivated and engaged throughout your research and writing process.
Explore current debates and controversies : Stay updated on current debates and controversies in environmental ethics. Scan recent literature, academic journals, and reputable online sources to identify topics that are generating significant discussion. Engaging with these debates can provide a fresh perspective and contribute to the ongoing discourse in the field.
Conduct preliminary research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to ensure that there is sufficient information and scholarly resources available. Explore academic databases, books, and reputable websites to gauge the availability of relevant literature and sources for your chosen topic.
Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Environmental ethics is a multidisciplinary field that intersects with various disciplines, including philosophy, sociology, ecology, law, and economics. Consider incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives into your research topic to provide a comprehensive analysis and broaden the scope of your paper.
Narrow down your focus : Once you have identified a general area of interest, narrow down your focus by refining your research question. Clearly define the specific aspect of environmental ethics you wish to explore and formulate a concise and focused research question that guides your investigation.
Consult with your instructor or advisor : Seek guidance from your instructor or advisor to ensure that your chosen topic aligns with the objectives and requirements of your research paper. They can provide valuable insights and help you refine your topic based on their expertise.
Consider the practical implications : Environmental ethics research often addresses real-world challenges and policy implications. Consider topics that have practical relevance and examine the ethical considerations associated with proposed solutions or policy frameworks.
Engage with diverse perspectives : Environmental ethics is a field characterized by diverse perspectives and theories. Choose a topic that allows you to explore different ethical frameworks, cultural perspectives, and stakeholder viewpoints. This will help you develop a well-rounded understanding of the topic and foster critical thinking.
Identify gaps in the literature : Conduct a literature review to identify gaps or areas that have not been extensively explored within the realm of environmental ethics. Select a topic that fills these gaps and contributes to the existing knowledge base. This will enable you to make a unique and valuable contribution to the field.
Reflect on personal and societal relevance : Finally, consider the personal and societal relevance of your chosen topic. Reflect on how it connects with broader environmental concerns, social justice issues, and the well-being of communities and ecosystems. Choosing a topic that resonates with these broader contexts will make your research more impactful and meaningful.

By following these expert tips, you can confidently select an environmental ethics research paper topic that aligns with your interests, engages with relevant debates, and contributes to the ongoing discourse in the field. Remember to remain open-minded, adaptable, and willing to refine your topic as you delve deeper into the research process.

How to Write an Environmental Ethics Research Paper

Writing an environmental ethics research paper requires careful planning, critical thinking, and effective communication of your ideas. Whether you are exploring ethical dimensions of climate change, biodiversity conservation, or environmental justice, the following ten tips will guide you in crafting a compelling and well-structured research paper in the field of environmental ethics.

Understand the scope and purpose : Familiarize yourself with the scope and purpose of environmental ethics as a discipline. Gain a comprehensive understanding of the key concepts, theories, and ethical frameworks that underpin the field. This will provide a solid foundation for your research and analysis.
Develop a clear research question : Formulate a clear and concise research question that addresses the ethical dimensions of your chosen environmental issue. The research question should be specific, focused, and provide a framework for your investigation.
Conduct a thorough literature review : Begin by conducting a comprehensive literature review to understand the existing body of knowledge on your research topic. Explore relevant scholarly articles, books, and academic journals to gain insights into the different perspectives, debates, and theoretical frameworks within the field of environmental ethics.
Analyze and evaluate different ethical theories : Environmental ethics encompasses a wide range of ethical theories, including anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. Analyze and evaluate these theories in the context of your research question. Consider their strengths, weaknesses, and applicability to the environmental issue you are examining.
Collect and analyze empirical data : Depending on the nature of your research, collect and analyze empirical data to support your arguments. This may involve conducting surveys, interviews, or case studies to gather firsthand information. Analyze the data using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods to derive meaningful insights.
Consider stakeholder perspectives : Environmental ethics often involves considering the perspectives of different stakeholders, including communities, policymakers, industry representatives, and environmental organizations. Engage with these diverse viewpoints to gain a holistic understanding of the ethical challenges and potential solutions related to your research topic.
Address counterarguments : Anticipate and address counterarguments to your research findings or ethical positions. Engage with opposing viewpoints and demonstrate a nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding your chosen environmental issue. This will strengthen your argument and showcase your ability to critically evaluate multiple perspectives.
Organize your paper effectively : Structure your research paper in a logical and organized manner. Begin with an introduction that provides background information, states the research question, and outlines the significance of your study. Use clear headings and subheadings to organize your content, and ensure a smooth flow between sections.
Support your arguments with evidence : Back up your arguments and claims with credible evidence and scholarly sources. Use a combination of empirical data, case studies, and theoretical frameworks to support your analysis. Properly cite all your sources following the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
Conclude with a strong summary and reflection : In your conclusion, summarize the key findings of your research and restate the importance of your research question. Reflect on the implications of your study for environmental ethics, policy, or practice. Highlight the broader significance of your research and suggest avenues for future research.

By following these ten tips, you will be well-equipped to write an impactful environmental ethics research paper. Remember to maintain a critical and ethical stance throughout your writing, engage with the complexities of the environmental issues at hand, and make connections between theory and practice.

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Ethics in scientific research: a lens into its importance, history, and future

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Introduction

Ethics are a guiding principle that shapes the conduct of researchers. It influences both the process of discovery and the implications and applications of scientific findings 1 . Ethical considerations in research include, but are not limited to, the management of data, the responsible use of resources, respect for human rights, the treatment of human and animal subjects, social responsibility, honesty, integrity, and the dissemination of research findings 1 . At its core, ethics in scientific research aims to ensure that the pursuit of knowledge does not come at the expense of societal or individual well-being. It fosters an environment where scientific inquiry can thrive responsibly 1 .

The need to understand and uphold ethics in scientific research is pertinent in today’s scientific community. First, the rapid advancement of technology and science raises ethical questions in fields like biotechnology, biomedical science, genetics, and artificial intelligence. These advancements raise questions about privacy, consent, and the potential long-term impacts on society and its environment 2 . Furthermore, the rise in public perception and scrutiny of scientific practices, fueled by a more informed and connected populace, demands greater transparency and ethical accountability from researchers and institutions.

This commentary seeks to bring to light the need and benefits associated with ethical adherence. The central theme of this paper highlights how upholding ethics in scientific research is a cornerstone for progress. It buttresses the fact that ethics in scientific research is vital for maintaining the trust of the public, ensuring the safety of participants, and legitimizing scientific findings.

Historical perspective

Ethics in research is significantly shaped by past experiences where a lack of ethical consideration led to negative consequences. One of the most striking examples of ethical misconduct is the Tuskegee Syphilis Study 3 conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the U.S. Public Health Service. In this study, African American men in Alabama were used as subjects to study the natural progression of untreated syphilis. They were not informed of their condition and were denied effective treatment, even after penicillin became available as a cure in the 1940s 3 .

From an ethical lens today, this is a gross violation of informed consent and an exploitation of a vulnerable population. The public outcry following the revelation of the study’s details led to the establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural Research 4 . This commission eventually produced the Belmont Report in 1979 4 , setting forth principles such as respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, which now underpin ethical research practices 4 .

Another example that significantly impacted ethical regulations was the thalidomide tragedy of the late 1950s and early 1960s 5 . Thalidomide was marketed as a safe sedative for pregnant women to combat morning sickness in Europe. Thalidomide resulted in the birth of approximately ten thousand children with severe deformities due to its teratogenic effects 5 , which were not sufficiently researched prior to the drug’s release. This incident underscored the critical need for comprehensive clinical testing and highlighted the ethical imperative of understanding and communicating potential risks, particularly for vulnerable groups such as pregnant women. In response, drug testing regulations became more rigorous, and the importance of informed consent, especially in clinical trials, was emphasized.

The Stanford Prison Experiment of 1971, led by psychologist Philip Zimbardo is another prime example of ethical oversight leading to harmful consequences 6 . The experiment, which aimed to study the psychological effects of perceived power, resulted in emotional trauma for participants. Underestimating potential psychological harm with no adequate systems to safeguard human participants from harm was a breach of ethics in psychological studies 6 . This case highlighted the necessity for ethical guidelines that prioritize the mental and emotional welfare of participants, especially in psychological research. It led to stricter review processes and the establishment of guidelines to prevent psychological harm in research studies. It influenced the American Psychological Association and other bodies to refine their ethical guidelines, ensuring the protection of participants’ mental and emotional well-being.

Impact on current ethical standards

These historical, ethical oversights have been instrumental in shaping the current landscape of ethical standards in scientific research. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study led to the Belmont Report in 1979, which laid out key ethical principles such as respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. It also prompted the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) to oversee research involving human subjects. The thalidomide tragedy catalyzed stricter drug testing regulations and informed consent requirements for clinical trials. The Stanford Prison Experiment influenced the American Psychological Association to refine its ethical guidelines, placing greater emphasis on the welfare and rights of participants.

These historical episodes of ethical oversights have been pivotal in forging the comprehensive ethical frameworks that govern scientific research today. They serve as stark reminders of the potential consequences of ethical neglect and the perpetual need to prioritize the welfare and rights of participants in any research endeavor.

One may ponder on the reason behind the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, where African American men with syphilis were deliberately left untreated. What led scientists to prioritize research outcomes over human well-being? At the time, racial prejudices, lack of understanding of ethical principles in human research, and regulatory oversight made such studies pass. Similarly, the administration of thalidomide to pregnant women initially intended as an antiemetic to alleviate morning sickness, resulted in unforeseen and catastrophic birth defects. This tragedy highlights a critical lapse in the pre-marketing evaluation of drugs’ safety.

Furthermore, the Stanford prison experiment, designed to study the psychological effects of perceived power, spiraled into an ethical nightmare as participants suffered emotional trauma. This begs the question on how these researchers initially justified their methods. From today’s lens of ethics, the studies conducted were a complete breach of misconduct, and I wonder if there were any standards that guided primitive research in science.

Current ethical standards and guidelines in research

Informed consent.

This mandates that participants are fully informed about the nature of the research, including its objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits 7 , 8 . They must be given the opportunity to ask questions and must voluntarily agree to participate without coercion 7 , 8 . This ensures respect for individual autonomy and decision-making.

Confidentiality and privacy

Confidentiality is pivotal in research involving human subjects. Participants’ personal information must be protected from unauthorized access or disclosure 7 , 8 . Researchers are obliged to take measures to preserve the anonymity and privacy of participants, which fosters trust and encourages participation in research 7 , 8 .

Non-maleficence and beneficence

These principles revolve around the obligation to avoid harm (non-maleficence) and to maximize possible benefits while minimizing potential harm (beneficence) 7 , 8 . Researchers must ensure that their studies do not pose undue risks to participants and that any potential risks are outweighed by the benefits.

Justice in research ethics refers to the fair selection and treatment of research participants 8 . It ensures that the benefits and burdens of research are distributed equitably among different groups in society, preventing the exploitation of vulnerable populations 8 .

The role of Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Institutional Review Boards play critical roles in upholding ethical standards in research. An IRB is a committee established by an institution conducting research to review, approve, and monitor research involving human subjects 7 , 8 . Their primary role is to ensure that the rights and welfare of participants are protected.

Review and approval

Before a study commences, the IRB reviews the research proposal to ensure it adheres to ethical guidelines. This includes evaluating the risks and benefits, the process of obtaining informed consent, and measures for maintaining confidentiality 7 , 8 .

Monitoring and compliance

IRB also monitors ongoing research projects to ensure compliance with ethical standards. They may require periodic reports and can conduct audits to ensure ongoing adherence to ethical principles 7 , 8 .

Handling ethical violations

In cases where ethical standards are breached, IRB has the authority to impose sanctions, which can range from requiring modifications to the study to completely halting the research project 7 , 8 .

Other agencies and boards enforcing standards

Beyond IRB, there are other regulatory bodies and agencies at national and international levels that enforce ethical standards in research. These include:

The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) in the United States, which oversees compliance with the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects.

The World Health Organization (WHO) , which provides international ethical guidelines for biomedical research.

The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) , which sets ethical standards for the publication of biomedical research.

These organizations, along with IRB, form a comprehensive network that ensures the ethical conduct of scientific research. They safeguard the integrity of research using the reflections and lesson learnt from the past.

Benefits of ethical research

Credible and reliable outcomes, why is credibility so crucial in research, and how do ethical practices contribute to it.

Ethical practices such as rigorous peer review, transparent methodology, and adherence to established protocols ensure that research findings are reliable and valid 9 . When studies are conducted ethically, they are less likely to be marred by biases, fabrications, or errors that could compromise credibility. For instance, ethical standards demand accurate data reporting and full disclosure of any potential conflicts of interest 9 , which directly contribute to the integrity and trustworthiness of research findings.

How do ethical practices lead to socially beneficial outcomes?

Ethical research practices often align with broader societal values and needs, leading to outcomes that are not only scientifically significant but also socially beneficial. By respecting principles like justice and beneficence, researchers ensure that their work with human subjects contributes positively to society 7 , 8 . For example, ethical guidelines in medical research emphasize the need to balance scientific advancement with patient welfare, ensuring that new treatments are both effective and safe. This balance is crucial in addressing pressing societal health concerns while safeguarding individual rights and well-being.

Trust between the public and the scientific community

The relationship between the public and the scientific community is heavily reliant on trust, which is fostered through consistent ethical conduct in research. When the public perceives that researchers are committed to ethical standards, it reinforces their confidence in the scientific process and its outcomes. Ethical research practices demonstrate a respect for societal norms and values, reinforcing the perception that science serves the public good.

Case studies

Case study 1: the development and approval of covid-19 vaccines.

The development and approval of COVID-19 vaccines within a short time is a testament to how adherence to ethical research practices can achieve credible and beneficial outcomes. Strict adherence to ethical guidelines, even in the face of a global emergency, ensured that the vaccines were developed swiftly. However, safety standards were compromised to some extent as no animal trials were done before humans. The vaccine development was not transparent to the public, and this fuelled the anti-vaccination crowd in some regions. Ethical compliance, including rigorous testing and transparent reporting, should expedite scientific innovation while maintaining public trust.

Case study 2: The CRISPR babies

What ethical concerns were raised by the creation of the crispr babies, and what were the consequences.

The creation of the first genetically edited babies using CRISPR technology in China raised significant ethical concerns 10 . The lack of transparency, inadequate consent process, and potential risks to the children can be likened to ethical misconduct in genetic engineering research. This case resulted in widespread condemnation from the scientific community and the public, as well as international regulatory frameworks and guidelines for genetic editing research 10 .

Recommendation and conclusion

Continuous education and training.

The scientific community should prioritize ongoing education and training in ethics for researchers at all levels, ensuring awareness and understanding of ethical standards and their importance.

Enhanced dialogue and collaboration

Encourage multidisciplinary collaborations and dialogues between scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public to address emerging ethical challenges and develop adaptive guidelines.

Fostering a culture of ethical responsibility

Institutions and researchers should cultivate an environment where ethical considerations are integral to the research process, encouraging transparency, accountability, and social responsibility.

Global standards and cooperation

Work toward establishing and harmonizing international ethical standards and regulatory frameworks, particularly in areas like genetic engineering and AI, where the implications of research are global.

Ethics approval

Ethics approval was not required for this editorial.

Informed consent was not required for this editorial

Sources of funding

No funding was received for this research.

Author contribution

G.D.M. wrote this paper.

Conflicts of interest disclosure

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Research registration unique identifying number (UIN)

Goshen David Miteu.

Data availability statement

Provenance and peer review.

Not commissioned, externally peer-reviewed.

Sponsorships or competing interests that may be relevant to content are disclosed at the end of this article.

Published online 21 March 2024

Assessing the pharmaceutical residues as hotspots of the main rivers of Catalonia, Spain

Research Article
Published: 26 June 2024

Cite this article

Pol Domínguez-García 1 ,
Laura Fernández-Ruano 2 ,
Judith Báguena 1 ,
Jordi Cuadros 2 &
Cristian Gómez-Canela ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9073-6307 1

The global increase in pharmaceutical consumption, driven by factors such as aging populations and chronic diseases, has raised concerns regarding the environmental impact of pharmaceutical contaminants. Europe, and more specifically Catalonia (Spain), exhibits high pharmaceutical consumption rates, potentially exacerbating environmental contamination. Pharmaceuticals enter rivers through various pathways, persisting after wastewater treatment plants and posing risks to aquatic organisms and human health. Llobregat and Besòs Rivers in Catalonia, crucial water sources, demonstrate detectable pharmaceutical levels, necessitating comprehensive analysis. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) proves effective in detecting pharmaceutical residues, facilitating their risk assessment. This paper reviews the occurrence, fate, and risks associated with 78 pharmaceuticals and metabolite in Llobregat and Besòs Rivers, using LC–MS/MS for analysis. Understanding pharmaceutical impacts on Catalonian River ecosystems is essential for developing mitigation strategies.

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Data availability

The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information files. Should any raw data files be needed in another format, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Source data are provided with this paper.

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This work was supported by the grant PID2020-113371RA-C22, funded by MCIN/AEI/ https://doi.org/10.13039/501100011033 , and TED2021-130845A-C32, funded by MCIN/AEI/ https://doi.org/10.13039/501100011033 and by the European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR.

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Pol Domínguez-García, Judith Báguena & Cristian Gómez-Canela

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Pol Domínguez-García contributed to methodology, investigation, data curation, and writing and original draft preparation. Laura Fernández-Ruano contributed to data curation, formal analysis, visualization, and writing and review. Judith Báguena contributed to data curation, visualization, and writing and review. Jordi Cuadros contributed to data curation, formal analysis, visualization, and writing and review. Finally, Cristian Gómez-Canela contributed to formal analysis, resources, data curation, writing, review, editing, supervision, and funding acquisition. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors whose names appear on the submission have contributed sufficiently to the scientific work and therefore share collective responsibility for the results.

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Domínguez-García, P., Fernández-Ruano, L., Báguena, J. et al. Assessing the pharmaceutical residues as hotspots of the main rivers of Catalonia, Spain. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33967-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33967-7

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Pharmaceutical residues; Risk assessment; Statistics; LC–MS/MS
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A research ethics framework based on sustainability

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Assessing the pharmaceutical residues as hotspots of the main rivers of Catalonia, Spain

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