what is an abstract in research project

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

• Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
• Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
• Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
• Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT #1: History / Social Science

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science “A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature [Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

• An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

• A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

• If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

• Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

• Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

• If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

• Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.
• There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.
• Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html "Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

Last updated August 2013

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How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

By Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

Sarah Oakley

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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Types of Essays in Academic Writing - Quick Guide (2024)

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Undergraduate Research Center

The following instructions are for the Undergraduate Research Center's Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference, however the general concepts will apply to abstracts for similar conferences.  In the video to the right, Kendon Kurzer, PhD presents guidance from the University Writing Program.  To see abstracts from previous URC Conferences, visit our Abstract Books Page .

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a summary of a research project. Abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. In journals, the abstract allows readers to quickly grasp the purpose and major ideas of a paper and lets other researchers know whether reading the entire paper will be worthwhile. In conferences, the abstract is the advertisement that the paper/presentation deserves the audience's attention.

Why write an abstract?

The abstract allows readers to make decisions about your project. Your sponsoring professor can use the abstract to decide if your research is proceeding smoothly. The conference organizer uses it to decide if your project fits the conference criteria. The conference audience (faculty, administrators, peers, and presenters' families) uses your abstract to decide whether or not to attend your presentation. Your abstract needs to take all these readers into consideration.

How does an abstract appeal to such a broad audience?

The audience for the abstract for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference (URSCA) covers the broadest possible scope--from expert to lay person. You need to find a comfortable balance between writing an abstract that both shows your knowledge and yet is still comprehensible--with some effort--by lay members of the audience. Limit the amount of technical language you use and explain it where possible. Always use the full term before you refer to it by acronym Example:  DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs). Remember that you are yourself an expert in the field that you are writing about--don't take for granted that the reader will share your insider knowledge.

What should the abstract include?

Think of your abstract as a condensed version of your whole project. By reading it, the reader should understand the nature of your research question.

Like abstracts that researchers prepare for scholarly conferences, the abstract you submit for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creativities Conference (URSCA) will most likely reflect work still in progress at the time you write it. Although the content will vary according to field and specific project, all abstracts, whether in the sciences or the humanities, convey the following information:

• The purpose of the project identifying the area of study to which it belongs.
• The research problem that motivates the project.
• The methods used to address this research problem, documents or evidence analyzed.
• The conclusions reached or, if the research is in progress, what the preliminary results of the investigation suggest, or what the research methods demonstrate.
• The significance of the research project. Why are the results useful? What is new to our understanding as the result of your inquiry?

Whatever kind of research you are doing, your abstract should provide the reader with answers to the following questions: What are you asking? Why is it important? How will you study it? What will you use to demonstrate your conclusions? What are those conclusions? What do they mean?

SUGGESTED CONTENT STRUCTURE:  

Brief Background/Introduction/Research Context:       What do we know about the topic? Why is the topic important?   Present Research Question/Purpose:       What is the study about? Methods/Materials/Subjects/Materials:       How was the study done? Results/Findings:         What was discovered?    Discussion/Conclusion/Implications/Recommendations       What does it mean?

What if the research is in progress and I don't have results yet? 

For the URSCA Conference you can write a "Promissory Abstract"  which will still describe the background, purpose and how you will accomplish your study's purpose and why it is important.  Phrases like  "to show whether"  or "to determine if"  can be helpful to avoid sharing a "hoped for" result. 

Stylistic considerations

The abstract should be one paragraph for the URSCA Conference and should not exceed the word limit (150-200 words). Edit it closely to be sure it meets the Four C's of abstract writing:

• Complete — it covers the major parts of the project.
• Concise — it contains no excess wordiness or unnecessary information.
• Clear — it is readable, well organized, and not too jargon-laden.
• Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the parts.

The importance of understandable language

Because all researchers hope their work will be useful to others, and because good scholarship is increasingly used across disciplines, it is crucial to make the language of your abstracts accessible to a non-specialist. Simplify your language. Friends in another major will spot instantly what needs to be more understandable. Some problem areas to look for:

• Eliminate jargon. Showing off your technical vocabulary will not demonstrate that your research is valuable. If using a technical term is unavoidable, add a non-technical synonym to help a non-specialist infer the term's meaning.
• Omit needless words—redundant modifiers, pompous diction, excessive detail.
• Avoid stringing nouns together (make the relationship clear with prepositions).
• Eliminate "narration," expressions such as "It is my opinion that," "I have concluded," "the main point supporting my view/concerns," or "certainly there is little doubt as to. . . ." Focus attention solely on what the reader needs to know.

Before submitting your abstract to the URSCA Conference:

• Make sure it is within the word limit.  You can start with a large draft and then edit it down to make sure your abstract is complete but also concise.  (Over-writing is all too easy, so reserve time for cutting your abstract down to the essential information.).  
• Make sure the language is understandable by a non-specialist. (Avoid writing for an audience that includes only you and your professor.)
• Have your sponsoring professor work with you and approve the abstract before you submit it online.
• Only one abstract per person is allowed for the URSCA Conference.  

Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel - Tier II Antfarm Project

Significant knowledge gaps exist in the fate, transport, biodegradation, and toxicity properties of biodiesel when it is leaked into the environment. In order to fill these gaps, a combination of experiments has been developed in a Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel for the State of California. Currently, in the Tier II experimental phase of this assessment, I am investigating underground plume mobility of 20% and 100% additized and unadditized Soy and Animal Fat based biodiesel blends and comparing them to Ultra Low-Sulfer Diesel #2 (USLD) by filming these fuels as they seep through unsaturated sand, encounter a simulated underground water table, and form a floating lens on top of the water. Thus far, initial findings in analyzing the digital images created during the filming process have indicated that all fuels tested have similar travel times. SoyB20 behaves most like USLD in that they both have a similar lateral dispersion lens on top of the water table. In contrast, Animal Fat B100 appears to be most different from ULSD in that it has a narrower residual plume in the unsaturated sand, as well as a narrower and deeper lens formation on top of the water table.

Narrative Representation of Grief

In William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go how can grief, an incomprehensible and incommunicable emotion, be represented in fiction? Is it paradoxical, or futile, to do so? I look at two novels that struggle with representing intense combinations of individual and communal grief: William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go . At first glance, the novels appear to have nothing in common: Faulkner's is a notoriously bleak odyssey told in emotionally heavy stream-of-consciousness narrative, while Ishiguro's is a near-kitschy blend of a coming-of-age tale and a sci-fi dystopia. But they share a rare common thread. They do not try to convey a story, a character, an argument, or a realization, so much as they try to convey an emotion. The novels' common struggle is visible through their formal elements, down to the most basic technical aspects of how the stories are told. Each text, in its own way, enacts the trauma felt by its characters because of their grief, and also the frustration felt by its narrator (or narrators) because of the complex and guilty task of witnessing for grief and loss.

This webpage was based on articles written by Professor Diana Strazdes, Art History and Dr. Amy Clarke, University Writing Program, UC Davis. Thanks to both for their contributions.

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Abstract for Research Proposal: Types and How to Write It

by  Antony W

June 26, 2024

An abstract in a research proposal summarizes the main aspect of the assignment in a given sequence in 300 words or less. It highlights the purpose of the study, the research problem, design of the study, findings, summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

For what it’s worth, the abstract of your research proposal should give a clear and concise elaboration of the major aspects of an issue you’ve investigated.

In this guide, you’ll learn how to write an abstract for any research proposal. We’ll look at why an abstract is important, the types of abstracts, writing style, and what to avoid when it comes to writing an abstract for your research proposal.

Types of Abstracts for a Research Proposal

There are four types of abstracts that you can write for a research proposal :

• Critical abstract
• Descriptive abstract
• Informative abstract
• Highlight abstract

1. Critical abstract

A critical abstract in a research proposal describes the primary findings and gives a solid judgment on the validity, completeness, and reliability of the study. It’s your responsibility as a researcher to evaluate your work and then compare it with already existing work on the same subject.

Because a critical abstract includes an additional commentary, it tends to longer. Often, the length falls between 400 and 500 words. However, do keep in mind that this type of an abstract is very are, which means your instructor may never ask you to write a critical abstract for your research proposal.

2. Highlight Abstract

A highlight abstract is a piece of writing that can’t stand independent of its associated document. It uses incomplete and leading remarks, with the primary goal of grabbing the attention of the reader to the study.

Professors have made it clear that a highlight abstract is not by itself a true abstract to use in a research proposal. Since it cannot stand on its away separate from the associated article, it’s unlikely that your teacher will ask you to use it in academic writing.

3. Descriptive abstract

A descriptive abstract gives a short description of the research proposal. It may include purpose, method, and the scope of the research, and it’s often 100 words or less in length. Some people consider it to be an outline of the research proposal rather than an actual abstract for the document.

While a descriptive abstract describes the type of information a reader will find in a research proposal, it neither critics the work nor provides results and conclusion of the study.

4. Informative Abstract

Many abstracts in academic writing are informative. They don’t analyze the study or investigation that you propose, but they explain a research project in a way that they can stand independently. In other words, an informative abstract gives an explanation for the main arguments, evidence, and significant results.

In addition to featuring purpose, method, and scope, an informative abstract also include the results, conclusion, as well as the recommendation of the author. As for the length, an informative abstract should not be more than 300 words.

How to Write an Abstract for a Research Proposal

Of the four type of abstracts that we’ve discussed above, an informative abstract is what you’ll need to write in your research proposal. Writing an abstract for a research proposal isn’t difficult at all. You only need to know what to write and how to write it, and you’re good to get started.

1. Write in Active Voice

First, use active voice when writing an abstract for your research proposal. However, this doesn’t mean you should avoid passive voice in entirety. If you find that some sentences can’t make sense unless with passive sentence construction, feel free to bend this rule somewhat.

Second, make sure your sentences are concise and complete. Refrain from using ambiguous words. Keep the language simple instead.

Lastly, never use present or future tense to write an abstract for a research proposal. You’re reporting a study that you’ve already conducted and therefore writing in past sense makes the most sense.

Your abstract should come immediately after the title page. Write in block format without paragraph indentations. The abstract should not be more than 300 words long and the page should not have a number. The word “Abstract” in your research proposal should be center aligned in the page, unless otherwise stated.

In addition to these formatting rules, the last sentence of your abstract should summarize the application to practice or the conclusions of your study. In the case where it seems appropriate, you might want follow this by statement that suggests a need for additional research.

3. Time to Write the Abstract

There are no hard rules on when to write an abstract for a research proposal. Some students choose to write the section first while others choose to write it last. We strongly recommend that you write the abstract last because it’s a summary of the whole paper. You can also write it in the beginning if you’ve already outlined your draft and know what you want to talk about even before you start writing.

Your informative abstract is subject to frequent changes as you work on your paper, and that holds whether you write the section first or last. Be flexible and tweak this part of the assignment as necessary. Also, make sure you report statistical findings in parentheses.

Read abstract to be sure the summary of the study agrees with what you’ve written in your proposal. As we mentioned earlier, this section is subject to change depending on the direction your research takes. So make sure you identify and correct any anomalies if any.

Mistakes to Avoid When Writing an Abstract for Research Proposal

To wind up this guide, here are some of the most common mistakes that you should avoid when writing an abstract for your research proposal:

• Avoid giving a lengthy background
• Don’t include citations to other people’s work
• An abstract shouldn’t include a table, figure, image, or any kind of illustration
• Don’t include terms that are difficult to understand

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to write an abstract

What is an abstract?

General format of an abstract, the content of an abstract, abstract example, abstract style guides, frequently asked questions about writing an abstract, related articles.

An abstract is a summary of the main contents of a paper.

The abstract is the first glimpse that readers get of the content of a research paper. It can influence the popularity of a paper, as a well-written one will attract readers, and a poorly-written one will drive them away.

➡️ Different types of papers may require distinct abstract styles. Visit our guide on the different types of research papers to learn more.

Tip: Always wait until you’ve written your entire paper before you write the abstract.

Before you actually start writing an abstract, make sure to follow these steps:

• Read other papers : find papers with similar topics, or similar methodologies, simply to have an idea of how others have written their abstracts. Notice which points they decided to include, and how in depth they described them.
• Double check the journal requirements : always make sure to review the journal guidelines to format your paper accordingly. Usually, they also specify abstract's formats.
• Write the abstract after you finish writing the paper : you can only write an abstract once you finish writing the whole paper. This way you can include all important aspects, such as scope, methodology, and conclusion.

➡️ Read more about  what is a research methodology?

The general format of an abstract includes the following features:

• Between 150-300 words .
• An independent page , after the title page and before the table of contents.
• Concise summary including the aim of the research, methodology , and conclusion .
• Keywords describing the content.

As mentioned before, an abstract is a text that summarizes the main points of a research. Here is a break down of each element that should be included in an abstract:

• Purpose : every abstract should start by describing the main purpose or aim of the research.
• Methods : as a second point, the methodology carried out should be explained.
• Results : then, a concise summary of the results should be included.
• Conclusion : finally, a short outline of the general outcome of the research should be given.
• Keywords : along with the abstract, specific words and phrases related to the topics discussed in the research should be added. These words are usually around five, but the number can vary depending on the journal's guidelines.

This abstract, taken from ScienceDirect , illustrates the ideal structure of an abstract. It has 155 words, it's concise, and it clearly shows the division of elements necessary to write a successful abstract.

This paper explores the implicit assumption in the growing body of literature that social media usage is fundamentally different in business-to-business (B2B) companies than in the extant business-to-consumer (B2C) literature. Sashi's (2012) customer engagement cycle is utilized to compare organizational practices in relation to social media marketing in B2B, B2C, Mixed B2B/B2C and B2B2C business models. Utilizing 449 responses to an exploratory panel based survey instrument, we clearly identify differences in social media usage and its perceived importance as a communications channel. In particular we identify distinct differences in the relationship between social media importance and the perceived effectiveness of social media marketing across business models. Our results indicate that B2B social media usage is distinct from B2C, Mixed and B2B2C business model approaches. Specifically B2B organizational members perceive social media to have a lower overall effectiveness as a channel and identify it as less important for relationship oriented usage than other business models.

The exact format of an abstract depends on the citation style you implement. Whether it’s a well-known style (like APA, IEEE, etc.) or a journal's style, each format has its own guidelines, so make sure you know which style you are using before writing your abstract.

APA is one of the most commonly used styles to format an abstract. Therefore, we created a guide with exact instructions on how to write an abstract in APA style, and a template to download:

📕 APA abstract page: format and template

Additionally, you will find below an IEEE and ASA abstract guide by Purdue Online Writing Lab :

📗 IEEE General Format - Abstract

📘 ASA Manuscript Formatting - Abstract

No. You should always write an abstract once you finish writing the whole paper. This way you can include all important aspects of the paper, such as scope, methodology, and conclusion.

The length of an abstract depends on the formatting style of the paper. For example, APA style calls for 150 to 250 words. Generally, you need between 150-300 words.

No. An abstract has an independent section after the title page and before the table of contents, and should not be included in the table of contents.

Take a look at APA abstract page: format and template for exact details on how to format an abstract in APA style.

You can access any paper through Google Scholar or any other search engine; pick a paper and read the abstract. Abstracts are always freely available to read.

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write an Abstract for a Scientific Paper

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If you're preparing a research paper or grant proposal, you'll need to know how to write an abstract. Here's a look at what an abstract is and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of an experiment or research project. It should be brief -- typically under 200 words. The purpose of the abstract is to summarize the research paper by stating the purpose of the research, the experimental method, the findings, and the conclusions.

How to Write an Abstract

The format you'll use for the abstract depends on its purpose. If you're writing for a specific publication or a class assignment, you'll probably need to follow specific guidelines. If there isn't a required format, you'll need to choose from one of two possible types of abstracts.

Informational Abstracts

An informational abstract is a type of abstract used to communicate an experiment or lab report .

• An informational abstract is like a mini-paper. Its length ranges from a paragraph to 1 to 2 pages, depending on the scope of the report. Aim for less than 10% the length of the full report.
• Summarize all aspects of the report, including purpose, method, results, conclusions, and recommendations. There are no graphs, charts, tables, or images in an abstract. Similarly, an abstract does not include a bibliography or references.
• Highlight important discoveries or anomalies. It's okay if the experiment did not go as planned and necessary to state the outcome in the abstract.

Here is a good format to follow, in order, when writing an informational abstract. Each section is a sentence or two long:

• Motivation or Purpose: State why the subject is important or why anyone should care about the experiment and its results.
• Problem: State the hypothesis of the experiment or describe the problem you are trying to solve.
• Method: How did you test the hypothesis or try to solve the problem?
• Results: What was the outcome of the study? Did you support or reject a hypothesis? Did you solve a problem? How close were the results to what you expected? State-specific numbers.
• Conclusions: What is the significance of your findings? Do the results lead to an increase in knowledge, a solution that may be applied to other problems, etc.?

Need examples? The abstracts at PubMed.gov (National Institutes of Health database) are informational abstracts. A random example is this abstract on the effect of coffee consumption on Acute Coronary Syndrome .

Descriptive Abstracts

A descriptive abstract is an extremely brief description of the contents of a report. Its purpose is to tell the reader what to expect from the full paper.

• A descriptive abstract is very short, typically less than 100 words.
• Tells the reader what the report contains, but doesn't go into detail.
• It briefly summarizes the purpose and experimental method, but not the results or conclusions. Basically, say why and how the study was made, but don't go into findings. 

Tips for Writing a Good Abstract

• Write the paper before writing the abstract. You might be tempted to start with the abstract since it comes between the title page and the paper, but it's much easier to summarize a paper or report after it has been completed.
• Write in the third person. Replace phrases like "I found" or "we examined" with phrases like "it was determined" or "this paper provides" or "the investigators found".
• Write the abstract and then pare it down to meet the word limit. In some cases, a long abstract will result in automatic rejection for publication or a grade!
• Think of keywords and phrases a person looking for your work might use or enter into a search engine. Include those words in your abstract. Even if the paper won't be published, this is a good habit to develop.
• All information in the abstract must be covered in the body of the paper. Don't put a fact in the abstract that isn't described in the report.
• Proof-read the abstract for typos, spelling mistakes, and punctuation errors.
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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

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Frequently asked questions

What is the purpose of an abstract.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

Frequently asked questions: Academic writing

A rhetorical tautology is the repetition of an idea of concept using different words.

Rhetorical tautologies occur when additional words are used to convey a meaning that has already been expressed or implied. For example, the phrase “armed gunman” is a tautology because a “gunman” is by definition “armed.”

A logical tautology is a statement that is always true because it includes all logical possibilities.

Logical tautologies often take the form of “either/or” statements (e.g., “It will rain, or it will not rain”) or employ circular reasoning (e.g., “she is untrustworthy because she can’t be trusted”).

You may have seen both “appendices” or “appendixes” as pluralizations of “ appendix .” Either spelling can be used, but “appendices” is more common (including in APA Style ). Consistency is key here: make sure you use the same spelling throughout your paper.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

Editing and proofreading are different steps in the process of revising a text.

Editing comes first, and can involve major changes to content, structure and language. The first stages of editing are often done by authors themselves, while a professional editor makes the final improvements to grammar and style (for example, by improving sentence structure and word choice ).

Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It focuses on correcting minor errors and inconsistencies (for example, in punctuation and capitalization ). Proofreaders often also check for formatting issues, especially in print publishing.

The cost of proofreading depends on the type and length of text, the turnaround time, and the level of services required. Most proofreading companies charge per word or page, while freelancers sometimes charge an hourly rate.

For proofreading alone, which involves only basic corrections of typos and formatting mistakes, you might pay as little as $0.01 per word, but in many cases, your text will also require some level of editing , which costs slightly more.

It’s often possible to purchase combined proofreading and editing services and calculate the price in advance based on your requirements.

There are many different routes to becoming a professional proofreader or editor. The necessary qualifications depend on the field – to be an academic or scientific proofreader, for example, you will need at least a university degree in a relevant subject.

For most proofreading jobs, experience and demonstrated skills are more important than specific qualifications. Often your skills will be tested as part of the application process.

To learn practical proofreading skills, you can choose to take a course with a professional organization such as the Society for Editors and Proofreaders . Alternatively, you can apply to companies that offer specialized on-the-job training programmes, such as the Scribbr Academy .

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• How to Write An Abstract

Think of your abstract or artist statement like a movie trailer: it should leave the reader eager to learn more but knowledgeable enough to grasp the scope of your work. Although abstracts and artist statements need to contain key information on your project, your title and summary should be understandable to a lay audience.

Please remember that you can seek assistance with any of your writing needs at the MU Writing Center . Their tutors work with students from all disciplines on a wide variety of documents. And they are specially trained to use the Abstract Review Rubric that will be used on the abstracts reviewed at the Spring Forum.

Types of Research Summaries

Students should submit artist statements as their abstracts.  Artist statements should introduce to the art, performance, or creative work and include information on media and methods in creating the pieces.  The statements should also include a description of the inspiration for the work, the meaning the work signifies to the artist, the artistic influences, and any unique methods used to create the pieces.  Students are encouraged to explain the connections of the work with their inspirations or themes.  The statements should be specific to the work presented and not a general statements about the students’ artistic philosophies and approaches.  Effective artist statements should provide the viewer with information to better understand the work of the artists.  If presentations are based on previous performances, then students may include reflections on the performance experiences and audience reactions.

Abstracts should describe the nature of the project or piece (ex:  architectural images used for a charrette, fashion plates, advertising campaign story boards) and its intended purpose.  Students should describe the project or problem that they addressed and limitations and challenges that impact the design process.  Students may wish to include research conducted to provide context for the project and inform the design process. A description of the clients/end users may be included.  Information on inspirations, motivations, and influences may also be included as appropriate to the discipline and project.  A description of the project outcome should be included.

Abstracts should include a short introduction or background to put the research into context; purpose of the research project; a problem statement or thesis; a brief description of materials, methods, or subjects (as appropriate for the discipline); results and analysis; conclusions and implications; and recommendations.  For research projects still in progress at the time of abstract submission, students may opt to indicate that results and conclusions will be presented [at the Forum].

Tips for writing a clear and concise abstract

The title of your abstract/statement/poster should include some language that the lay person can understand.   When someone reads your title they should have SOME idea of the nature of your work and your discipline.

Ask a peer unfamiliar with your research to read your abstract. If they’re confused by it, others will be too.

Keep it short and sweet.

• Interesting eye-catching title
• Introduction: 1-3 sentences
• What you did: 1 sentence
• Why you did it: 1 sentence
• How you did it: 1 sentence
• Results or when they are expected: 2 sentences
• Conclusion: 1-3 sentences

Ideas to Address:

• The big picture your project helps tackle
• The problem motivating your work on this particular project
• General methods you used
• Results and/or conclusions
• The next steps for the project

Things to Avoid:

• A long and confusing title
• Jargon or complicated industry terms
• Long description of methods/procedures
• Exaggerating your results
• Exceeding the allowable word limit
• Forgetting to tell people why to care
• References that keep the abstract from being a “stand alone” document
• Being boring, confusing, or unintelligible!

Artist Statement

The artist statement should be an introduction to the art and include information on media and methods in creating the piece(s).  It should include a description of the inspiration for the work, what the work signifies to the artist, the artistic influences, and any unique methods used to create the work.  Students are encouraged to explain the connections of the work with their inspiration or theme.  The artist statement (up to 300 words) should be written in plain language to invite viewers to learn more about the artist’s work and make their own interpretations.  The statement should be specific to the piece(s) that will be on display, and not a general statement about the student’s artistic philosophy and approach.  An effective artist statement should provide the viewer with information to better understand and experience viewing the work on display.

Research/Applied Design Abstract

The project abstract (up to 300 words) should describe the nature of the project or piece (ex:  architectural images used for a charrette, fashion plates, small scale model of a theater set) and its intended purpose.  Students should describe the project or problem that was addressed and limitations and challenges that impact the design process.  Students may wish to include research conducted to provide context for the project and inform the design process. A description of the clients/end users may be included.  Information on inspirations, motivations, and influences may also be included as appropriate to the discipline and project.

Key Considerations

• What is the problem/ big picture that your project helps to address?
• What is the appropriate background to put your project into context? What do we know? What don’t we know? (informed rationale)
• What is YOUR project? What are you seeking to answer?
• How do you DO your research? What kind of data do you collect?  How do you collect it?
• What is the experimental design? Number of subjects or tests run? (quantify if you can!)
• Provide some data (not raw, but analyzed)
• What have you found? What are your results? How do you KNOW this – how did you analyze this?
• What does this mean?
• What are the next steps? What don’t we know still?
• How does this relate (again) to the bigger picture. Who should care and why?  (what is your audience?)

More Resources

• Abstract Writing Presentation from University of Illinois – Chicago
• Sample Abstracts
• A 10-Step Guide to Make Your Research Paper More Effective
• Your Artist Statement: Explaining the Unexplainable
• How to Write an Artist Statement

Here is the Forum Abstract Review Rubric for you and your mentor to use when writing your abstract to submit to the Spring Research & Creative Achievements Forum.

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How to Write an Abstract

How to write an abstract for a conference, what is an abstract and why is it important, an abstract is a brief summary of your research or creative project, usually about a paragraph long (250-350 words), and is written when you are ready to present your research or included in a thesis or research publication..

For additional support in writing your abstract, you can contact the Office of URSA at [email protected]  or schedule a time to meet with a Writing and Research Consultant at the OSU Writing Center 

Main Components of an Abstract: 

The opening sentences should summarize your topic and describe what researchers already know, with reference to the literature. 

A brief discussion that clearly states the purpose of your research or creative project. This should give general background information on your work and allow people from different fields to understand what you are talking about. Use verbs like investigate, analyze, test, etc. to describe how you began your work. 

In this section you will be discussing the ways in which your research was performed and the type of tools or methodological techniques you used to conduct your research. 

This is where you describe the main findings of your research study and what you have learned. Try to include only the most important findings of your research that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions. If you have not completed the project, talk about your anticipated results and what you expect the outcomes of the study to be. 

Significance

This is the final section of your abstract where you summarize the work performed. This is where you also discuss the relevance of your work and how it advances your field and the scientific field in general.

• Your word count for a conference may be limited, so make your abstract as clear and concise as possible.
• Organize it by using good transition words found on the lef so the information flows well.
• Have your abstract proofread and receive feedback from your supervisor, advisor, peers, writing center, or other professors from different disciplines. 
• Double-check on the guidelines for your abstract and adhere to any formatting or word count requirements.
• Do not include bibliographic references or footnotes. 
• Avoid the overuse of technical terms or jargon. 

Feeling stuck? Visit the OSU ScholarsArchive for more abstract examples related to your field

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How to Write an Abstract

Last Updated: May 6, 2021 Approved

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 60 testimonials and 86% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 4,911,197 times.

If you need to write an abstract for an academic or scientific paper, don't panic! Your abstract is simply a short, stand-alone summary of the work or paper that others can use as an overview. [1] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source An abstract describes what you do in your essay, whether it’s a scientific experiment or a literary analysis paper. It should help your reader understand the paper and help people searching for this paper decide whether it suits their purposes prior to reading. To write an abstract, finish your paper first, then type a summary that identifies the purpose, problem, methods, results, and conclusion of your work. After you get the details down, all that's left is to format it correctly. Since an abstract is only a summary of the work you've already done, it's easy to accomplish!

Getting Your Abstract Started

• A thesis and an abstract are entirely different things. The thesis of a paper introduces the main idea or question, while the abstract works to review the entirety of the paper, including the methods and results.
• Even if you think that you know what your paper is going to be about, always save the abstract for last. You will be able to give a much more accurate summary if you do just that - summarize what you've already written.

• Is there a maximum or minimum length?
• Are there style requirements?
• Are you writing for an instructor or a publication?

• Will other academics in your field read this abstract?
• Should it be accessible to a lay reader or somebody from another field?

• Descriptive abstracts explain the purpose, goal, and methods of your research but leave out the results section. These are typically only 100-200 words.
• Informative abstracts are like a condensed version of your paper, giving an overview of everything in your research including the results. These are much longer than descriptive abstracts, and can be anywhere from a single paragraph to a whole page long. [4] X Research source
• The basic information included in both styles of abstract is the same, with the main difference being that the results are only included in an informative abstract, and an informative abstract is much longer than a descriptive one.
• A critical abstract is not often used, but it may be required in some courses. A critical abstract accomplishes the same goals as the other types of abstract, but will also relate the study or work being discussed to the writer’s own research. It may critique the research design or methods. [5] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source

Writing Your Abstract

• Why did you decide to do this study or project?
• How did you conduct your research?
• What did you find?
• Why is this research and your findings important?
• Why should someone read your entire essay?

• What problem is your research trying to better understand or solve?
• What is the scope of your study - a general problem, or something specific?
• What is your main claim or argument?

• Discuss your own research including the variables and your approach.
• Describe the evidence you have to support your claim
• Give an overview of your most important sources.

• What answer did you reach from your research or study?
• Was your hypothesis or argument supported?
• What are the general findings?

• What are the implications of your work?
• Are your results general or very specific?

Formatting Your Abstract

• Many journals have specific style guides for abstracts. If you’ve been given a set of rules or guidelines, follow them to the letter. [8] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source

• Avoid using direct acronyms or abbreviations in the abstract, as these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader. That uses up precious writing room, and should generally be avoided.
• If your topic is about something well-known enough, you can reference the names of people or places that your paper focuses on.
• Don’t include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract. These take up too much room and usually aren’t what your readers want from an abstract anyway. [9] X Research source

• For example, if you’re writing a paper on the cultural differences in perceptions of schizophrenia, be sure to use words like “schizophrenia,” “cross-cultural,” “culture-bound,” “mental illness,” and “societal acceptance.” These might be search terms people use when looking for a paper on your subject.

• Make sure to avoid jargon. This specialized vocabulary may not be understood by general readers in your area and can cause confusion. [12] X Research source

• Consulting with your professor, a colleague in your field, or a tutor or writing center consultant can be very helpful. If you have these resources available to you, use them!
• Asking for assistance can also let you know about any conventions in your field. For example, it is very common to use the passive voice (“experiments were performed”) in the sciences. However, in the humanities active voice is usually preferred.

Sample Abstracts and Outline

Community Q&A

• Abstracts are typically a paragraph or two and should be no more than 10% of the length of the full essay. Look at other abstracts in similar publications for an idea of how yours should go. [13] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Consider carefully how technical the paper or the abstract should be. It is often reasonable to assume that your readers have some understanding of your field and the specific language it entails, but anything you can do to make the abstract more easily readable is a good thing. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/abstracts/
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html
• ↑ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/656/1/
• ↑ https://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/656/1/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts.html

About This Article

To write an abstract, start with a short paragraph that explains the purpose of your paper and what it's about. Then, write a paragraph explaining any arguments or claims you make in your paper. Follow that with a third paragraph that details the research methods you used and any evidence you found for your claims. Finally, conclude your abstract with a brief section that tells readers why your findings are important. To learn how to properly format your abstract, read the article! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Writing an Abstract

What is an abstract.

An abstract is a summary of your paper and/or research project. It is NOT an introduction to your paper; rather, it should highlight your major points, explain why your work is important, describe how you researched your problem, and offer your conclusions. Typically, an abstract should be approximately 250-300 words. 

How do I prepare an abstract?

Review the components of an abstract.

The exact content of your abstract will depend on the status of your project, disciplinary norms, and feedback from your mentor; however, it should include several of the components listed below: 

• Problem:  What is the central problem or question you investigated? 
• Context: Provide brief background to place your project into context. Explain previous studies, concepts, or theoretical or critical frameworks relevant to your research (i.e., what’s already known or has been done on this topic). 
• Purpose: Outline how your work is contributing to the existing knowledge or is addressing gaps within your field (i.e., why this area of research is important and what’s the rationale for your work). 
• Hypothesis: What prediction(s) did you make based on your research question? 
• Methods: Describe the important methods you used to perform your research or evidence you examined. 
• Results: What are the major results, findings or arguments of the research project?  
• Interpretation: How do your results relate back to your central problem? 
• Implications: Why are your results important? What can we learn from them? 

Understand the structure of an abstract

Once you are familiar with the key components of an abstract, the next step is to understand how to organize these elements effectively. The composition of your abstract can also take different forms depending on the type of research and the conventions of your specific discipline. Below are common structures for projects in STEM fields and in the humanities suggested by The Writing Center . 

For STEM and experimental projects

• Objective/Goal/Significance (Why did you do it or why did it need to be done? Why is this question important/worth asking?) 
• Methods/Approach (What did you do? How did you attempt to answer this question?) 
• Results (What did you find/expect to find? What did the research reveal?) 
• Conclusions (What did you learn?) 

For humanities projects

(Version 1)

• Background (What’s the importance of your topic?) 
• Thesis (What argument or claim are you making?) 
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A Heuristic Philosophical Discourse on Various Applications of Abstract Differential Geometry in Quantum Gravity Research † † thanks: This paper is a philosophical distillation of the basic concepts and central results of this author’s ongoing research project, spanning the last three decades, of applying Anastasios Mallios’s Abstract Differential Geometry to the ‘persistently stubborn’ problem of formulating a conceptually sound, mathematically consistent and calculationally finite Quantum Theory of Gravity. The paper will be posted at the General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology website www.arXiv.org/gr-qc before October 2024. This work may be viewed as the philosophical résumé and aftermath (:after the Maths!) of the following published papers [ 62 , 63 , 64 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 84 , 85 ] , as well as a sequel to the Dodecalogue paper [ 79 ] in the aftermath of the recent publication [ 80 ] and the pre-prints [ 81 , 82 , 83 ] , which are currently work-in-progress in the pipeline. In turn, a longer version of the paper will constitute a chapter in a research monograph type of book that we had and have been working on, in collaboration with the late Professor Anastasios Mallios, since 2003 [ 65 ] .

In the present paper, we outline and expound the fundamental and novel qualitative-cum-philosophical premises, principles, ideas, concepts, constructions and results that originate from our ongoing research project of applying the conceptual panoply and the technical machinery of Abstract Differential Geometry (ADG) to various persistently outstanding issues in Quantum Gravity (QG) [ 62 , 63 , 64 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 84 , 85 ] . This paper may be regarded as a sequel to the paper [ 79 ] in the aftermath of the paper [ 80 ] , which is currently in press. At the end of the paper, we discuss the potential philosophical repercussions of two possible future research routes that the main stream of our applications of ADG to QG may bifurcate towards in view of three independent, but overlapping, research papers that are currently under development [ 81 , 82 , 83 ] .

PACS numbers : 04.60.-m, 04.20.Gz, 04.20.-q

Key words : Natural Philosophy of Quantum Gravity and Quantum Yang-Mills Gauge Theories; Abstract Differential Geometry; sheaf theory; sheaf cohomology; category theory; topos theory; geometric prequantisation; canonical quantisation; background spacetime manifold independence; quantum gravity as a purely quantum gauge theory; gauge theory of the third kind; third sheaf cohomological quantisation of gravity and gauge theories

1 Prolegomena-cum-Motivation: Why Adopt a Philosophical Stance in Quantum Gravity Research?

Quantum Gravity (QG), very broadly speaking, is an attempt to unite the laws of Physics that describe dynamics at large (:cosmological) scales—as encoded in Einstein’s General Relativity (GR) equations for the gravitational field that guides the motion of large material objects, with the dynamical laws for the other three fundamental forces that guide matter fields and their quantum particles at small (:subatomic) scales—as encoded in Quantum Theory and its application to Special Relativistic field physics, commonly known as Quantum Field Theory (QFT). 1 1 1 In this paper, we use the terms QFT and Quantum Gauge (QGT) or Quantum Yang-Mills Theories (QYMT) of matter interchangeably.

There is currently a plethora of various and glaringly diverse approaches to QG, and it is not the ‘vain’ or ‘quixotic’ aim of this paper to list them all herein, let alone to review their conceptual and technical import or their successes and shortcomings. On the one hand, there is no unanimous agreement on what the ‘right’ or ‘correct’ approach to QG is and the diversity of the various different approaches—from string theory [ 25 , 91 ] , 2 2 2 For current developments in this field, see the second reference above [ 91 ] . to loop quantum gravity [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 44 ] 3 3 3 For an exhaustive modern exposition of loop quantum gravity, see the last reference [ 44 ] above. and causal sets [ 6 , 93 , 94 , 95 ] , for example—exemplifies exactly that.

On the other hand, it would be informative for the reader to list a triplet of very general predicates and characteristics— theory making ‘imperatives’ as it were—that the desired and hitherto elusive Quantum Theory of Gravity should possess, properties that all the aforementioned diverse approaches to QG aim or aspire to satisfy in one way or another:

Economy (E): Conceptual clarity and depth, as well as economy and simplicity of the underlying fundamental physical theory construction principles ;

Mathematical Consistency (M): Internal mathematical consistency (:self-consistency), mathematical representability and predictive power, technical innovation and efficacy, wide ranging utility and versatility of application, and, as a bonus, abstract mathematical simplicity and beauty ; 4 4 4 With respect to this last point, we tacitly assume that‘ beauty , especially of the mathematical kind, is in the eye of the beholder ’—in this case, of the theoretician/mathematician—hence it is largely of a subjective aesthetic nature .

Finiteness (F): Calculational freedom from unphysical (observable) infinities, anomalies and ‘singularities’ of all kinds at which the aforementioned physical laws might seem to break down, hence are deemed to become unphysical, uninformative, unpredictive and, ultimately, practically useless and therefore obsolete .

We will henceforth refer to the triplet of desirable QG traits above by the acronym EMF1 .

‘Mission Statement’: Our philosophical discourse in the present paper will focus on showing, arguing and discussing, with extensive references to the existing published literature, that the ADG-theoretic approach to QG, hitherto to be referred to as ADG-gravity , goes a long way towards satisfying the EMF1 triptych of theory making imperatives above.

At the same time, the basic ‘justification’ for engaging in a philosophical discourse about the import of ADG-gravity in QG research is another triplet EMF2 :

Explication (E): Explanation and interpretation of new concepts, techniques and results from applying ADG in QG research ;

Mathematical Efficacy (M): Discussion of the mathematical power of ADG in addressing and resolving certain key QG problems and issues associated with EMF1 ;

Future Prospects and Developments (F): Discussion of future prospects for QG theory growth and development, as well as anticipation in what direction will QG research move in view of the new ideas and theoretical paradigms that ADG brings forth.

Expository Declaration 1: In the sections that follow, whenever we discuss and analyse a qualitative-philosophical aspect of ADG-gravity, at the end of the discussion we will mark it by boldface markers in brackets like, for example, (F1): this would mean that the qualitative/philosophical characteristic of ADG-gravity being analysed and discussed satisfies the Finiteness 1 aspect of the EMF1 triplet above.

We would like to kick-off our philosophical discourse on applications of ADG in QG with a very telling quote of Gerard ’t Hooft just after the turn of the new millennium [ 98 ] , which kind of gives a raison d’être and a raison de faire to our endeavours herein:

(Q1)                     “ …The problems of quantum gravity are much more than purely technical ones. They touch upon very essential philosophical issues 5 5 5 Our emphasis. … ”

the basic idea behind the quotation above is that it motivates us to go beyond the ‘technicalities’ of various formal conceptual and mathematical issues in current QG research, and discuss the deeper semantics and philosophical nature underlying, or even possibly transcending, those conceptual and mathematical ‘technicalities’. Which brings us to the second Expository Declaration of this paper.

Expository Declaration 2: It is a conscious decision and choice of this author not to include a single quantitative expression ( e.g. , technical mathematical formula) in the present paper, which is purely of a qualitative (discursive) character. For concise definitions of formal technical concepts and their associated mathematical formulae/modelling/equations, the reader will be directly referred to the relevant published literature.

Expository Declaration 3: Our philosophical treatise below is organised in short sections that end with ‘ Aphorisms ’—short ‘statements’ that distill the main philosophical gist of each section.

2 General Relativity is formulated by the Classical Differential Geometry on a Pointed Smooth Base Spacetime Manifold

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ General Relativity (GR), the classical theory of gravity, is inextricably tied to a 𝒞 ∞ superscript 𝒞 \mathcal{C}^{\infty} caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT -smooth ( alias , differential) base spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M for its mathematical formulation via Classical Differential Geometry (CDG)—the Newtonian Calculus based geometry of differential manifolds.

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ In turn, the differential manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M , as a geometrical point-set, is equivalent to the structure algebra sheaf 𝒞 ∞ ⁢ ( M ) superscript 𝒞 𝑀 \mathcal{C}^{\infty}(M) caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ( italic_M ) of germs of smooth coordinate functions of its points.

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ In GR, the dynamical law of gravity is formulated as Einstein’s nonlinear partial differential equations of a 𝒞 ∞ superscript 𝒞 \mathcal{C}^{\infty} caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT -smooth spacetime metric g μ ⁢ ν subscript 𝑔 𝜇 𝜈 g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT (and its derivatives), whose 10 10 10 10 components are supposed to represent the gravitational field potentials.

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Accordingly, GR’s Priciple of General Covariance (PGC) is mathematically represented by the group Diff ⁢ ( M ) Diff 𝑀 \mathrm{Diff}(M) roman_Diff ( italic_M ) of (active) diffeomorphisms of M 𝑀 M italic_M . 6 6 6 By definition, a diffeomorphism of a smooth manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M is an automorphism of M 𝑀 M italic_M that preserves its differential geometric (:smooth) structure, as the latter is effectively encoded in the structure algebra sheaf 𝒞 ∞ ⁢ ( M ) superscript 𝒞 𝑀 \mathcal{C}^{\infty}(M) caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ( italic_M ) of smooth coordinate functions of M 𝑀 M italic_M ’s point events, as noted above.

Aphorism 1. GR uses CDG to formulate the gravitational dynamics as a differential equation for the smooth metric (and its derivatives) on a background geometrical differential spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M . In turn, the PGC of GR is represented by the spacetime diffeomorphism group Diff ⁢ ( M ) Diff 𝑀 \mathrm{Diff}(M) roman_Diff ( italic_M ) of the underlying 𝒞 ∞ superscript 𝒞 \mathcal{C}^{\infty} caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT -smooth manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M .

2.1 Feynman’s ‘Fancy-Schmanzy’ Differential Geometry and Isham’s No-Go of Differential Geometry in Quantum Gravity

Arguably, the smooth background geometrical spacetime manifold, whether curved or flat, is responsible for both the singularities of the smooth gravitational field g μ ⁢ ν subscript 𝑔 𝜇 𝜈 g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT of GR [ 22 , 23 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 71 ] , as well as for the pestilential non-renormalisable unphysical infinities that assail QFT on flat Minkowski spacetime [ 26 , 5 ] .(F1)

Mainly due to these pathologies, QG researchers as early as Feynman and as recently as Isham, have questioned altogether the use of CDG on a smooth spacetime manifold, whether flat (QFT) or curved (GR), as the appropriate mathematical framework via which to formulate QG.

In this line of thought, we first recall from Bryan Hatfield’s Quantum Gravity Foreword to Feynman’s Lectures on Gravitation [ 19 ] the following telling excerpt:

(Q2)                     “…Thus it is no surprise that Feynman would recreate general relativity from a non-geometrical viewpoint. The practical side of this approach is that one does not have to learn some ‘ fancy-schmanzy ’ (as he liked to call it) differential geometry in order to study gravitational physics. (Instead, one would just have to learn some quantum field theory.) However, when the ultimate goal is to quantize gravity, Feynman felt that the geometrical interpretation just stood in the way. From the field theoretic viewpoint, one could avoid actually defining—up front—the physical meaning of quantum geometry, fluctuating topology, space-time foam, etc. , and instead look for the geometrical meaning after quantization… Feynman certainly felt that the geometrical interpretation is marvellous, ‘ but the fact that a massless spin- 2 2 2 2 field can be interpreted as a metric was simply a coincidence that might be understood as representing some kind of gauge invariance’ 7 7 7 Our emphasis of Feynman’s words as quoted by Bryan Hatfield. …”

And he further added categorimatically in [ 18 ] that:

(Q3)                     “ …the simple ideas of [differential] geometry, extended down to infinitely small, are wrong. ”

While more recently, Chris Isham firmly posited in [ 31 ] :

(Q4)                     “ …at the Planck-length scale, differential geometry is simply incompatible with quantum theory…[so that] one will not be able to use differential geometry in the true quantum-gravity theory… ”

We may distill the above to our second Aphorism:

Aphorism 2. All the anomalies and pathologies of GR and QFT in the form of singularities and other unphysical infinities originate from the a priori assumption of a background differential manifold as a geometrical model for spacetime.(F1)

Thus, we can combine Aphorisms 1 and 2 to the following ‘ vicious circle ’ statement:

Fundamental Vicious Circle. If we wish to formulate the dynamical laws of QG as differential equations proper, it seems that we have to use the concepts and techniques of CDG on a smooth manifold. However, the latter is responsible for both the singularities of GR and the unphysical the infinities of QFT—sites in the spacetime manifold where the laws of physics appear to break down or lead to unphysical infinities for important observable quantities; hence, we seem to arrive at an impasse. 8 8 8 The reader should note here that, in the three quotes above, both Feynman and Isham question the Mathematical Efficacy of CDG in QG ( M1,F1, M2).

3 Enter ADG

Below, we itemise the basic tenets of ADG:

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Abstract Differential Geometry is more of a Leibnizian (:relational), rather than Newtonian (:geometrical), purely algebraic (:sheaf-theoretic and homological algebraic) way of doing differential geometry (:Calculus) [ 15 , 8 ] , without at all recourse to or dependence on a pointed, smooth geometric locally Euclidean background space (:a 𝒞 ∞ superscript 𝒞 \mathcal{C}^{\infty} caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT -smooth manifold) for its concepts, technical machinery and constructions thereof [ 47 , 48 , 53 ] .(M2)

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ The most fundamental concept of ADG is that of connection ( viz. generalised differential) 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D acting on a vector sheaf ℰ ℰ \mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_E over a suitably algebraized, by a certain so-called algebra structure sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A of generalised coordinates or what Mallios coined ‘ arithmetics , arbitrary topological space X 𝑋 X italic_X as a linear and Leibnizian sheaf morphism. The pair ( 𝒟 , ℰ ) 𝒟 ℰ (\mathcal{D},\mathbf{\mathcal{E}}) ( caligraphic_D , caligraphic_E ) is coined an ADG-field .(M1,M2)

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Based on the concept of connection, ADG erects the whole edifice of CDG (plus more), but in the manifest absence of a background geometrical manifold.

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Thus, a new, entirely algebraic (:relational) notion of geometry emerges, whereby, geometry does not pertain to the configuration states (‘shape’) and measurement of objects living in an a priori posited (:postulated) ether-like background space [ 20 ] , but rather, it derives from the algebraic (:dynamical) relations between the objects that live on that ‘space’. 9 9 9 These ‘objects’ are the very ADG-connection fields acting on the sections of the vector sheaves involved.

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ The last bullet point put in more physical terms: physical geometry (: physical ‘spacetime’ ) is not a priori posited like the differential spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M of GR. Rather, it derives from the dynamics (:the differential equations involving the connection field 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D ) of the ‘objects’ (:the dynamical physical fields themselves).(E2,M2)

We may distill the essential gist of the bullets above to the following Aphorism:

Aphorism 3. From the ADG-theoretic perspective, physical geometry (or physical ‘spacetime’) derives from, or is the outcome of, the algebraic dynamical relations between the ADG-fields (:the physical laws, which are formulated categorically as equations between he relevant sheaf morphisms that the ADG-connection fields correspond to). 10 10 10 In this regard, one may think of the more commonly used mathematical term ‘ solution space ’ derived from a set of (differential) equations set up (on a manifold) by the usual CDG-means. That ‘solution space’ is the ‘physical geometry’. (E2,M2)

4 The Point of Pointlessness and Finiteness: the ADG Evasion of Spacetime Singularities and the Management of Infinities

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ In the homological algebraic (:category-theoretic) setting of ADG, the singular, ideal and physically unrealistic notion of a geometrical point 11 11 11 The ‘ physically unrealistic ’ nature of a geometrical point (:an ideal spacetime event, so to speak) can be appreciated if one considers the fact that one cannot localise an ‘event’ (:measure the value of, say, the gravitational field at a point) with more accuracy than the Planck length without creating a black hole (:think for example of the inner Schwartzschild singularity right at the point-mass source, where the gravitational field blows up without bound. is meaningless.(F1)

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Mutatis mutandis for the continuous infinity of point-events that the smooth spacetime manifold accommodates: for example, the non-renormalisable infinities of QFT in Minkowski spacetime effectively arise from the fact that one can in principle pack an uncountable infinity of events (:field values) in a finite spacetime volume.(F1)

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ In both the point of pointlessness and finiteness, ADG has been applied towards formulating on the one hand a locally finite, causal and quantal version of Lorentzian vacuum Einstein gravity and free Yang-Mills theories, and on the other, the same dynamical equations are seen to hold over spaces that are everywhere dense with singularities of the most unmanageable kind from the point of view of ADG [ 50 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 75 ] .

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ The results above are due to the purely algebraic and background pointed continuous spacetime manifold independent character of ADG [ 47 , 48 , 53 , 79 ] .

Again, we may distill the essential gist of the bullets above to the following Aphorism, our fourth one:

Aphorism 4. We can formulate the dynamical equations of Einstein and Yang-Mills over highly pathological and problematic spaces, especially when viewed from the smooth background spacetime manifold perspective of CDG. Thus, singularities (and their associated infinities) are not insuperable obstacles and ‘sites’ where the differential equations that represent the dynamical field laws of Nature appear to break down. Not only we can evade them by ADG-theoretic means, but also we can ‘calculate’ (:do Calculus!) in their very presence, in spite of them. The inherently algebraic differential geometric mechanism of ADG is genuinely background smooth spacetime independent, hence it does stumble on its inherent anomalies and pathologies [ 50 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 75 ] . (E1,M1,F1,E2,M2) Thus, by ADG-theoretic means we are able to evade the ‘vicious circle’ statement that we made earlier after the first two aphorisms, as well as to question both Feynman’s (Q2,3) and Isham’s (Q4) doubts about using differential geometric ideas in QG research.

4.1 ADG Gravity: Einstein’s Purely Algebraic Description of Reality in the Quantum Deep

In the Philosophy of Physics there is a well established view that Einstein in vain pursued his Unified Field Theory 12 12 12 Einstein had originally coined it Unitary Field Theory instead [ 17 ] . research on a continuous spacetime manifold in spite of the inherently finitistic and algebraic description of Physical Reality at subatomic scales that Quantum Theory brought about.

The following couple of quotations from Einstein’s The Meaning of Relativity [ 17 ] testify to that:

(Q5)                     “ …One can give good reasons why reality cannot at all be represented by a continuous field. From the quantum phenomena it appears to follow with certainty that a finite system of finite energy can be completely described by a finite set of numbers . 13 13 13 Our emphasis. This does not seem to be in accordance with a continuum theory, and must lead to an attempt to find a purely algebraic theory for the description of reality 14 14 14 Our emphasis. … ”

and a similar quote from [ 17 ] that also mentions singularities:

(Q6)                     “ …Is it conceivable that a field theory 15 15 15 Here, Einstein was implicitly alluding to his Unitary Field Theory, which, according to his vision, could hopefully ‘explain away’ quantum phenomena. permits one to understand the atomistic and quantum structure of reality? Almost everybody will answer this question with ‘no’. But I believe that at the present time nobody knows anything reliable about it. This is so because we cannot judge in what manner and how strongly the exclusion of singularities reduces the manifold of solutions. We do not possess any method at all to derive systematically solutions that are free of singularities 16 16 16 Our emphasis. … ” [ 17 ]

In connection with the two Einstein quotes (Q5,6) above, with our fifth Aphorism next, which closes this section, we kill two birds with one stone:

Aphorism 5. ADG is an entirely algebraic method for formulating gravity and quantum Yang-Mills theories of matter field theoretically and finitistically by evading singularities and without any dependence on a background geometrical spacetime continuum, with its all inherent singularities and associated unphysical smooth field infinities [ 64 , 75 , 78 , 79 , 80 ] .

4.2 Sheaf Theory and the Transition from Local to Global

At the basis of ADG ( alias , The Geometry of Vector Sheaves ), lie the purely algebraic methods of sheaf theory [ 7 , 47 , 48 , 53 ] . Unlike the geometry of smooth vector bundles, which features prominently in the geometrisation of Physics that gauge theory brought about [ 24 ] , sheaf theory has been slow in coming in QG research.

Structures closely related to sheaves are special type of categories called topoi [ 46 , 45 ] , which are pointless spaces having their own internal logic. Topoi have been applied to both quantum logic [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ] and quantum spacetime structures, including QG research [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 76 , 77 , 80 , 69 , 70 ]

In this regard, very early on, Rudolph Haag [ 26 ] intuited the great import that sheaf theory could bring to QFT as sheaves are structures tailor-cut to encode and transmit information (from local measurements of quantum observables, for example) from local to global in QFT:

(Q7)                     “ Germs. We may take it as the central message of Quantum Field Theory that all information characterizing the theory is strictly local i.e. expressed in the structure of the theory in an arbitrarily small neighborhood of a point . 17 17 17 Our emphasis. For instance in the traditional approach the theory is characterized by a Lagrangean density. Since the quantities associated with a point are very singular objects, it is advisable to consider neighborhoods. This means that instead of a fiber bundle one has to work with a sheaf. The needed information consists then of two parts: first the description of the germs, secondly the rules for joining the germs to obtain the theory in a finite region 18 18 18 Again, emphasis is ours. … ”

Indeed, the vector and algebra sheaves involved in ADG and their associated topoi have been used very successfully in analysing the structure of the algebras of local quantum observables and how these stitch up from local to global [ 105 , 106 ] . Moreover, the ADG sheaves and their associated topoi have been applied to address important issues in QG research [ 76 , 77 , 79 , 70 , 69 , 80 ] .

5 Revisiting Feynman: Gravity as Gauge Theory

Returning to the Feynman quote in Section 2, we wish to dwell a bit on his remark that the fact that the gravitational field was identified with the smooth spacetime metric g μ ⁢ ν subscript g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT of the CDG-based Riemannian geometry on a differential spacetime manifold, was an ‘accident’ of theory making . 19 19 19 That is to say, Einstein formulated GR as the dynamics of the metric, ‘because’ he used the CDG-based Riemannian geometry of a smooth base spacetime manifold [ 71 ] . Rather, Feynman intuited that:

The deeper character of gravity is that it is a gauge force, much like the other three fundamental forces, while the methods of CDG would be ineffective in the QG deep. 20 20 20 Similarly to what Isham said in the quote following Feynman’s.

In subsequent developments in GR, we were able to cast gravity as a gauge theory in the new Ashtekar variables involving a spin-Lorentzian gravitational connection [ 2 ] and apply the new, first-order formalism 21 21 21 The Ashtekar formalism in terms of the tetrad e μ subscript 𝑒 𝜇 e_{\mu} italic_e start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ end_POSTSUBSCRIPT and the spin-connection 𝒜 μ subscript 𝒜 𝜇 \mathcal{A}_{\mu} caligraphic_A start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ end_POSTSUBSCRIPT dynamical variables is coined first order , while the GR of Einstein is based solely on the smooth spacetime metric g μ ⁢ ν subscript 𝑔 𝜇 𝜈 g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT as its sole dynamical variable. to a new candidate for (canonical) QG called Loop Quantum Gravity [ 3 , 44 ] . Albeit, on the one hand, the metric was still implicitly involved in the dynamics in the guise of the vierbein comoving tetrad e μ subscript 𝑒 𝜇 e_{\mu} italic_e start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ end_POSTSUBSCRIPT , while the smooth spacetime manifold was still present as a geometrical background in order for the canonical formalism to be applied by the methods of CDG. 22 22 22 With all the problematic issues and pathologies that this dependence causes to QG (such as the Diff ⁢ ( M ) Diff 𝑀 \mathrm{Diff}(M) roman_Diff ( italic_M ) constraint problem and the problem of time [ 32 , 33 , 34 ] .

The words in the quote above leave us with the following quandary, posited below as a rhetorical question in the light of ADG:

Is there a way to view gravity as a gauge theory, as Feynman inuited and envisaged, while still be able to apply to it differential geometric ideas, methods and techniques in spite of Feynman’s and Isham’s No-Go of CDG in QG research?

Which brings us to the next subsection about the ADG perspective on gravity as a gauge theory.

5.1 Enter ADG: Gravity as Pure Gauge Theory of the Third Kind

One of the central results of the application of ADG to QG is that:

Aphorism 6: Gravity is a pure gauge theory, without recourse to an underlying (smooth) spacetime manifold structure for either its mathematical formulation or its physical interpretation. Gravity involves the dynamics of the ADG-theoretic Einstein field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ E i n s t ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) , which is simply a connection 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D on a suitable vector sheaf ℰ ℰ \mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_E . The dynamical Einstein equations are derived from a variational principle applied on the ADG-version of the Einstein-Hilbert action functional [ 53 , 64 , 80 ] . 23 23 23 By ‘ pure gauge theory ’ above, it is meant that the sole dynamical variable in the theory is the gravitational connection 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D , acting on the sections of a suitable vector sheaf ℰ ℰ \mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_E , and nothing else. The corresponding formalism has been coined half-order formalism , to distinguish it from the first-order formalism of Ashtekar and its Loop QG outgrowth, and of course from the usual second-order formalism of the original Einstein theory (GR). (E1,M1,F1)

6 Field Solipsism and Functoriality: The Point of Spacetimelessness, Generalised Principle of General Covariance and a Different Perspective on the ‘Measurement Problem’

A geometrical point is mathematically an ideal and physically an unrealistic (:singular) entity. We discussed earlier how the sheaf-theoretic ADG and its pointless topos-theoretic extension evade the pointed background geometrical spacetime continuum of events of GR. We also noted how the ADG-gravitational connection field is the sole dynamical variable in the theory, while the underlying spacetime metric g μ ⁢ ν subscript 𝑔 𝜇 𝜈 g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT of the usual CDG-based GR is manifestly absent from our theory. This on the one hand is supposed to depict the pure gauge character of ADG-gravity à-la Feynman, and on the other, to support the aforementioned ADG-field solipsism: that is to say, that

the ADG-gravitational dynamics does not need or depend at all on a background differential spacetime manifold for either its differential geometric formulation as a differential equation proper, or for its physical interpretation. ADG-gravity is a genuinely background independent theory. The result is that the sole dynamical variable in ADG-gravity is the gravitational Einstein ADG-field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) , a feature that has been coined field solipsism and the Einstein-Hilbert variational action principle dynamics that ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) obeys has been coined ADG-field autodynamics (:autonomous gravitational field dynamics), with no dependence whatsoever on a background spacetime manifold with its inherent gravitational singularities and unphysical field infinities [ 64 , 76 , 78 , 79 , 80 ] .(E1,M1,F1,E2,M2)

The discussion above brings to the forefront one very telling Einstein quote from [ 16 ] :

(Q8)                     “ Time and space are modes by which we 24 24 24 Our emphasis. think, not conditions in which we live. ”

Space and time are human inventions convenient for representing, localising and quantifying our measurements of physical observable entities.

Which brings us to the idea of spacetime point coordinates , or equivalently, spacetime determinations/localisations/measurements of events or field-values . The locution of every point field-value or event in the spacetime manifold of GR is supposed to be determined (:measured) by four real spacetime coordinates (:coordinate functions) with respect to a given coordinate system (measurement frame of location).

The Principle of General Covariance (PGC) of GR mandates that the law of gravity (:Einstein’s equations) is generally covariant; that is to say, it is invariant under any arbitrary general coordinate transformation. 25 25 25 Technically, we say that the group of symmetries of GR is G ⁢ L ⁢ ( 4 , ℝ ) 𝐺 𝐿 4 ℝ GL(4,\mathbb{R}) italic_G italic_L ( 4 , blackboard_R ) , the group of general linear transformations of the locally Euclidean (: ℝ 4 superscript ℝ 4 \mathbb{R}^{4} blackboard_R start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 4 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ) spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M . Equivalently, we may state the PGC of GR as the Kleinian symmetry group of the background 𝒞 ∞ superscript 𝒞 \mathcal{C}^{\infty} caligraphic_C start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT ∞ end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT -smooth spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M , as follows:

The symmetry group of GR is the group Diff ⁢ ( M ) Diff 𝑀 \mathrm{Diff}(M) roman_Diff ( italic_M ) of differentiable automorphisms (:diffeomorphisms) of the background smooth spacetime manifold M 𝑀 M italic_M .

By contrast, in ADG-gravity, where we have no background spacetime manifold and the ADG-field autodynamics is purely gauge ,

The gauge symmetry group sheaf is the principal sheaf 𝒜 ⁢ u ⁢ t 𝐀 ⁢ ℰ 𝒜 𝑢 subscript 𝑡 𝐀 ℰ {\mathcal{A}}ut_{\mathbf{A}}\mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_A italic_u italic_t start_POSTSUBSCRIPT bold_A end_POSTSUBSCRIPT caligraphic_E of structure sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -automorphisms of the associated vector sheaf ℰ ℰ \mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_E of the ADG-Einstein field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) [ 64 , 76 , 78 , 79 , 80 ] .

whereby, as noted earlier, 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A is the structure sheaf of generalised arithmetics or coordinates in the theory.

In other words, the ADG-gravitational dynamics, which is formulated entirely categorically in terms of the connection 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D sheaf morphism, is respected by (:‘remains invariant under’) all our generalised measurements (:arithmetics, event coordinate determinations) encoded in the structure sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A . The gravitational dynamics ‘sees through’ all our coordinate measurements (:spacetime event localisations) in A A \mathbf{A} bold_A [ 79 , 80 ] .

6.1 The Issue of Functoriality

In [ 80 ] it has been shown that the aforesaid PGC of GR, which is tantamount to 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -invariance in ADG-gravity , is an example of the Functoriality of ADG-gravity . In other words, since the dynamics is categorically represented as equations involving the connection sheaf morphism 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D of the ADG-Einstein field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) , the PGC is represented by functors that preserve the relevant categories. 26 26 26 In category-theoretic parlance, a functor between two categories, is a map or transformation that respects the objects and arrows of the two categories. In [ 80 ] , in continuation and extension of [ 58 , 59 , 60 ] , it was shown and argued that the relevant functors are, in fact, special types of 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -preserving functors (or 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -morphisms) called geometric morphisms , which preserve the ‘geometric’ structure of the vector sheaves involved in the dynamics.

We distill all the foregoing discussion into our seventh Aphorism below:

Aphorism 7. In ADG-Gravity, the dynamics is purely gauge and background spacetime manifold independent and functorial, while the PGC is functorially represented in terms of the principal group sheaf of automorphisms of the relevant vector sheaves as 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -invariance citemall14,mall15,mall13,rap15. The latter simply means that the ADG-field dynamics, which in its Einstein-Hilbert action expression involves the curvature of the connection which is an ⊗ 𝐀 subscript tensor-product 𝐀 \otimes_{\mathbf{A}} ⊗ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT bold_A end_POSTSUBSCRIPT -tensor, remains invariant (or ‘unperturbed’) by our generalised coordinate ‘measurements’ that are organised in the structure algebra sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A .(E1,M1,F1,E2,M2)

Thus, all our generalised measurements are represented in ADG as sections of the structure algebra sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A . 27 27 27 The reader should note here that the structure sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A is supposed to be a sheaf of abelian (:commutative) algebras. This reflects our primitive assumption that we always measure commutative numbers , while in the Quantum Theory it is supposed to be the ADG-version of Bohr’s Correspondence principle: although quantum observables may be noncommutative q-numbers, our measurements thereof are commutative c-numbers . In turn, the ADG-gravitational dynamics, since it is 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -functorial, 28 28 28 Or as Mallios originally coined it: 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A -invariant . is not ‘disturbed’ at all by our generalised field measurements in 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A . Furthermore, the ⊗ 𝐀 subscript tensor-product 𝐀 \otimes_{\mathbf{A}} ⊗ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT bold_A end_POSTSUBSCRIPT -functorial ADG-gravitational field dynamics does not break down in any differential geometrical sense in the presence of any type of singularity that may be encoded in the structure sheaf 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A .

The pair of observations above, namely that:

The ADG-gravitational dynamics is unperturbed by our generalised measurements in 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A ; and,

The ADG-gravitational dynamics does not break down in any (differential geometric) sense by any kind of ‘singularities’ or ‘anomalies’ present in 𝐀 𝐀 \mathbf{A} bold_A ,

reflect what we have elsewhere called the Principle of ADG-Field Realism [ 78 , 79 , 80 ] . Which brings us to the last section.

7 Gauge Field Theory of the Third Kind and its Third Quantisation

The last philosophical issue of ADG-gravity that we would like to discuss in this paper is two-fold:

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Gauge Field Theory of the Third Kind. We discussed earlier how from an ADG-theoretic perspective gravity is regarded as a gauge theory . We noted that the ADG-formalism may be coined half-order formalism , to distinguish it from the original second-order formalism of Einstein, whereby the dynamical variable is the smooth Riemannan spacetime metric g μ ⁢ ν subscript 𝑔 𝜇 𝜈 g_{\mu\nu} italic_g start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ italic_ν end_POSTSUBSCRIPT , or from the more recent first-order formalism of Ashtekar, whereby the gravitational dynamical variables are the spin-connection 𝒜 μ subscript 𝒜 𝜇 \mathcal{A}_{\mu} caligraphic_A start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ end_POSTSUBSCRIPT and the vierbein frame e μ subscript 𝑒 𝜇 e_{\mu} italic_e start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_μ end_POSTSUBSCRIPT . In ADG-gravity, the sole dynamical variable is the Einstein (connection) field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) .

As such, the ADG-based gauge-theoretic formulation of gravity, without recourse to any background spacetime manifold, has been called pure gauge field autodynamics [ 64 , 78 , 79 , 80 ] .

The second denomination gauge theory of the third kind comes from the observation that the first U ⁢ ( 1 ) 𝑈 1 U(1) italic_U ( 1 ) gauge (or scale) theory for the electromagnetic and the gravitational field due to Weyl [ 103 ] was a global gauge theory , 29 29 29 In the sense that Weyl showed that non-spacetime localised (global) gauge/scale invariance implies the conservation of electric charge in much the same way that general coordinate invariance leads to the conservation of energy and momentum in gravitational dynamics. while the gauge theories underlying the three fundamental forces (other than gravity) of the Standard Model 30 30 30 That is, the electromagnetic (with local gauge group U ⁢ ( 1 ) 𝑈 1 U(1) italic_U ( 1 ) ), the weak nuclear (with local gauge group S ⁢ U ⁢ ( 2 ) 𝑆 𝑈 2 SU(2) italic_S italic_U ( 2 ) ) and the strong nuclear (with local gauge group S ⁢ U ⁢ ( 3 ) 𝑆 𝑈 3 SU(3) italic_S italic_U ( 3 ) ) forces. are flat Minkowski space localised gauge theories [ 24 ] .

By contrast, aside from its half-order formalism, our ADG-based gauge-theoretic formulation of gravity (:ADG-gravity), although local by its sheaf-theoretic character, is not background spacetime localised, since there is no background spacetime manifold to localise and solder it on to begin with .(E1,M1, F1,E2,M2)

∙ ∙ \bullet ∙ Third Quantisation. In [ 78 , 79 ] , and recently in [ 80 ] , a third canonical type of ADG-field quantisation scenario was proposed according to which certain local, sheaf cohomological characteristic forms for both the vector sheaf part ℰ ℰ \mathbf{\mathcal{E}} caligraphic_E and the connection part 𝒟 𝒟 \mathcal{D} caligraphic_D of the ADG-theoretic vacuum Einstein field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) were seen to obey canonical type of Heisenberg non-commutation relations, albeit, explicitly not parametrised by a background spacetime manifold. 31 31 31 In the sense that they are not equal-time commutation relations which, in the usual canonical QG scenario, would have been required to obey some global hyperbolicity type of foliation of the background spacetime manifold into time-parametrised 3-dimensional spacelike hypersurfaces. This is to be expected as our ADG-gravity does not depend at all on an external (background) spacetime manifold, as well as to be desired, as our third quantisation scenario would be expected to ‘algebraically close’ within the autonomous and ‘solipsistic’ ADG-theoretic Einstein field ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ 𝐸 𝑖 𝑛 𝑠 𝑡 ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) .

We distill these remarks to the following eighth Aphorism:

Aphorism 8. There are no external geometrical structures, such as a background spacetime manifold, in our theory: all there is is ℱ E ⁢ i ⁢ n ⁢ s ⁢ t = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ E i n s t ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{Einst}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E italic_i italic_n italic_s italic_t end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) and its Yang-Mills counterparts ℱ Y ⁢ M = ( ℰ , 𝒟 ) subscript ℱ Y M ℰ 𝒟 \mathcal{F}_{YM}=(\mathbf{\mathcal{E}},\mathcal{D}) caligraphic_F start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_Y italic_M end_POSTSUBSCRIPT = ( caligraphic_E , caligraphic_D ) ; hence, if the autonomous (:autodynamical) ADG-fields are to be quantum (or quantised) in any way, they should be quantum (or quantised) from within themselves, not from without [ 78 , 79 , 80 ] .(E1,M1,F1,E2,M2)

8 Brief Philosophical Musings on the Future of ADG-Gravity

This author’s current research on ADG-gravity focuses on the following three fronts:

To organise the recently discovered ‘ time-asymmetric algebras ’ in [ 81 ] 32 32 32 These algebras originally appeared, in primitive form, in this author’s Ph.D. thesis [ 72 ] , in which the early seeds for a time-asymmetric quantum spacetime structure and gravity were planted. into vector sheaves à-la ADG and, by employing the rich differential geometric mechanism of ADG, explore the possibility of developing a time-asymmetric Dirac equation on the resulting sheaves, possibly with ADG-gravity coupled to it [ 83 ] .(F2)

The project above dovetails snugly with our current musings in [ 82 ] , where we apply ADG to develop a time-asymmetric version of the vacuum Einstein equations for a finitary spin-Lorentzian gravitational connection [ 73 , 74 , 62 , 63 , 64 ] on Finkelstein’s quantum net as originally worked out by Steve Selesnick [ 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 ] , and relate this asymmetry to the fundamental asymmetry that Penrose has for many years anticipated that the true QG theory should account for [ 41 ] .(F2)

The main philosophical query that will arise from the three papers above [ 81 , 82 , 83 ] is that the anticipated fundamental time-asymmetry of the true QG theory may not only be traced back to time-asymmetric initial conditions for the Universe, 33 33 33 Like Penrose’s Weyl curvature hypothesis . but also it may be due to the fundamentally time-asymmetric quantum gravitational dynamics themselves (:time-asymmetric vacuum Einstein equations for ADG-gravity).(F2)

The quest continues…

Acknowledgments

I am greatly indebted to Professors Goro Kato (Department of Mathematics, California Polytechnic Institute, San Luis Obispo) and Steve Selesnick (Department of Mathematics, University of St Louis, Missouri) for numerous stimulating exchanges on a plethora of topics in Mathematics, Physics, Philosophy and Poetry after a long hiatus period of personal reflection and research course re-evaluation and re-adjustment.

< . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > <.><.><.><.><.><.><.><.><.> < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . > < . >

The present paper is lovingly dedicated to my parents, George and Helen Raptis , whose unceasing moral and material support of my research quests has never been diminished by the passage of time, no matter what its toll on both their ageing bodies and their lucid minds.

Last but not least, the unceasing ‘moral’ support of my lovely family: Kathleen, Francis, James and Cookie , is also warmly aknowledged, especially their patience and understanding in putting up with me over the years.

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Automatic acquisition and identification of footwear class characteristics.

This report describes a research project that resulted in the development, testing, and deployment of the MANTIS scanner for capturing images of shoe soles and uppers as the scanner is traversed; the paper describes the research methodology, outcomes, and limitations, and notes activities and accomplishments stemming from the project.

This paper reports on a project that had an overall goal of enabling footwear examiners to make empirical statements about the frequency of class characteristics in the local geographic population. To that end, the author created the following three project objectives: to develop robust, weather-resistant scanning equipment that can passively gather images of shoe soles and uppers from local populations; to develop automated software to automatically identify relevant class characteristic information from images collected by the scanning equipment; and to collect local population footwear data over multiple seasons, weather conditions, days of the week, times of the day, and assess the changes in identified class characteristic frequency associated with temporal and weather-related variability. The author reports completing the first objective, and partially completing the second objective, but that the third objective has not yet been completed due to COVID-19 pandemic and review board restrictions.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Mapping causal networks from theories of change in sustainability projects: a software co-design process.

• 1 Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad [LANCIS], Instituto de Ecología [IE], Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [UNAM], 04500, Mexico, Mexico City, México, Mexico
• 2 Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad [LANCIS], Instituto de Ecología [IE], Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [UNAM], Mexico City, Mexico
• 3 School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, 29 W Mains Rd, EH9 3BG, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
• 4 Independent researcher, Bogotá, Colombia
• 5 Departamento de Ciencias de la Computación, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México [ITAM]. Rio Hondo 1, Mexico City, 01080, Mexico., Mexico City, Mexico
• 6 Posgrado en Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad, Instituto de Ecología [IE], Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [UNAM], Mexico City, 04510, Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
• 7 Independent researcher, Veracruz, Mexico
• 8 Posgrado en Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, México, Mexico

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Envisioning trajectories towards sustainability encompasses enacting significant changes in multiple spheres (i.e., infrastructure, policy, practices, behaviors). These changes unfold within the intricate landscapes of wicked problems, where diverse perspectives and potential solutions intersect and often clash. Advancing more equitable and sustainable trajectories demands recognition of and collaboration with diverse voices to uncover meaningful synergies among groups striving to catalyze substantial change. Projects of this nature necessitate the exploration of varied tools and methodologies to elicit, convey, and integrate ideas effectively. Creating spaces for reflexivity is essential for catalyzing more meaningful impact as individuals engage in discussions aimed at sharing and questioning the coherence of their projects while forging synergies, identifying common objectives, and planning long-term outcomes. We present the initial phase of an endeavor in which we developed a software that elicits causal networks based on mapping relations between projects' actions and outcomes. To illustrate our approach, we describe the results of using this software within collaborative workshops with groups spearheading projects initiated by a government entity in Mexico City. By adapting elements of the Theory of Change model, this software transcends the dominant linear project logic by guiding participants in designing causation networks that unveil how different projects can articulate to identify potential common elements and find new possibilities for coordination among initiatives. We discuss the potential of such software application as a dynamic tool to guide and promote reflection and coherence when crafting projects that aim to more meaningfully address sustainability problems.

Keywords: meta-graph software, Sustainability projects, causation networks, Theory of change, Mexico

Received: 23 Mar 2024; Accepted: 15 Aug 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 García-Meneses, García-Herrera, Serrano-Candela, Charli-Joseph, Mota-Nieto, Mejía Ciro, Garcilita-Arguello, Fernández-Reyes, Toriz Cruz, Platas Valle and Corona-Jiménez. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Paola M. García-Meneses, Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad [LANCIS], Instituto de Ecología [IE], Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [UNAM], 04500, Mexico, Mexico City, México, Mexico

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.