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Computer Organization And Architecture

Coa tutorial.

The computer organization and architecture ( COA )  is one of the most important and comprehensive subject that includes many foundational concepts and knowledge used in the design of a computer system.

The COA also continues to be the most important part of the syllabus for computer science courses across all universities and also for various competitive examinations.  

This tutorial is specially designed for absolute beginners to study all the relevant topics related to computer organization and architecture .

The COA important topics include all the fundamental concepts such as computer system functional units , processor micro architecture , program instructions, instruction formats , addressing modes , instruction pipelining, memory organization , instruction cycle , interrupts, instruction set architecture ( ISA ) and other important related topics.  

Let us first start with simple introduction to the computer architecture.  

COA Table Of Contents

• Introduction To COA .

What Is Computer Architecture ?

What is computer organization .

• Computer Architecture Block Diagram ?
• Computer System Functional Units.
• Computer Input Unit.
• Computer Output Unit.
• Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• Control Unit ( CU ).
• Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• Memory Unit ( MU ).
• CPU Registers.
• Computer Hardware.
• Computer Software.
• Application Software.
• System Software.
• Memory Organization.
• Instruction Cycle.
• Instruction Pipelining.
• Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ).
• Instruction Format.
• Instruction Addressing Modes.
• Interrupts.
• Interrupt Types.
• Computer Bus System.
• Binary Number System.

In order to understand the term computer architecture , let us first discuss what is an architecture. The term architecture can be defined as an art and science of designing an object.

We generally relate the term architecture with the building because the building is one of the most common object in the human world. The architecture helps us to define the functional , physical and the performance  standards for any object.

Every object in the real world is based on some architecture. For example an architect will define the building in terms of building drawings and specifications for various building components.

Similarly , the system architecture defines various functional units of the computer system and how these units are interconnected and performance standards. It defines the system performance specifications and what system should achieve in terms of performance.

In simple words , the computer architecture is all about computer system design details expressed in terms of functional units and interconnection between these units.

The computer architecture helps us define the functional capabilities and the requirements for the computer system. The system architecture is a high level design specification that does not specify any specify details of the hardware components.

The computer architecture gives an abstracted view of the structure of various functional units and its behaviour.

In order to build a computer system , the first step is to design and develop the  system architecture. The next step in the system design process is to finalize the computer organization details.

Let us first understand the meaning of term organization in the context of computers. The term organization is defined as arranging , classifying things together logically to maximize the functional convenience.

The computer organization is based on the computer architecture. The computer organization implements the system architecture.

In simple words , the computer organization is all about organizing various system hardware components and how these components are interconnected.

The computer organization describe the details of the various hardware components related to the various functional units present in the system.

The computer organization deals with the arrangement of various system hardware components and the function performed by the components.

The computer organization defines the existence of various functional units and its components . It also defines the interaction between various functional component.

The computer organization defines the structure and behaviour of the digital computers. The main objective of the computer organization is to understand the various computer hardware components and the interaction between these components.

Difference Between Computer Architecture And Computer Organization

In general the terms “computer organization” and “computer architecture” are often used interchangeably. However, they can be distinguished by the following characteristics:

Computer Architecture

Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of computer systems, including their components and how they interact with each other. It encompasses both the hardware and software aspects of a computer system. Computer architecture defines the structure, functionality, and behavior ( Performance Standard ) of a computer system, enabling the execution of programs and the processing of data.

Computer architecture can be classified into different types. For example, von Neumann architecture, which is based on the concept of a stored-program computer, and more specialized architectures like Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) or Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC).

It also encompasses concepts like instruction pipelining, memory hierarchy, and multiprocessing, which further enhance system performance and functionality.

Computer architecture is concerned with the broader design principles and conceptual structure of a computer system. It encompassing both hardware and software aspects to achieve the desired level of system performance.

2. Level of Abstraction

It deals with a higher level of abstraction compared to computer organization. It focuses on the organization and behavior of the system in terms of system performance as seen by software developers and how it supports the execution of programs.

3. Instruction Set Design

Computer architecture defines the instruction set architecture (ISA), which specifies the set of instructions, addressing modes, and data types that a computer system supports.

4. Performance Evaluation

It involves evaluating and comparing different architectural designs based on performance metrics like execution time, throughput, and energy efficiency.

5. Examples

Examples of topics studied in computer architecture include instruction set design, pipelining, memory hierarchy, parallel processing, virtual memory, and overall system performance.

Computer Organization

Computer organization deals with the physical and implementation details of a computer system , focusing on the hardware components and their interconnections. On the other hand, computer architecture focuses on the conceptual design and structure of the system, considering both hardware and software aspects. It aims to optimize system performance and functionality.

Computer organization primarily concerns itself with the physical aspects of a computer system and how the hardware components are interconnected and operate together.

2. Level of Detail

It deals with the low-level details of a computer system, such as the design and organization of individual hardware components, circuits, and logic gates.

3. Implementation

Computer organization is concerned with the implementation details of a computer system architecture, including the design of registers, buses, memory systems, and Input and Output interfaces.

4. Performance Optimization

It aims to optimize the performance of the computer system by considering factors like clock speed, latency, bandwidth, and hardware-level optimizations.

Examples of topics studied in computer organization include CPU design, memory systems, cache hierarchies, bus protocols, and I/O subsystems.

Computer System Functional Units

In computer organization and architecture , the computer system can be classified into number of functional units. This classification is based on the specific function performed in the computer system.

The basic functional units ( operational Units ) of a computer system include following units.

• 1. Input Unit.
• 2. Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• 3. Control Unit ( CU ).
• 4. Arithmetic And Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• 5. Output Unit.

Computer System Input Unit

The main function of the input unit is to provide the data that will be operated by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used input devices for any general purpose computer system include keyboard and mouse. However , computer can also accept the input from other input devices such as camera , scanner and mike.  

The computer system can accept the input from number of input devices such as keyboard , scanner , camera , mouse or any other input devices connected to the computer system.

Input Devices

Output Unit

Computer system output unit.

The main function of the output unit is to present the data to the user that is processed by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used output devices for any general purpose computer system include display monitor , speaker and printer. However , computer can also send the output to other output devices such as projector, speaker and disk memory.  

The computer system can send the output to number of output devices such as display monitor , printer , projector , speaker or any other output devices connected to the computer system.

Output Devices

Micro-processor

Central processing unit ( cpu ).

The central processing unit ( CPU ) is said to be the brain of the computer system. It is the CPU that provides the processing power to the computer.

The CPU internally consist of three important units. These three units are control unit , Arithmetic And Logic Unit and memory unit. These three units together are referred as CPU.

The main function of the CPU is to execute the computer program. The CPU executes the program by fetching program instruction one by one from the main memory ( RAM ).

The control unit of the CPU decodes these instructions and performs the desired arithmetic and logical operations.

The CPU executes the program instruction by repetitively performing the instruction cycle . The Instruction cycle consist of four steps that include Fetch , Decode , Execute And Store.

What Is Central Processing Unit ?

Control Unit

Computer system control unit ( cu ).

The control unit ( CU ) is an important component of the central processing unit. The control unit of the CPU is responsible to control the working of all the hardware components connected to the system.

In other words , the main function of the control unit is to direct the various operations performed by the computer system. The control units transmit the control signals that directs the hardware components to perform specific operations.

The control unit  of the CPU is also responsible to decode the program instructions fetched from the memory. The CU decodes the program instruction as per the instruction format.

The CU after the decode operation directs the arithmetic and logic unit ( ALU ) of the CPU to perform the desired operation as per the Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ) of the CPU.

What Is Control Unit ?

CPU Control Unit

Arithmetic And Logic Unit

Computer system arithmetic and logic unit ( alu ).

The arithmetic logic unit ( ALU )  is the  mathematical brain of the computer placed inside the processor chip ( Central Processing Unit ).

The ALU essentially performs all the arithmetic and the logic operations performed by the CPU. It is the ALU that actually operates on the data.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the program instructions from the main memory ( RAM ) . The control unit of the CPU decodes the instruction and directs the ALU to perform the desired operation on the data.

The ALU is an essential fundamental component of many digital computing circuits and also for all central processing unit CPU.

In order to operate on the data , the ALU perform three types of operations. The ALU operations include arithmetic , logical and shift operations.

What Is Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ) ?

Memory Unit

Computer system memory unit ( mu ).

The main function of the memory unit is to store the data. The computer system memory unit consist of different types of memory.

The computer system memory can be grouped into two basic types that is primary and secondary memory.

The primary memory ( main memory RAM ) is called temporary or volatile memory. The secondary memory ( disk memory) is called permanent or non-volatile memory.

Different types of  memory used in a computer system are organized in a hierarchical order in order to optimize the system performance.

The CPU executes the program instructions at very high speed. Whereas the data transfer from the main memory RAM to the CPU is relatively slow.

And therefore , high speed cache memory is placed between the CPU and main memory RAM. The CPU stores the frequently used data into the cache memory that can be accessed at high speed as compared to the RAM.

The CPU also makes use of another very high speed memory called CPU registers built right inside the processor chip.

The processor micro-architecture consist of number of very high speed internal memory inside the CPU called registers .

The processor internally use different types of registers at different stages of the instruction cycle during the program execution.

Computer Memory Unit

CPU Registers

In processor micro architecture, the CPU registers are vary high speed memory placed inside the processor chip. In memory hierarchy , the register is the smallest in size but has the highest data access speed.

Depending upon the processor architecture , the CPU can have number of registers. The registers are used by the CPU during the execution of program instructions.

The registers plays an important role during the execution of instruction cycle performed by the CPU.

CPU Registers Example

Intel 8085 architecture registers.

The registers are high speed temporary memory area built into the processor chip. The registers are integral part of every processor internal memory unit.

The registers provide very high data access speed that is much faster than the cache memory. And therefore , the registers are used by the processor as temporary memory during the program execution.

What Are CPU Registers ?

Intel 8085 Registers

Computer Hardware

In computer architecture , the computer hardware are the physical components either connected inside the computer cabinet or connected externally.

The main function of the hardware components is execute the operation as directed by the CPU. The hardware system components can be electronic , electrical or mechanical components.

The computer hardware components can be electronic components such as motherboard , processor , display monitor , storage disk and main memory RAM.

The computer hardware components can also be electrical components such as power supply unit SMPS and electrical wires used to supply electric supply.

The hardware components also include mechanical parts such as computer cabinet where internal system components are assembled and interconnected.

The hardware components are driven by a system software called device driver . The operating system communicates with hardware through device driver.

What Is Computer Hardware ?

Computer Software

The computer software and hardware are two essential components of the computer system.

The software is designed to direct the computer to perform specific operations. Whereas , the computer hardware actually executes the program instructions to perform the desired operation.

A software is simply a computer program or a group of programs created for the purpose of providing a specific service. A software can be written in any programming language such as C language , Java , Python or any other language.

For example , we use MS word for creating documents , web browsers for browsing the internet , media players for watching video contents and so on.

In computer architecture , the computer system essentially make use of two types of software. The first type of software is called an application software and the second type is called a system software.

What Is Computer Software ?

Application Software

In computer architecture , the application software is designed and developed to allow the system user to perform various tasks on the  computer.

The application software provides an interface to the user to use the computer for various applications. The user can install various application software on computer as per the user requirements.

For example , we use accounting software to perform accounting work . Similarly , each application software has specific purpose to provide service to the user.

What Is Application Software ?

System Software

In computer architecture , the system software works as an interface between the operating system and the hardware components.

The operating system communicates with hardware component through a special software called a device driver . The computer system also needs other system software essential to perform some important functions.

The system software is used by the computer itself to communicate and control various hardware components connected to the computer.

The operating system is also a type of system software that is essential for every computer system . The operating system handles all the crucial functions and the system resources.

What Is System Software ?

Computer Memory Organization

The memory unit is another important functional unit present in the computer organization and architecture. The computer memory is a finite resource that is managed by the operating system ( OS ).

The computer memory is used to store the data and the program instructions. In computer system , the random access memory ( RAM )  is considered to be the primary memory ( main memory ).

The primary memory RAM is a temporary ( volatile ) memory and the  secondary disk memory is referred as permanent ( non-volatile ) memory.

In computer architecture , the memory is divided into large number of memory cells ( block ). The computer memory is linear and organized as series of group of bits ( 8 Bits = 1 Byte ) called byte .

A single block of memory consist of eight bits ( 8 Bits ) that is equal to one byte ( 1 Byte ). Each byte in the computer memory represents a unique memory location with unique memory address .

The computer memory is also organized as word addressable memory. In computer organization, the term word is defined as group bits ( 8 Bits , 16 Bits , 32 Bits ) that can be transferred simultaneously between the CPU and main memory RAM.

The word size in memory organization defined the number of bits that can be processed together in a single CPU operation.

Instruction Cycle

The main function of the central processing unit ( CPU ) is to execute the program. The computer program consist of number of instructions . These instructions direct the computer to perform the desired operations.

In order to execute the program , the operating system allocates the necessary resources. The operating system loads the program instructions along with associated data into the main memory RAM.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the data and instructions from the main memory RAM. The CPU execution mechanism is called instruction cycle.

The instruction cycle is the basic operation of the CPU which essentially consist of  which essentially consist of sequence of three operations. These three operations include fetch , decode and execute .

The CPU repetitively performs the   instruction cycle to perform various operations as per the program instructions. The instruction cycle internally consist of another CPU operation called machine cycle .

The CPU operations and the instruction cycle is synchronized by the stream of clock signals. The clock signals are generated by the timing and control signal generator of the control unit .

CPU Instruction Cycle

Instruction Pipelining

Instruction Pipeline Architecture

The processor chip manufacturing companies have to constantly innovate the new technology and the microprocessor design in order to improve the processor performance.

In computer architecture, the instruction pipelining is a technique used that helps to utilize the processing power of the CPU. The instruction pipelining aims to significantly improve the CPU performance.

The computer program consist of multiple instructions. The CPU repetitively performs the instruction cycle to execute the program instructions.

The instruction cycle is executed in four stages or operations . These four operations are fetch , decode , execute and store. Each stage is designed to perform a certain part of the instruction  cycle  .

The instruction pipelining technique allows the processor to concurrently execute different stages of the instruction cycle for multiple instructions.

Instruction Non-Pipeline Architecture

The pipelined concurrent execution of the instructions allows  the processor to simultaneously initiate the execution of multiple instructions.

In simpler CPUs, the instruction cycle is executed sequentially.  The CPU executes each instruction one by one. Such sequential execution is referred as non-pipelined architecture.

However , In  most  modern  processors use the pipelining technology which allows the CPU to simultaneously execute more number of instructions.   

In instruction pipelined architecture , the next instruction processing  starts even  before  the  previous instruction  has finished. This  results into  improved  CPU  performance.

Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA )

In computer organization and architecture , the instruction set architecture ( ISA ) is defined as a set of binary commands supported by the processor chip.

Each processor chip design is based on the specific Instruction set architecture ( ISA ). The ISA merely defines the set of operations that must be supported by the CPU that implements a specific ISA.

The ISA does not specify the details of its implementation inside the processor chip. Rather , the ISA only specify the capability of the processor in terms of binary operations performed by the processor.

For example , you will find many processor that implement x86 ISA . However , each processor can have different ISA implementation despite being based on the same x86 architecture.

The instruction set architecture ( ISA ) also defines the maximum length of the program statement. And therefore , the implementation of the ISA, the statement length is restricted within maximum permissible limit.  

Similarly , the ISA also defines the instruction format for different types of instructions. The instruction format defines how the entire instruction is encoded within the specified instruction format.

The processor micro-architecture is referred to the actual implementation of the ISA into the processor chip. The micro-architecture defines the performance and the efficiency of the processor design.

Instruction Format

The CPU is responsible to execute the program. However, the CPU can decode and execute only machine instructions in the binary format.

And therefore , all computer programs written in any high level programming language must be first converted machine instruction .

During the program compilation stage, the compiler converts the high level program instructions into low level standard machine instructions in a specific format. This standard machine instruction format is defined as “ Instruction Format ”.

These machine instructions can be directly decoded and executed by the processor. The instruction format defines the pattern of bits that consist of three parts.

Each part of the instruction format directs the CPU while decoding the program instructions. The instruction format consist of addressing mode , operation code ( OPCODE ) and the data ( OPERAND ).

The addressing mode helps to decode location of the data , the OPCODE specify the operation to be performed and the OPERAND specify the integer data value.

What Is Instruction Format ?

Addressing Modes

Instruction Format Addressing Modes

In simple words , the addressing mode is the field ( single bit ) in the instruction format that directs the processor regarding how to locate the data that is to be operated by the CPU.

The addressing mode is represented by a single bit in the instruction format. It provides the information about the operand whether it contains either the data or address of the data.

In microprocessor architecture,  the instruction format is a standard machine instruction format that CPU can decode and execute.

Depending upon the instruction type , the pattern of bits in the machine instruction format consist of three parts.

The first part indicates the addressing mode , the second part OPCODE specifies the operation to be performed and the third part OPERAND either data or address of the data.

the addressing mode for the machine instruction specifies the rules for the CPU while operating on the OPERAND .

The addressing mode part of the machine instruction format  allows to specify whether the OPERAND value is a direct data Or It is an indirect referencing.

If the addressing mode specified is indirect  then the OPERAND contains a memory address that points to the actual data. However , If the addressing mode specified is direct   then the OPERAND contains the actual data .

The machine code instruction format can use different types of addressing mode depending upon the type of the instruction and the processor architecture.

Interrupts In COA

Hardware and software interrupts.

In computer architecture , the interrupts are defined as signals ( service call ) sent to the processor either by the hardware components or by the software to seek the processor response.

The interrupt signals generated by the hardware is called as hardware interrupt . Whereas, the interrupt signals generated by the program is called as software interrupt ( also called as traps ).

The interrupt events or signals are called interrupt because these events  prompts the processor to pause the normal execution of the CPU instruction cycle and respond to the interrupt signal.

The processor response to the interrupt signals depends upon the priority and the type of interrupt.

The processor responds to an interrupt by pausing the current process execution and an interrupt service routine ISR ( also called as an interrupt handler ) is executed by the processor.

After executing the ISR, the processor then resumes its previous process after the service routine (  interrupt handler )  is executed in response to an interrupt signal.    

What Are Interrupts ?

Computer Bus

Computer Bus Architecture

In computer system architecture , the computer buses are defined as the wired connections that connect the CPU and various hardware components.

The computer buses are group of wires running across the computer system. The computer buses transfer data , control signals and memory address.

In order to execute the program , the CPU needs to communicate with main memory RAM and other hardware components. The computer system makes use of three types of buses which include data bus , control bus and address bus .

The CPU continuously perform the memory read and write operations. The data transfer take place using the data bus. The CPU also transmits control signals through control bus .

Similarly , the CPU communicates with the memory controller and the main memory ram using the address bus. The address bus is used to transfer the memory address required for memory read and write operations.

Binary Number System

In simple words , the number system is a system of counting. There are many number systems exist in mathematics. We are all familiar with decimal number that we use in our everyday life.

However , the computer and other digital devices do not understand the decimal number system. Rather , the computers can understand and execute only machine instructions in binary .

In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number system that uses only two numbers ( either zero 0   OR  one 1 ) to represents any number.

A computer system is a digital device. The micro processor ( CPU )  inside the computer functions as a system’s brain. The processor internally consist of millions of tiny components called transistor .

These transistors can be programmed to function like a micro switch that can be switched on or off . And therefore , the processor can execute commands represented only two states ( on or off ).

These two states can be easily represented in the binary. The binary commands use only two digits that is 0 ( zero ) and 1 ( one ).

Why Computer Use Binary Number System ?

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Computer Organization and Architecture Notes PDF | B Tech (2024)

• Post last modified: 11 January 2023
• Reading time: 25 mins read
• Post category: B Tech Study Material

Download Computer Organization and Architecture Notes PDF, syllabus for B Tech, BCA, MCA (2024). We provide complete computer organization and architecture pdf. Computer Organization and Architecture lecture notes include computer organization and architecture handwritten notes, computer organization and architecture book , computer organization and architecture courses, computer organization and architecture syllabus , computer organization and architecture question paper, MCQ, case study, computer organization and architecture questions and answers and available in computer organization and architecture pdf form.

Computer Organization and Architecture subject are included in B Tech CSE, BCA, MCA, M Tech, ESE, Engineering. So, students can able to download computer organization and architecture notes pdf .

Table of Content

• 1 Computer Organization and Architecture Syllabus
• 2 Computer Organization and Architecture PDF
• 3.1 What is Computer Organization and Architecture?
• 4 Computer Organization and Architecture Questions and Answers
• 5 Computer Organization and Architecture Question Paper
• 6 Computer Organization and Architecture Book

Computer Organization and Architecture Notes can be downloaded in computer organization and architecture pdf from the below article

Computer Organization and Architecture Syllabus

Detailed computer organization and architecture syllabus as prescribed by various Universities and colleges in India are as under. You can download the syllabus in computer organization and architecture pdf form.

Unit I – Basic structure of Computers Operational concepts – Bus structures – Arithmetic operations – Memory operations – Addressing modes – Basic I/O operations – Performance-RISC – CISC.

Unit II – Arithmetic Unit Addition & subtraction of signed numbers – Binary Multiplication: Booth‟s algorithm – Bit pair recoding – Carry save addition – Unsigned Integer multiplication & division algorithm – Floating point operations.

Unit III – Processing unit Control unit – Pipelining – Multiple bus organization – Hardwired control – Micro programmed control – Hazards – Data path – Embedded systems.

Unit IV – Memory System Basic concepts – Semiconductor RAM memory – Cache memory – Performance considerations – Virtual memory – Secondary storage.

Unit V – I/O Organization and Logic Circuits Accessing I/O devices – Interrupts – DMA -Buses – Interface circuits – Serial communication links – Logic Circuits – Practical Implementation of Logic Gates – Case studies of various computer architectures

Computer Organization and Architecture PDF

Computer organization and architecture notes, what is computer organization and architecture.

Definition: Computer Organization and Architecture is the study of internal working, structuring and implementation of a computer system. Architecture in computer system, same as anywhere else, refers to the externally visual attributes of the system.

Organization of computer system is the way of practical implementation which results in realization of architectural specifications of a computer system.

Architecture of computer system can be considered as a catalog of tools available for any operator using the system, while Organization will be the way the system is structured so that all those cataloged tools can be used, and that in an efficient fashion. ( wikiversity )

Computer Organization and Architecture Questions and Answers

Some of the computer organization and architecture question bank with answers pdf are mentioned below. You can download the QnA in computer organization and architecture pdf form.

Computer Organization and Architecture Question Paper

If you have already studied the computer organization and architecture notes , now it’s time to move ahead and go through previous year computer organization and architecture question paper .

It will help you to understand question paper pattern and type of computer organization and architecture questions and answers asked in B Tech, BCA, MCA, M Tech computer organization and architecture exam. You can download the syllabus in computer organization and architecture pdf form.

Computer Organization and Architecture Book

Below is the list of computer organization and architecture book recommended by the top university in India.

• C. Hamacher, Z. Vranesic, S. Zaky, “Computer Organization”, Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2011.
• David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, “Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface”, Fifth Edition, Elsevier 2013.
• W. Stallings, “Computer Organization and Architecture”, Tenth Edition, Pearson Education, 2015.

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• Computer Science and Engineering
• NOC:Computer architecture and organization (Video) 
• Co-ordinated by : IIT Kharagpur
• Available from : 2017-06-08
• Intro Video
• Lecture 1 : Evolution of Computer Systems
• Lecture 2 : Basic Operation of a Computer
• Lecture 3 : Memory Addressing and Languages
• Lecture 4 : Software and Architecture Types
• Lecture 5 : Instruction Set Architecture
• Lecture 6 : Number Representation
• Lecture 7 : Instruction Format and Addressing Modes
• Lecture 8 : CISC and RISC Architecture
• Lecture 9 : MIPS32 Instruction Set
• Lecture 10 MIPS Programming Examples
• Lecture 11 : SPIM – A MIPS32 SIMULATOR
• Lecture 12 : MEASURING CPU PERFORMANCE
• Lecture 13 : CHOICE OF BENCHMARKS
• Lecture 14 : SUMMARIZING PERFORMANCE RESULTS
• Lecture 15 : AMADAHL’S LAW (PART 1)
• Lecture 16 : AMADAHL’S LAW (PART 2)
• Lecture 17 : DESIGN OF CONTROL UNIT (PART 1)
• Lecture 18 :DESIGN OF CONTROL UNIT (PART 2)
• Lecture 19 : DESIGN OF CONTROL UNIT (PART 3)
• Lecture 20 : DESIGN OF CONTROL UNIT (PART 4)
• Lecture 21 : MIPS IMPLEMENTATION (PART 1)
• Lecture 22 : MIPS IMPLEMENTATION (PART 2)
• Lecture 23 : PROCESSOR MEMORY INTERACTION
• Lecture 24 : STATIC AND DYNAMIC RAM
• Lecture 25 : ASYNCHRONOUS DRAM
• Lecture 26 : SYNCHRONOUS DRAM
• Lecture 27 :MEMORY INTERFACING AND ADDRESSING
• Lecture 28 : MEMORY HIERARCHY DESIGN (PART 1)
• Lecture 29 : MEMORY HIERARCHY DESIGN (PART 2)
• Lecture 30 : CACHE MEMORY (PART 1)
• Lecture 31 : CACHE MEMORY (PART 2)
• Lecture 32 : IMPROVING CACHE PERFORMANCE
• Lecture 33 : DESIGN OF ADDERS (PART 1)
• Lecture 34 : DESIGN OF ADDERS (PART 2)
• Lecture 35 : DESIGN OF MULTIPLIERS (PART 1)
• Lecture 36 : DESIGN OF MULTIPLIERS (PART 2)
• Lecture 37 : DESIGN OF DIVIDERS
• Lecture 38 : FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS
• Lecture 39 : FLOATING-POINT ARITHMETIC
• Lecture 40 : BASIC PIPELINING CONCEPTS
• Lecture 41 : PIPELINE SCHEDULING
• Lecture 42 : ARITHMETIC PIPELINE
• Lecture 43 : SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
• Lecture 44 : INPUT-OUTPUT ORGANIZATION
• Lecture 45 : DATA TRANSFER TECHNIQUES
• Lecture 46 : INTERRUPT HANDLING (PART 1)
• Lecture 47 : INTERRUPT HANDLING (PART 2)
• Lecture 48 : DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS
• Lecture 49 : SOME EXAMPLE DEVICE INTERFACING
• Lecture 50: EXERCISES ON I/O TRANSFER
• Lecture 51 : BUS STANDARDS
• Lecture 52 : BUS STANDARDS
• Lecture 53: PIPELINING THE MIPS32 DATA PATH
• Lecture 54: MIPS PIPELINE (Contd.)
• Lecture 55: PIPELINE HAZARDS (PART 1)
• Lecture 56: PIPELINE HAZARDS (PART 2)
• Lecture 57: PIPELINE HAZARDS (PART 3)
• Lecture 58: PIPELINE HAZARDS (PART 4)
• Lecture 59 : MULTICYCLE OPERATIONS IN MIPS32
• Lecture 60 : EXPLOITING INSTRUCTION LEVEL PARALLELISM
• Lecture 61 : VECTOR PROCESSORS
• Lecture 62: MULTI-CORE PROCESSORS
• Lecture 63 : SOME CASE STUDIES
• Lecture 64 : SUMMARIZATION OF THE COURSE
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Machine instructions and addressing modes

• Computer Organization | Von Neumann architecture

Computer Organization | Basic Computer Instructions

• Computer Organization | Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)
• Introduction of Stack based CPU Organization
• Introduction of General Register based CPU Organization
• Introduction of Single Accumulator based CPU organization
• Computer Organization | Problem Solving on Instruction Format
• Addressing Modes
• Machine Instructions
• Difference between CALL and JUMP instructions
• Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC)
• Hardware architecture (parallel computing)
• Computer Architecture | Flynn's taxonomy
• Generations of Computer
• Computer Organization | Amdahl's law and its proof

ALU, data‐path and control unit

• Introduction of Control Unit and its Design
• Computer Organization | Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control Unit
• Difference between Hardwired and Micro-programmed Control Unit | Set 2
• Difference between Horizontal and Vertical micro-programmed Control Unit
• Synchronous Data Transfer in Computer Organization

Instruction pipelining

• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 1 (Execution, Stages and Throughput)
• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 2 (Dependencies and Data Hazard)
• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 3 (Types and Stalling)
• Computer Organization | Different Instruction Cycles
• Performance of Computer in Computer Organization
• Computer Organization | Micro-Operation
• RISC and CISC in Computer Organization

Cache Memory

• Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics
• Cache Memory in Computer Organization
• Cache Organization | Set 1 (Introduction)
• Computer Organization | Locality and Cache friendly code
• What's difference between CPU Cache and TLB?
• Read and Write operations in Memory
• Memory Interleaving
• Introduction to memory and memory units
• Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Different Types of RAM (Random Access Memory )
• Difference between RAM and ROM

I/O interface (Interrupt and DMA mode)

• I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)
• Introduction of Input-Output Processor
• Kernel I/O Subsystem in Operating System
• Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/O
• BUS Arbitration in Computer Organization
• Priority Interrupts | (S/W Polling and Daisy Chaining)
• Computer Organization | Asynchronous input output synchronization
• Introduction of Ports in Computers
• Clusters In Computer Organisation
• Human - Computer interaction through the ages
• Microprocessor
• Computer Organization and Architecture

Introduction :

Computer organization refers to the way in which the components of a computer system are organized and interconnected to perform specific tasks. One of the most fundamental aspects of computer organization is the set of basic computer instructions that the system can execute.

Basic computer instructions are the elementary operations that a computer system can perform. These instructions are typically divided into three categories: data movement instructions, arithmetic and logic instructions, and control instructions.

Data movement instructions are used to move data between different parts of the computer system. These instructions include load and store instructions, which move data between memory and the CPU, and input/output (I/O) instructions, which move data between the CPU and external devices.

Arithmetic and logic instructions are used to perform mathematical operations and logical operations on data stored in the system. These instructions include add, subtract, multiply, and divide instructions, as well as logic instructions such as AND, OR, and NOT.

Control instructions are used to control the flow of instructions within the computer system. These instructions include branch instructions, which transfer control to different parts of the program based on specified conditions, and jump instructions, which transfer control to a specified memory location.

The basic computer has 16-bit instruction register (IR) which can denote either memory reference or register reference or input-output instruction.

Essential PC directions are the principal tasks that a PC can perform. These directions are executed by the focal handling unit (central processor) of a PC, and they structure the reason for additional perplexing tasks. A few instances of essential PC directions include:

1.Load: This guidance moves information from the memory to a computer processor register.

2.Store: This guidance moves information from a computer chip register to the memory.

3.Add: This guidance adds two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

4.Subtract: This guidance deducts two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

5.Multiply: This guidance duplicates two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

6.Divide: This guidance isolates two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

7.Branch: This guidance changes the program counter to a predefined address, which is utilized to execute restrictive and genuine leaps.

8.Jump: This guidance changes the program counter to a predefined address.

9.Compare: This guidance looks at two qualities and sets a banner demonstrating the consequence of the examination.

10.Increment: This guidance adds 1 to a worth in a register or memory area.

The set of instructions incorporated in16 bit IR register are:

• Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions (and, add, complement, circulate left, right, etc)
• To move information to and from memory (store the accumulator, load the accumulator)
• Program control instructions with status conditions (branch, skip)
• Input output instructions (input character, output character)

Uses of  Basic Computer Instructions :

Some of the key uses of basic computer instructions include:

• Data manipulation: Basic computer instructions are used to manipulate data stored in the computer system, including moving data between memory and the CPU, performing mathematical operations, and performing logical operations.
• Control flow: Basic computer instructions are used to control the flow of instructions within the computer system. This includes branching to different parts of the program based on specified conditions and jumping to a specific memory location.
• Input/output operations: Basic computer instructions are used to transfer data between the computer system and external devices, such as input devices (e.g. keyboard, mouse) and output devices (e.g. display screen, printer).
• Program execution: Basic computer instructions are used to execute computer programs and run software applications. These instructions are used to load programs into memory, move data into and out of the program, and control the execution of the program.
• System maintenance: Basic computer instructions are used to perform system maintenance tasks, such as memory allocation and deallocation, interrupt handling, and error detection and correction.

Issues of  Basic Computer Instructions :

• Complexity: Basic computer instructions can be complex and difficult to understand, particularly for novice programmers. This can make it challenging to write efficient and effective code.
• Limited functionality: While basic computer instructions are versatile and can perform a wide range of tasks, they are still limited in their functionality. This can make it challenging to perform more complex operations and can require programmers to write additional code to accomplish their goals.
• Compatibility: Basic computer instructions can be specific to a particular computer system or architecture, which can make it challenging to write code that is compatible with different systems. This can require programmers to write separate code for each system, which can be time-consuming and inefficient.
• Security: Basic computer instructions can be vulnerable to security threats, such as buffer overflows and code injection attacks. This can make it challenging to write secure code and can require additional measures to be taken to protect the system.
• Maintenance: Basic computer instructions can be difficult to maintain, particularly as systems become more complex and code becomes more extensive. This can require significant resources to maintain and update the code, which can be challenging for organizations with limited resources.

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Spring 2020

Important course announcements will be posted below and announced in class. You are responsible for all material that appears here and should check this page for updates frequently.

Announcements

Assignment 5 Grades Released Sat. June 13 by Nick Assignment 5 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with feedback for the readmes. The quartiles of scores were as follows (/84): 1st quartile = 67, second quartile = 76, third quartile = 80. We've also updated the Gradebook overall scores with these new points. Congratulations on defusing your bombs and finding vulnerabilities in ATM!

CS107 Recap Page and Q&A Lecture Posted Tues. June 9 by Nick We've posted the video from yesterday's wrap-up and Q&A to the Course Videos page, and the slides to the schedule page. We've also create a new CS107 Recap Page that sums up everything we did this quarter, where you could go next, and ways to explore the CS107 material further if you're interested. We encourage you to check it out! We also hope you can take the time to fill out the end-quarter CS 107 course evaluation. We sincerely appreciate any feedback you have about the course and read every piece of feedback we receive. We are always looking for ways to improve! To fill out the course evaluation, go to Axess, and from there click the "Student" tab and select "Course and Section Evaluations". Thank you in advance for any feedback you have!

Course Policy Updates Thurs. June 4 by Nick We have several course policy updates to announce: - we are extending the late deadline for assign5 to be Wed. 6/10 at 11:59PM PDT - we are making the final project optional - we are giving full credit for lecture 15 quizzes - we are postponing the last lecture to instead be an open Q&A during Mon. 6/8 lecture time - we have posted partial grades for assign5 in gradebook along with further overview scores Please see the discussion forum for the full note from the staff.

Lab 7 Posted Mon. June 1 by Nick We’ve posted the materials for lab7, which is all about exploring optimizations and profiling. There is no prelab for this week, and as announced earlier, attending this lab in person is optional - you will receive lab credit whether or not you attend, though if you do not attend we highly recommend working through the lab on your own. The exercises give you practice with profiling and optimizing code, which will be useful for fine-tuning your heap allocators. Feel free to post on the discussion forum if you have questions while working!

Course Policy Updates Sun. May 31 by Nick We have several course policy updates to anounce: - we are extending the late deadline for assign5 to be Tues. 6/2 at 11:59PM PDT - we are waiving any late penalties for assign5, allowing you to submit through Tues. without penalty - we are extending the on-time deadline for the final project to be Wed. 6/10 at 11:59PM PDT - if needed, we will accept and will not penalize late final project submissions that come in on Thurs. 6/11 if you need the time for any reason. - in order to provide this extra time on the final project while still allowing us to grade your work in a timely manner, if (and only if) you are submitting late (on Thurs.) we ask that you PLEASE SPECIFY AS MUCH IN YOUR README (e.g. "I am submitting on Thurs., this is not my final submission"). This way, the course staff can begin grading final submissions submitted Wed. and grade submissions coming in Thurs. starting later. - lab attendance this week will be optional. In other words, we will give you credit for lab whether or not you attend. We of course highly encourage you to attend if you can, or work through the material if you cannot, as it is useful for learning more about optimizations and for fine-tuning your allocators. Please see the discussion forum for the full note from the staff.

One Extra Free Late Day Fri. May 29 by Nick We are providing 1 additional "free late day" (for a total of 6) for you to use this quarter. This will be applied "retroactively" - in other words, if you took more than 5 late days already, this late day will be automatically applied to when you previously took your "sixth" late day, in place of otherwise being deducted. Otherwise, you can choose to use this on either assign5 or the final project if you'd like. We know everyone has been working incredibly hard on the assignments, and we want to help you finish strong. You can do it!

Final Project Posted Fri. May 29 by Nick The Final Project has been posted on the assignments page. It is mean to act as a capstone for all the topics we've covered this quarter by implementing our very own heap allocator! We hope you have fun with it. It is due Tues. 6/9 at 11:59PM PST. Because it is the end of the quarter, at most one late day may be used on this project. You can find more details on the assignment page. Important note : we have decided to remove the following language from the general information handout regarding the final project: "You must do the final project in order to pass the class.". Instead, we rely solely on the 20% weight of the final project to communicate its importance to the course, and its significance in determining your final course score.

Assignment 4 Grades Released Fri. May 29 by Nick Assignment 4 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with style feedback for the assignments. The quartiles of scores on the functionality portion of the assignment were as follows (/92): 1st quartile = 79, second quartile = 88, third quartile = 92. Awesome job!

(Optional) Midterm Practice Materials Posted Fri. May 22 by Nick We have posted the same midterm practice materials that we typically post each quarter roughly around this time (the midterm is usually at the end of week 6, during assignment 4) to the midterm practice materials page. If you'd like, you are welcome to use these materials for additional review, studying or self-assessment of the material through lab4 and assign4. Note: these materials are for optional additional studying, review or self-assessment only. There is no midterm exam being administered this quarter!

Gradebook Updates Fri. May 22 by Nick You can now visit your Gradebook page to see your overall assignments score through assign3, your total late days used through assign3, your total labs attended through lab6, and your lecture quiz scores through lecture 13. We hope you find this information helpful! As a reminder, more information about our grading weights and procedures can be found in the general information handout, linked further down on this page. If you see anything incorrect, please let us know as soon as possible. Thank you!

Assignment 5 Posted Tue. May 19 by Nick Assignment 5 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant to reinforce the topics of assembly translation and reverse engineering. There are two parts to this assignment. The first part is about an ATM withdrawal program containing some vulnerabilities - you'll need to use your C and assembly skills to find and demonstrate how to exploit these vulnerabilities. The second part is the binary bomb program, where you're given an executable "bomb" program to "deactivate" using your assembly and reverse-engineering skills. These problems are like C/assembly "puzzles" to solve, and we hope you enjoy solving them and exploring this material as much as we enjoyed creating them! The assignment is due Fri. 5/29 at 11:59PM PST. You can find more details on the assignment page.

Assignment 3 Grades Released Mon. May 18 by Nick Assignment 3 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with style feedback for the assignments. The quartiles of scores on the functionality portion of the assignment were as follows (/95): 1st quartile = 83, second quartile = 90, third quartile = 94. Rock on!

Lab 6 + Pre-lab Posted Sun. May 17 by Nick We’ve posted the materials for lab6, which is all about exploring assembly's interactions with the stack. In preparation for labs next week, please make sure to set aside 20-30min beforehand to complete the pre-lab exercises; you can find them on the lab6 page. The exercises will be essential to the further problems you'll work through during your lab session and for the next assignment. Feel free to post on the discussion forum if you have questions while working!

Lab 5 + Pre-lab Posted Sun. May 10 by Nick We’ve posted the materials for lab5, which is all about assembly. In preparation for labs next week, please make sure to set aside 20-30min beforehand to complete the pre-lab exercises; you can find them on the lab5 page. The exercises will be essential to the further problems you'll work through during your lab session. Feel free to post on the discussion forum if you have questions while working!

Assignment 4 Posted Fri. May 8 by Nick Assignment 4 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant to reinforce the topic of generics, void * pointers and function pointers, with exercises ranging from implementing your own version of the ls command to implementing your own version of the sort command. We hope you have fun with it! The assignment is due Mon. 5/18 at 11:59PM PST. You can find more details on the assignment page.

Assignment 2 Grades Released Fri. May 8 by Nick Assignment 2 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with style feedback for the assignments. The quartiles of scores on the functionality portion of the assignment were as follows (/80): 1st quartile = 67, second quartile = 76, third quartile = 80. Nice work!

Mid-Quarter Evaluation Tues. May 5 by Nick For this week's pre-lab, we ask that you take 15-20 minutes to individually fill out the CS107 mid-quarter evaluation (MQE). This evaluation is important in letting the instructor and TAs know what they're doing well and what they can improve. The evaluation is anonymous, and we appreciate any feedback that you have. Submitting the evaluation is required to get lab credit for the week. Please see the lab4 page for more information.

Assignment 3 Posted Thurs. April 30 by Nick Assignment 3 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant to reinforce the topic of pointers, arrays and heap allocation, with exercises ranging from implementing a convenient version of a C file I/O function to implementing your own versions of the Unix "tail" and "uniq" commands. We hope you have fun with it! The assignment is due Fri. 5/8 at 11:59PM PST. You can find more details on the assignment page. Note : Through helper hours and the discussion forum, our focus will be on supporting you so that you can track down your own bugs. Please ask us how to best use tools, what strategies to consider, and advice about how to improve your debugging process or track down your bug, but we want you to take ownership of your own code and drive your own debugging. For this reason, if you have debugging questions during helper hours, you should make sure to gather information and explore the issue on your own first using the debugging checklist discussed in lab and in the assignment spec, and fill out the QueueStatus questions with this information. This is required for any debugging questions in helper hours starting with assign3 so that the course staff can effectively help with debugging questions. If you don't provide enough information, we will ask you to please re-sign up in the queue once you can provide more information so that we can better help you. We are looking for information like - what have you observed from running GDB? Have you found a simple, reproducible test case? Etc. If you are eager to sign up for Helper Hours as soon as they open, we recommend preparing responses ahead of time to the questions: "What question do you have? Please provide as much information as possible." and "What steps have you already taken to try and answer your question? (e.g. running gdb/valgrind, reading Resources page, etc.). This information is required for help with debugging questions."

Assignment 1 Grades Released Wed. April 29 by Nick Assignment 1 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with style feedback for the assignments. The quartiles of scores on the functionality portion of the assignment were as follows (/80): 1st quartile = 68, second quartile = 76, third quartile = 80. Awesome job!

Lab 3 + Pre-lab Posted Sat. April 25 by Nick We’ve just posted the materials for lab3, which is all about pointers, arrays and the heap. In preparation for labs next week, please make sure to set aside 20-30min beforehand to complete the pre-lab exercises; you can find them on the lab3 page. The exercises will be essential to the further problems you'll work through during your lab session. Feel free to post on the discussion forum if you have questions while working! Going forward, we plan to post each week's lab, including pre-lab exercises, the Saturday before the lab.

Lecture Quizzes Now Always Viewable Thurs. April 23 by Nick We've gotten some feedback and we've changed the Canvas settings so that quizzes are always viewable, even if you missed doing a quiz and its deadline has passed. The deadlines remain the same, and late submissions will not receive credit. We hope this is helpful! We also greatly appreciate those who have reached out with any feedback they have about the class by sending us an email, filling out our optional homework surveys (linked at the bottom of each homework spec), or filling out our anonymous feedback form (further down on this page). We read every piece of feedback we receive and are constantly working to make the class better. Thank you!

Assignment 2 Posted Wed. April 22 by Nick Assignment 2 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant to reinforce the topic of C Strings, with exercises ranging from implementing tools to display environment variables to implementing your own version of the Unix "which" command. We hope you have fun with it! The assignment is due Wed. 4/29 at 11:59PM PST. You can find more details on the assignment page.

Assignment 0 Grades Released Wed. April 22 by Nick Assignment 0 grades have been posted to the Gradebook page, along with style feedback for the assignments. The quartiles of scores on the functionality portion of the assignment were as follows (/25): 1st quartile = 24, second quartile = 25, third quartile = 25. Way to go!

Lab 2 + Pre-lab Posted Sun. April 19 by Nick We’ve just posted the materials for lab2, which is all about strings. In preparation for labs next week, please make sure to set aside 20-30min beforehand to complete the pre-lab exercises; you can find them on the lab2 page. The exercises will be essential to the further problems you'll work through during your lab session. Feel free to post on the discussion forum if you have questions while working! Going forward, we plan to post each week's lab, including pre-lab exercises, the Saturday before the lab.

Assignment 1 Posted Mon. April 13 by Nick Assignment 1 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant to reinforce the topics of bits, bitwise operators and integer representations, with exercises ranging from implementing the core "saturated arithmetic" algorithm to a bit-level cell simulation to a modern-day character encoding. We hope you have fun with it! The assignment is due Wed. 4/22 at 11:59PM PST. You can find more details on the assignment page. Here are a few resources that might be helpful while you get started: this is the first assignment where our late day policy applies. You can read more about the late day policy, including new additions about the policy after all free late days are exhausted (applying a cap of 80% or 60%), in the General Information handout . Additionally, we want to include a reminder about the course style guide ; it contains an in-depth reference about how to ensure your programs have great style. Lastly, beginning with assign1, we will be creating and updating a "discussion forum table-of-contents" post for each assignment that will be pinned at the top, and will be updated periodically with links to helpful posts from others related to that assignment. We hope this helps surface helpful posts in the discussion forum!

Lab Assignments Posted Mon. April 13 by Nick We have posted lab assignments on the labs page of the course website. You can view your assignment here . We did our best to assign everyone to one of their top choices; your enrolled lab will be bolded on this page. On this form, if you'd like, you can also join a different lab with space available. Unfortunately, if a lab is full, we are not able to accommodate additional students at this time, but check back later, as enrollments may shift over time. Labs start tomorrow - note that for this week, because labs were just assigned, there is no pre-lab exercise to complete before lab. Going forward, labs will be published each Saturday, including the pre-lab exercise (a short activity that should take 20-30min) to complete before lab. You can find more information about labs and lab policies on the labs page . Zoom links to join labs will be on Canvas under the Zoom tab. We'll see you in lab this week!

Lab Preferences Signups Extended Sat. April 11 by Nick We've extended the deadline for submitting preferences to 11:59PM PST Sat. April 11 - please make sure to submit your preferences by then if you haven't already.

Lecture 3 Advance Materials Posted Sat. April 11 by Nick We've posted the set of pre-recorded lecture videos and quizzes for lecture 3 this Monday on Canvas (under "Course Videos" and "Assignments" - note that we have moved quizzes to the Assignments tab, which lets you organize quizzes by Lecture, useful as more quizzes are added). The associated slides can be found on the schedule page . The quizzes will be open through next Saturday. While working through the materials, we highly encourage you to post questions on the discussion forum or stop by helper hours! The more questions you ask, the more information we have for how to make the live sessions more useful for you. Note that starting with the next (not this) set of lecture videos (for Friday), we have decided to modify the quizzes to streamline the amount of work where possible, and instead make them due by that lecture . In other words, Friday's videos will be released this coming Tuesday, and you will have until the start of Friday's live session to watch the videos and complete the quizzes. This change will help us make the live sessions more useful for you.

Free Online CTL Tutoring Fri. April 10 by Nick We've been asked to post the following message from the Center for Teaching and Learning: "Want to meet with an experienced peer to discuss course concepts, think through a problem set, or prepare for an upcoming exam? CTL offers appointment tutoring for CS 107, in addition to tutoring for a number of other courses. For more information and to schedule an appointment, visit our tutoring appointments and drop-in schedule page . We also have a variety of remote learning resources and academic coaching available to assist with all of your learning needs!"

Lecture 2 Advance Materials Posted Wed. April 8 by Nick We've posted the set of pre-recorded lecture videos for lecture 2 this Friday on Canvas (under "Course Videos"). The associated slides can be found on the schedule page . There are 6 videos, each with a short, low-stakes associated check-in quiz under the "Quizzes" tab on Canvas. The quizzes will be open through next Tuesday. Going forward, we'll aim to have Friday pre-recorded materials posted by end-of-day the Tuesday before, and Monday pre-recorded materials posted by end-of-day the Thursday before. The live lectures will now be about 30min and focus on concept review and additional practice. While working through the materials, we highly encourage you to post questions on the discussion forum or stop by helper hours! The more questions you ask, the more information we have for how to make the live sessions more useful for you. Please let us know if you have any feedback on this process!

Lab Signups Open Tues. 5PM Tues. April 7 by Nick Update: we've added 2 more Thurs. labs at 3:30PM PST (a second one) and 8PM PST. Lab preferences submissions open at 5PM PST today. From then until Saturday at 5PM PST, please submit your lab preferences for which lab you would prefer to attend this quarter. Note that preferences are not first-come first-serve; you may fill out your preferences anytime between those dates, and you may come back to update your preferences later as well. Beginning at 5PM, you can access the lab signup page via the link on the labs page here .

Helper Hours Schedule Posted Tues. April 7 by Nick We have posted our helper hours schedule for the quarter on the Getting Help webpage. The schedule may fluctuate slightly as we finalize times, so please check the calendar on that page for the latest updates. Please feel free to join in!

Assignment 0 Posted Mon. April 6 by Nick Assignment 0 has been posted on the assignments page. It is meant as an introduction to Unix and C, with exercises ranging from uncovering who got unauthorized access to a filesystem to modifying a provided C program to accept command-line arguments. We hope you have fun! The assignment is due Mon. 4/13 at 11:59PM PST, and there are no late submissions accepted for this assignment (late days or otherwise) , so please make sure to submit by the deadline.

Welcome! Fri. April 3 by Nick Welcome to CS107! Class starts remotely on Monday, April 6 th . We are looking forward to meeting you and starting off a great quarter together! We'll have more details to come about the format of CS107's remote spring offering. In the meantime, please feel free to check out the FAQ . It covers questions about recorded lectures, conflicting classes, CS107E, CS107A, and more. We hope you find it helpful!

Course Description

CS107 is the third course in Stanford's introductory programming sequence. The CS106 courses provide you with a solid foundation in programming methodology and abstractions, and CS107 follows on this to build up and expand your breadth and depth of programming experience and techniques. The course will work from the C programming language down to the microprocessor to de-mystify the machine. With a complete understanding of how computer systems execute programs and manipulate data, you will become a more effective programmer, especially in dealing with issues of debugging, performance, portability, and robustness. Topics covered include: the C programming language, data representation, machine-level code, computer arithmetic, elements of code compilation, optimization of memory and runtime performance, and memory organization and management.

The class has two lectures a week and a weekly lab designed for hands-on learning and experimentation. There will be significant programming assignments and you can expect to work hard and be challenged by this course. Your effort can really pay off - once you master the machine and advance your programming skills to the next level, you will have powerful mojo to bring to any future project!

Course Logistics

Lectures: Mon & Fri 12:30PM-1:50PM via Zoom; Note that this is shorter than what Axess says .

Labs: Tue/Wed/Thu at various times via Zoom; students sign up for labs after the quarter begins.

Course Policies

• Handout 1 - General Information contains a summary of the course logistics and policies
• Honor Code and Collaboration details how the Honor Code applies in this course, including specific examples of acceptable and unacceptable collaboration
• The FAQ contains answers to course questions and information about CS107E and CS107A.
• How are we doing? Submit anonymous feedback here .

Course Staff

Visit the Getting Help page for information about how to contact the course staff.

Nick Troccoli

Aleksander Dash

Andrew Benson

Brynne Hurst

Charles Rajan

Jennifer Tao

Krishna Patel

Lucas Soffer

Monica Anuforo

Nolan Handali

Sasha Harrison

Soham Gadgil

Stefan Hadjis

Zack Cinquini

Jennie Yang

Browse Course Material

Course info, instructors.

• Dr. Joel Emer
• Prof. Krste Asanovic
• Prof. Arvind

Departments

• Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

As Taught In

• Computer Design and Engineering
• Theory of Computation

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Computer system architecture, assignments.

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Millions could lose internet access if this federal program expires

Four years ago, Claudia Aleman and her family had only one way to get online — through their cellphones. Without internet service on a computer, her youngest daughter couldn’t get homework assignments in on time, her parents couldn’t keep up with online doctor visits, and the English classes she wanted to sign up for were out of reach.

Then came a game-changer: The federal government started offering a subsidy that covered $30 of the family’s $80 monthly internet bill.

But while opening mail at her home in South Gate, California, two months ago, Aleman came across a letter from the Federal Communications Commission announcing that the Affordable Connectivity Program they had come to rely on would end in May unless Congress approved more funding.

“My husband is the only one who works, and everything is so expensive right now,” Aleman said. “Sometimes we don’t have $30 to spare.”

“The program made a significant difference in our lives,” she added. “Without it, life is going to be difficult, and I’m sure I’m not the only one who feels this way.”

The program, which was created after the pandemic forced many Americans to turn to the internet to connect with work and school, has 23 million enrollees nationwide — 1 in 6 U.S. households — including nearly 3 million in California.

Since 2021, it has provided a $30 monthly subsidy for low-income households and $75 for those on tribal lands. But the $14.2 billion funded through the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act has run out.

April was the last month of full program benefits, but households could receive a partial discount in May.

In a letter to Congress this month, FCC Chairwoman Jessica Rosenworcel warned that not funding the program would have widespread impact, especially for senior citizens, veterans, schoolchildren and residents of rural and tribal communities.

“Households across the country are now facing hard choices about what expenses they have to cut, including food and gas, to maintain their broadband access, with some households doubtful they can afford to keep their broadband service at all,” she wrote.

Internet service providers have their own programs for low-income households. People can enter their address on the FCC’s broadband map to find providers in their area. The California Public Utilities Commission also provides a list of providers with low-cost internet plans.

But finding a cheaper alternative can be difficult. Rural households sometimes have just one provider, and families who can’t afford it have little recourse.

Rep. Salud Carbajal, D-California, is among 228 bipartisan co-sponsors of the Affordable Connectivity Program Extension Act of 2024, which would provide an additional $7 billion to keep the program afloat for another year. Among the co-sponsors are 22 Republicans, including Rep. Young Kim of California.

“You’ve got to have your head in the sand to not understand the value of what this is doing to enhance our economy, enhance the skills and opportunities for so many Americans,” Carbajal said. Allowing the program to expire, he said, “will undo the progress we’ve made in closing the digital divide. It would take us back to the dark ages.”

But the bill hasn’t been brought for a standalone floor vote in the GOP-led House amid criticism from some Republicans who say the program subsidizes households that already had internet service. They also pointed to findings from the FCC’s internal watchdog last year that providers failed to comply with the program’s rules and improperly claimed funds.

In a statement last year, Sens. John Thune, R-South Dakota, and Ted Cruz, R-Texas, said the program was “subject to massive waste, fraud, and abuse of taxpayer dollars.”

In an FCC survey of 5,300 households conducted in December, more than two-thirds of respondents said they had inconsistent or no internet before joining the federal program, the majority citing affordability. About one-third of respondents said they had both mobile and home internet service.

In October, the Biden administration sent Congress a supplemental request for $6 billion to keep the program running, but it didn’t pass.

Letting the program lapse, even if it could be restarted later, would require additional spending on outreach and re-enrollment, Carbajal said. He also worries that people who benefit from it will feel a sense of whiplash and lose trust in the federal government.

California recently dedicated $70 million in federal funding toward affordable internet service, devices and training. Carbajal said he’s glad to see his state acting, but it’s not enough.

“We can’t look at it from a parochial standpoint,” he said. “I’m not just looking out for the Central Coast and my state — I’m looking out for the entire nation.”

Still, Carbajal said he’s optimistic something will take hold before May 1. Similar circumstances have played out favorably at the last minute, he said.

In Los Angeles, the federal program has played an important role in the county’s effort to close the digital divide, which was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Through local promotion, enrollment in Los Angeles grew to nearly 1 million households.

County officials partnered with the nonprofit EveryoneOn to get the word out. Chief Executive Norma Fernandez worries families will be confused when they see their internet bill go up and won’t understand why the program ended.

“We tried so hard and provided tons of hands-on support to get people connected and then we’re going to pull it away from them,” she said. “It’s going to cause hopelessness.”

For Aleman’s family, the pandemic changed everything. When schools first shut down, they relied on a Los Angeles County Unified School District program that offered free internet to eligible students.

But the service was unreliable — access would frequently drop or freeze up. So Aleman started leaving her daughter Miranda, now 11, with her sister and neighbors who had reliable internet access so that she could attend online classes and do her homework.

“I think my daughter lost an entire school year,” she said.

Their need for internet access at home hasn’t changed since schools reopened. Most of Miranda’s assignments are still online.

Life improved almost immediately after they enrolled in the federal subsidy program in 2022 and got internet access through AT&T. Miranda started turning in assignments on time. Aleman’s older daughters, 17 and 21, could do their schoolwork at home instead of at the library or relatives’ homes.

It also made a difference for her parents. Her father, who is diabetic, takes nutrition courses online, and her mother, who is asthmatic, needs regular video checkups with her doctor. And Aleman could finally stay in regular contact with family in Mexico.

Since learning that the program would end, Aleman said she has been applying for jobs to help her husband cover bills. In May, her husband will pay the internet bill, possibly with credit cards.

Beyond that, she said, “there’s always the library.”

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