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How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on February 28, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 18, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a thesis ,  dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the US during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book or research proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, right before the proofreading stage, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your dissertation topic , but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialized terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyze,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Next, summarize the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalizability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarize the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or use the paraphrasing tool .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 200–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page in the thesis or dissertation , after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

Interested in learning more about dedicated research solutions? Go to the SciSpace product page to find out how our suite of products can help you simplify your research workflows so you can focus on advancing science.

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How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

• Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
• What are the style and formatting requirements?
• What is the appropriate abstract type?
• Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

• Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
• Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
• Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

• Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
• Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
• Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

• What made you decide to do this study or project?
• Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
• Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

• What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
• What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
• What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

• Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
• Briefly present evidence to support your claim
• Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

• What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
• How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
• Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

• What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
• What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
• What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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How to Write an Abstract APA Format

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report.

It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences. 

An APA abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of between 150–250 words, the major aspects of a research paper or dissertation in a prescribed sequence that includes:

• The rationale: the overall purpose of the study, providing a clear context for the research undertaken.
• Information regarding the method and participants: including materials/instruments, design, procedure, and data analysis.
• Main findings or trends: effectively highlighting the key outcomes of the hypotheses.
• Interpretations and conclusion(s): solidify the implications of the research.
• Keywords related to the study: assist the paper’s discoverability in academic databases.

The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article.

The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article. The abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper.

Although the abstract will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s good practice to write your abstract after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

Note : This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), released in October 2019.

Structure of the Abstract

[NOTE: DO NOT separate the components of the abstract – it should be written as a single paragraph. This section is separated to illustrate the abstract’s structure.]

1) The Rationale

One or two sentences describing the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated. You are basically justifying why this study was conducted.

• What is the importance of the research?
• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• For example, are you filling a gap in previous research or applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data?
• Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer can experience an array of psychosocial difficulties; however, social support, particularly from a spouse, has been shown to have a protective function during this time. This study examined the ways in which a woman’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue, and her spouse’s marital satisfaction predict the woman’s report of partner support in the context of breast cancer.
• The current nursing shortage, high hospital nurse job dissatisfaction, and reports of uneven quality of hospital care are not uniquely American phenomena.
• Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties than their typically developing peers. The aim of this study was to identify specific risk factors that influence variability in behavior difficulties among individuals with SEND.

2) The Method

Information regarding the participants (number, and population). One or two sentences outlining the method, explaining what was done and how. The method is described in the present tense.

• Pretest data from a larger intervention study and multilevel modeling were used to examine the effects of women’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue and average levels of mood, pain, and fatigue on women’s report of social support received from her partner, as well as how the effects of mood interacted with partners’ marital satisfaction.
• This paper presents reports from 43,000 nurses from more than 700 hospitals in the United States, Canada, England, Scotland, and Germany in 1998–1999.
• The study sample comprised 4,228 students with SEND, aged 5–15, drawn from 305 primary and secondary schools across England. Explanatory variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher-reported measure of behavior difficulties (assessed at baseline and the 18-month follow-up).

3) The Results

One or two sentences indicating the main findings or trends found as a result of your analysis. The results are described in the present or past tense.

• Results show that on days in which women reported higher levels of negative or positive mood, as well as on days they reported more pain and fatigue, they reported receiving more support. Women who, on average, reported higher levels of positive mood tended to report receiving more support than those who, on average, reported lower positive mood. However, average levels of negative mood were not associated with support. Higher average levels of fatigue but not pain were associated with higher support. Finally, women whose husbands reported higher levels of marital satisfaction reported receiving more partner support, but husbands’ marital satisfaction did not moderate the effect of women’s mood on support.
• Nurses in countries with distinctly different healthcare systems report similar shortcomings in their work environments and the quality of hospital care. While the competence of and relation between nurses and physicians appear satisfactory, core problems in work design and workforce management threaten the provision of care.
• Hierarchical linear modeling of data revealed that differences between schools accounted for between 13% (secondary) and 15.4% (primary) of the total variance in the development of students’ behavior difficulties, with the remainder attributable to individual differences. Statistically significant risk markers for these problems across both phases of education were being male, eligibility for free school meals, being identified as a bully, and lower academic achievement. Additional risk markers specific to each phase of education at the individual and school levels are also acknowledged.

4) The Conclusion / Implications

A brief summary of your conclusions and implications of the results, described in the present tense. Explain the results and why the study is important to the reader.

• For example, what changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

Implications of these findings are discussed relative to assisting couples during this difficult time in their lives.

• Resolving these issues, which are amenable to managerial intervention, is essential to preserving patient safety and care of consistently high quality.
• Behavior difficulties are affected by risks across multiple ecological levels. Addressing any one of these potential influences is therefore likely to contribute to the reduction in the problems displayed.

The above examples of abstracts are from the following papers:

Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J. A., Busse, R., Clarke, H., … & Shamian, J. (2001). Nurses’ reports on hospital care in five countries . Health affairs, 20(3) , 43-53.

Boeding, S. E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Baucom, D. H., Porter, L. S., Kirby, J. S., Gremore, T. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Couples and breast cancer: Women’s mood and partners’ marital satisfaction predicting support perception . Journal of Family Psychology, 28(5) , 675.

Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2017). Risk factors in the development of behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities: A multilevel analysis . British journal of educational psychology, 87(2) , 146-169.

5) Keywords

APA style suggests including a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. This is particularly common in academic articles and helps other researchers find your work in databases.

Keywords in an abstract should be selected to help other researchers find your work when searching an online database. These keywords should effectively represent the main topics of your study. Here are some tips for choosing keywords:

Core Concepts: Identify the most important ideas or concepts in your paper. These often include your main research topic, the methods you’ve used, or the theories you’re discussing.

Specificity: Your keywords should be specific to your research. For example, suppose your paper is about the effects of climate change on bird migration patterns in a specific region. In that case, your keywords might include “climate change,” “bird migration,” and the region’s name.

Consistency with Paper: Make sure your keywords are consistent with the terms you’ve used in your paper. For example, if you use the term “adolescent” rather than “teen” in your paper, choose “adolescent” as your keyword, not “teen.”

Jargon and Acronyms: Avoid using too much-specialized jargon or acronyms in your keywords, as these might not be understood or used by all researchers in your field.

Synonyms: Consider including synonyms of your keywords to capture as many relevant searches as possible. For example, if your paper discusses “post-traumatic stress disorder,” you might include “PTSD” as a keyword.

Remember, keywords are a tool for others to find your work, so think about what terms other researchers might use when searching for papers on your topic.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

Lengthy background or contextual information: The abstract should focus on your research and findings, not general topic background.

Undefined jargon, abbreviations,  or acronyms: The abstract should be accessible to a wide audience, so avoid highly specialized terms without defining them.

Citations: Abstracts typically do not include citations, as they summarize original research.

Incomplete sentences or bulleted lists: The abstract should be a single, coherent paragraph written in complete sentences.

New information not covered in the paper: The abstract should only summarize the paper’s content.

Subjective comments or value judgments: Stick to objective descriptions of your research.

Excessive details on methods or procedures: Keep descriptions of methods brief and focused on main steps.

Speculative or inconclusive statements: The abstract should state the research’s clear findings, not hypotheses or possible interpretations.

• Any illustration, figure, table, or references to them . All visual aids, data, or extensive details should be included in the main body of your paper, not in the abstract. 
• Elliptical or incomplete sentences should be avoided in an abstract . The use of ellipses (…), which could indicate incomplete thoughts or omitted text, is not appropriate in an abstract.

APA Style for Abstracts

An APA abstract must be formatted as follows:

Include the running head aligned to the left at the top of the page (professional papers only) and page number. Note, student papers do not require a running head. On the first line, center the heading “Abstract” and bold (do not underlined or italicize). Do not indent the single abstract paragraph (which begins one line below the section title). Double-space the text. Use Times New Roman font in 12 pt. Set one-inch (or 2.54 cm) margins. If you include a “keywords” section at the end of the abstract, indent the first line and italicize the word “Keywords” while leaving the keywords themselves without any formatting.

Example APA Abstract Page

Download this example as a PDF

Further Information

• APA 7th Edition Abstract and Keywords Guide
• Example APA Abstract
• How to Write a Good Abstract for a Scientific Paper or Conference Presentation
• How to Write a Lab Report
• Writing an APA paper

How long should an APA abstract be?

An APA abstract should typically be between 150 to 250 words long. However, the exact length may vary depending on specific publication or assignment guidelines. It is crucial that it succinctly summarizes the essential elements of the work, including purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Where does the abstract go in an APA paper?

In an APA formatted paper, the abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper. It’s typically the second page of the document. It starts with the word “Abstract” (centered and not in bold) at the top of the page, followed by the text of the abstract itself.

What are the 4 C’s of abstract writing?

The 4 C’s of abstract writing are an approach to help you create a well-structured and informative abstract. They are:

Conciseness: An abstract should briefly summarize the key points of your study. Stick to the word limit (typically between 150-250 words for an APA abstract) and avoid unnecessary details.

Clarity: Your abstract should be easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complex sentences. Clearly explain the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of your study.

Completeness: Even though it’s brief, the abstract should provide a complete overview of your study, including the purpose, methods, key findings, and your interpretation of the results.

Cohesion: The abstract should flow logically from one point to the next, maintaining a coherent narrative about your study. It’s not just a list of disjointed elements; it’s a brief story of your research from start to finish.

What is the abstract of a psychology paper?

An abstract in a psychology paper serves as a snapshot of the paper, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology, results, and implications of the research without reading the entire paper. It is generally between 150-250 words long.

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Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message
• Any additional findings of importance
• Implications for future studies 

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

(Adapted from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/ )

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper

Writing Informative Abstracts

Informative abstracts state in one paragraph the essence of a whole paper about a study or a research project. That one paragraph must mention all the main points or parts of the paper: a description of the study or project, its methods, the results, and the conclusions. Here is an example of the abstract accompanying a seven-page essay that appeared in 2002 in  The Journal of Clinical Psychology :

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The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined. Undergraduate students (N = 200) completed the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. A multiple analysis of covariance indicated that individuals with high boredom-proneness total scores reported significantly higher ratings on all five sub-scales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Obsessive–Compulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression). The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider when assessing symptom reporting. Implications for determining the effects of boredom proneness on psychological- and physical-health symptoms, as well as the application in clinical settings, are discussed. —Jennifer Sommers and Stephen J. Vodanovich, (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); “Boredom Proneness”

The first sentence states the nature of the study being reported. The next summarizes the method used to investigate the problem, and the following one gives the results: students who, according to specific tests, are more likely to be bored are also more likely to have certain medical or psychological symptoms. The last two sentences indicate that the paper discusses those results and examines the conclusion and its implications.

Writing Descriptive Abstracts

Descriptive abstracts are usually much briefer than informative abstracts and provide much less information. Rather than summarizing the entire paper, a descriptive abstract functions more as a teaser, providing a quick overview that invites the reader to read the whole. Descriptive abstracts usually do not give or discuss results or set out the conclusion or its implications. A descriptive abstract of the boredom-proneness essay might simply include the first sentence from the informative abstract plus a final sentence of its own:

The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined. The findings and their application in clinical settings are discussed.

Writing Proposal Abstracts

Proposal abstracts contain the same basic information as informative abstracts, but their purpose is very different. You prepare proposal abstracts to persuade someone to let you write on a topic, pursue a project, conduct an experiment, or present a paper at a scholarly conference. This kind of abstract is not written to introduce a longer piece but rather to stand alone, and often the abstract is written before the paper itself. Titles and other aspects of the proposal deliberately reflect the theme of the proposed work, and you may use the future tense, rather than the past, to describe work not yet completed. Here is a possible proposal for doing research on boredom:

Undergraduate students will complete the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. A multiple analysis of covariance will be performed to determine the relationship between boredom-proneness total scores and ratings on the five sub-scales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Obsessive–Compulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression).

Key Features of a Research Paper Abstract

• A summary of basic information . An informative abstract includes enough information to substitute for the report itself, a descriptive abstract offers only enough information to let the audience decide whether to read further, and a proposal abstract gives an overview of the planned work.
• Objective description . Abstracts present information on the contents of a report or a proposed study; they do not present arguments about or personal perspectives on those contents. The informative abstract on boredom proneness, for example, offers only a tentative conclusion: “The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider.”
• Brevity . Although the length of abstracts may vary, journals and organizations often restrict them to 120–200 words—meaning you must carefully select and edit your words.

A Brief Guide to Writing Abstracts

Consider the rhetorical situation.

• Purpose : Are you giving a brief but thorough overview of a completed study? Only enough information to create interest? Or a proposal for a planned study or presentation?
• Audience : For whom are you writing this abstract? What information about your project will your readers need?
• Stance : Whatever your stance in the longer work, your abstract must be objective.
• Media/Design : How will you set your abstract off from the rest of the text? If you are publishing it online, will you devote a single page to it? What format does your audience require?

Generating Ideas and Text

Write the paper first, the abstract last. You can then use the finished work as the guide for the abstract, which should follow the same basic structure. Exception: You may need to write a proposal abstract months before the work it describes will be complete.

Copy and paste key statements. If you’ve already written the work, highlight your thesis, objective, or purpose; basic information on your methods; your results; and your conclusion. Copy and paste those sentences into a new document to create a rough version of your abstract.

Pare down the information to key ideas. Summarize the report, editing out any nonessential words and details. In your first sentence, introduce the overall scope of your study. Also include any other information that seems crucial to understanding your paper. Avoid phrases that add unnecessary words, such as “It is concluded that.” In general, you probably won’t want to use “I”; an abstract should cover ideas, not say what you think or will do.

Conform to any requirements. In general, an informative abstract should be at most 10 percent as long as the original and no longer than the maximum length allowed. Descriptive abstracts should be shorter still, and proposal abstracts should conform to the requirements of the organization calling for the proposal.

By now your writing is almost complete; you’ve come a long way, but you’re not finished yet! Now it’s time to revise the research paper.

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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Research Paper Writing Guides

Research Paper Abstract

Last updated on: Mar 27, 2024

Learn How To Write An Abstract For A Research Paper with Examples and Tips

By: Donna C.

13 min read

Reviewed By: Caleb S.

Published on: Jan 3, 2024

Ever had trouble making a short and interesting summary of your important research? You're not the only one!

Making a good summary, called an abstract, is tricky for many researchers.

Think of your abstract as the spotlight on your research paper—it's super important. It helps grab the interest of people reading your work and other researchers. 

If your abstract isn't engaging, your hard work might get lost in the sea of research papers .

But don’t worry!

In this guide, we'll take you through the step-by-step process of creating an outstanding abstract. We will show you some examples of engaging abstracts and give you helpful tips. 

Let’s start writing!

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What is an Abstract in a Paper?

An abstract is like a sneak peek at your research paper. It's a short summary that gives people a quick idea about what your research is all about. 

Common guidelines often suggest a range of 150 to 250 words (6-7 sentences) for shorter papers and up to 300 words (14-15 sentences) for longer, more comprehensive papers.

Instead of reading the whole paper, someone can check out the abstract to see if your work is what they're looking for. 

An abstract should be written with the intent of helping others decide if they want to study your research.

Importance of Abstract in Research

Abstract in research plays a crucial role for several reasons:

• First Impression Matters: The abstract is often the first thing people read. It's like the introduction to your research, setting the tone for what's to come.
• Searchability: Abstracts make your work more discoverable. When stored in databases, they become key elements for search engines, making your research easier to find.
• Decision-Making Aid: Editors, reviewers, and conference organizers use abstracts to make decisions about publishing or presenting your work. A well-crafted abstract can positively influence these decisions.

Contents of an Abstract

Writing a good abstract includes combining all essential elements of research to present a comprehensive overview of the study, including:

• Context: Introduce your research topic , providing a brief background to set the scene.
• Central Questions: Clearly state the main questions or the problem your research addresses.
• Previous Research: Summarize existing knowledge related to your research question.
• Rationale and Goals: Explain the reasons, goals, and importance of your study.
• Methods: Provide a concise overview of your research and analytical methods.
• Findings: Briefly summarize the main results, findings, or arguments of your study.
• Implications: Discuss the broader significance or implications of your research.

When To Write An Abstract

It is best practice to write your abstract after writing your research paper.

Normally, the abstract is the first thing in your paper. It's not just about introducing your topic (that's what the title does), but it summarizes your whole paper in a short way. 

If you write the abstract last, it makes sure it completely matches what you researched and wrote in your paper. This approach allows for a more accurate reflection of the research's core elements.

How To Write An Abstract For A Research Paper

A good abstract doesn't just quickly summarize your research; it also entices readers to explore your work further. 

Now, let's go through the steps of writing a simple and clear abstract for a research paper.

Step 1: Clarify Purpose and Scope

Before you start writing your abstract, take some time to really understand what your research is all about. 

Here's how:

1. Identify Your Goal

• Think about why you did this research.
• What were you trying to find out or prove? 

2. Know Your Scope

• Figure out how big or small your study is. 
• What did you focus on, and what did you leave out? 

3. Define Key Components

• Break down your research into parts. 
• What's the main question you're answering? 
• What sections of your paper are the most important? 

Step 2: Study Existing Abstracts

Now that you know what your research is about, it's time to see how other researchers have written about similar topics.

Look for research papers similar to yours. Read their abstracts carefully. This will give you an idea of how others structure their summaries and the language they use.

Pay attention to how these abstracts are organized. Notice if they start with the research question, describe methods, or jump straight to findings. Understanding this structure will help you plan your own abstract.

Step 3: Identify Key Sections

The next step in abstract writing is to break down your own research paper into key sections. 

First of all, divide your paper. Common sections include Introduction , Methods , Results , and Conclusion . Identify what each section talks about.

Then, pick out the most crucial information from each section. What details are essential for someone to understand your research?

These will be the key components of your abstract.

The last step is to focus on the main points in each section:

• What is the main question or problem in the Introduction? 
• What methods did you use? 
• What are the key findings? 

This step helps you know what to include in your abstract.

Step 4: Craft a Concise Introduction

In writing a concise and engaging introduction for your abstract, start by providing a brief background or context about your research. Imagine explaining your study to someone unfamiliar with the topic, offering a quick summary of what it's all about. 

Following this, clearly state the main question or research problem statement , maintaining clarity. 

Finally, highlight the importance of your research by emphasizing its significance. Explain why your research question is important and show how it matters. 

This introduction paragraph of your abstract sets the tone, giving a snapshot of what your research is about and making people want to learn more.

Step 5: Describe Research Methods

Now, dive into explaining the methods you used in your research - how you did it. 

• Provide a Brief Overview:

Offer a short explanation of how you conducted your study. What methods did you use to gather information? Keep it simple but informative.

• Include Study Design:

Mention the design of your study. Was it an experiment, survey, or observation? This helps readers understand the structure of your research.

• Highlight Key Components:

Identify the essential components of your methods. Mention details like participant demographics, materials used, or any unique approaches you took.

Step 6: Summarize Key Findings

In this step, Provide a brief summary of the key outcomes of your study. Focus on the most critical results that directly relate to your research question. 

• What did you discover or find in the course of your research?
• How do the results compare to existing theories or previous research?
• What do the results imply? 
• Why are they important in the context of your research?
• Did your research raise any new questions that need further exploration?

Step 7: Address Implications or Conclusions

In this last step of writing an abstract, summarize the broader implications of your findings. Discuss why your findings matter and explore any practical applications of your research.

Make sure to address the following questions:

• How do your results impact the larger context of your research area?
• What contributions do they make to the field, and why should people care about your research?
• How could your findings be applied in real-world situations?

By following these steps, you can effectively create a detailed and well-structured abstract for your research paper.

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Abstract Checklist

Ensure your research paper abstract is comprehensive and impactful with this checklist:

Writing An Abstract For A Research Paper - Examples

Crafting an effective abstract is an art that requires a balance of clarity and conciseness.

In this section, we'll walk through examples to illustrate how to write an abstract for a research paper successfully. 

Social Sciences Abstract:

Support Of Workplace Diversity Policies: The Role Of Race, Gender, And Beliefs About Inequality

William J. Scarborough, Danny Lambouths, Allyson L. Holbrook, Support of workplace diversity policies: The role of race, gender, and beliefs about inequality, Social Science Research, Volume 79, 2019, Pages 194-210, ISSN 0049-089X.

Humanities Abstract:

The Effects Of War On Ukrainian Research

de Rassenfosse, G., Murovana, T. & Uhlbach, WH. The effects of war on Ukrainian research. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10, 856 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02346-x

Sciences Abstract:

Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (NMN) As An Anti-Aging Health Product – Promises And Safety Concerns

Harshani Nadeeshani, Jinyao Li, Tianlei Ying, Baohong Zhang, Jun Lu, Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) as an anti-aging health product – Promises and safety concerns, Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 37, 2022, Pages 267-278, ISSN 2090-1232.

Here are some more abstract writing examples for your better understanding: 

Abstract For A Research Paper Pdf

Abstract For A Research Paper Proposal

Abstract For A Research Paper Sample Pdf

Abstract For A Research Paper APA Format

Abstract For A Research Paper Example Pdf

Abstract For A Research Paper MLA

Effective Abstract For A Research Paper Pdf

IMRaD Abstract Example

Tips for Making Your Abstract Stand Out

In addition to the writing process, here are some tips you can follow to make your abstract shine and capture the reader’s attention:

• Choose Relevant Keywords: Select keywords that accurately represent the main themes of your research. These will enhance the discoverability of your paper.
• Adhere to Word Limit: Respect the specified word limit for your abstract. Be succinct while ensuring that all crucial information is included.
• Ensure Clarity and Cohesion: Read through your abstract to ensure clarity and coherence. Check that the informative abstract flows logically and is easily understandable.
• Seek External Feedback: Share your abstract with peers, mentors, or colleagues to get feedback. External perspectives can help identify areas for improvement.
• Revise and Polish: Based on feedback, revise your abstract for clarity, precision, and effectiveness. Polish sentences to convey maximum meaning with minimal words.

Wrapping up, this blog helps researchers learn how to write great research paper abstracts. With step-by-step process and useful tips, you have the guidance to create captivating abstracts that grab attention.

But if somehow things still don’t go your way, don’t worry! 

Experts at SharkPapers.com are available 24/7, ready to tackle research paper writing challenges. 

So, without wasting any time, order your abstract from the best paper writing service online ! 

Frequently Asked Questions

Are there any formatting requirements for abstract.

Specific formatting requirements may vary by academic or publication guidelines, but common elements include concise language, clear organization, and adherence to word limits.

How many types of abstracts are there?

There are two main types of abstracts: 

• Descriptive abstracts provide a summary of the main points of a work without revealing the conclusions.
• Informative abstracts include key findings, methods, and conclusions, offering a more detailed overview of the work.

Donna writes on a broad range of topics, but she is mostly passionate about social issues, current events, and human-interest stories. She has received high praise for her writing from both colleagues and readers alike. Donna is known in her field for creating content that is not only professional but also captivating.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper

• Purpose of an abstract
• Five mandatory parts
• Step by step guide
• Research abstract formats

Abstract writing checklist

• Abstract Examples

The definition of a research paper abstract

The purpose of an abstract, 5 parts mandatory to include in an abstract.

• Background and context : The abstract briefly introduces the topic or problem addressed in the research, providing the necessary background information to understand its significance.
• Objectives and research questions : The abstract outlines the specific goals and research questions the study aims to address, highlighting the research purpose.
• M ethodology and approach : A brief description of the research methodology, including the data collection methods, experimental design, or analytical techniques employed, is provided to give readers an idea of how the research was conducted.
• Results and findings : The abstract summarizes the main outcomes and findings of the research. It may highlight specific data, statistics, or significant patterns observed during the study.
• Conclusion and implications : The abstract concludes by summarizing the overall conclusions drawn from the research and discussing their potential implications or significance in the broader context of the field.

How to create an abstract: step by step guide

Step 1: understand the end goal., step 2: identify key elements to include..

• Background: Briefly introduce the topic or problem you’re addressing in your research. Highlight the significance or motivation behind your study.
• Objectives: Clearly state the main objectives or research questions of your study. What are you trying to achieve or investigate with your research?
• Methods: Briefly describe the research design, methodology, and techniques for collecting and analyzing data. Provide enough information to give readers an understanding of how the study was conducted.
• Results: Summarize the main findings or outcomes of your research. Highlight the most important and relevant results that directly address your research objectives.
• Conclusions: State the conclusions or implications drawn from your study. What are the broader implications of your findings? How does your research contribute to the field?

Step 3: Write a concise and clear abstract.

• Be concise: Abstracts are typically limited to a specific word count (e.g., 150-250 words). Use concise language and avoid unnecessary details or jargon.
• Use clear and precise language: Ensure your abstract is understandable to readers from various backgrounds. Use plain language and avoid excessive technical terms.
• Follow a logical template structure: Logically organize your abstract, following the order of the key elements mentioned above. This helps readers quickly grasp the flow of your research.
• Be accurate and specific: Provide accurate information about your research, including specific findings and conclusions. Avoid vague statements or overly general claims.

Step 4: Revise and proofread.

The main types of research paper abstract format.

Modern Language Association ( MLA ):

• Often used in the humanities, especially language, literature, and cultural studies.
• In-text citations include the author’s last name and page number.
• The Works Cited page lists sources cited in the paper, formatted with hanging indents.
• Double-spaced throughout the paper with a legible font (e.g., Times New Roman, 12-point size).
• Includes a header with the author’s last name and page number in the top right corner.

American Psychological Association ( APA ):

• Widely used in social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and education.
• In-text citations include the author’s last name, year of publication, and page number (for direct quotes).
• The references page provides a list of sources cited in the paper, formatted with hanging indents.
• Includes a title page, abstract (if required), and running head on each page with a shortened title version.

Chicago Manual of Style ( CMS ) or Chicago/Turabian:

• Commonly used in history, art history, and some social sciences.
• Provides two documentation styles: notes and bibliography (footnotes or endnotes) and author-date (in-text citations).
• Includes a bibliography or reference list, which appears at the end of the paper.
• Includes a title page (sometimes), footnotes or endnotes for citations, and a separate page for the bibliography or references.

American Sociological Association (ASA):

• Primarily used in sociology and related disciplines.
• In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication.
• References list provides a list of sources cited in the paper, formatted with hanging indents.
• Includes a title page, abstract (if required), and a separate reference page.

American Medical Association ( AMA ):

• Commonly used in medical and health sciences.
• In-text citations use superscript numbers corresponding to the full citation in the reference list.
• References list provides a list of sources cited in the paper, numbered in the order they appear in the text.
• Structure and Content:
• Does the abstract follow a logical structure, including background, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions?
• Are the main elements of the research clearly and concisely summarized?
• Is the abstract within the recommended word count limit specified by the journal or guidelines?
• Clarity and Language:
• Is the language clear, precise, and easily understandable to readers from various backgrounds?
• Have technical terms or jargon been minimized or explained for non-expert readers?
• Are the key findings and conclusions presented straightforwardly?
• Accuracy and Completeness:
• Does the abstract accurately represent the research paper’s main purpose, scope, and focus?
• Are the objectives and research questions clearly stated?
• Do the results and conclusions align with the findings and analysis presented in the paper?
• Conciseness and Elimination of Redundancy:
• Have unnecessary details, explanations, or lengthy background information been eliminated?
• Are there any redundant statements or repetitive information that can be condensed or removed?
• Have you focused on including your research’s most important and relevant aspects?
• Grammar and Language Mechanics:
• Have you proofread the abstract for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors?
• Is the abstract written in proper sentence structure and coherent paragraphs?
• Have you reviewed the specific guidelines the journal or conference provided for abstract formatting?
• Does the abstract meet the specified requirements for word count, font, spacing, and other formatting elements?

The “good” and “bad” abstract examples

Good abstract:.

This research paper investigates the relationship between social media usage and mental health among young adults. The study employs a quantitative approach, utilizing a survey instrument to collect data from a sample of 500 participants aged 18 to 25.

The implications of these findings highlight the need for targeted interventions and educational programs to promote healthy social media habits and protect individuals from potential mental health risks associated with excessive usage.

Bad Abstract:

This research paper examines the relationship between social media and mental health. It presents data collected from a sample of young adults aged 18 to 25 through a survey. The findings show a positive correlation between social media usage and symptoms of anxiety and depression.

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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How to Write an Abstract?

• Open Access
• First Online: 24 October 2021

Cite this chapter

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

56k Accesses

5 Altmetric

An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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Writing the Abstract

Abstract and Keywords

Additional Commentaries

1 what is an abstract.

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation? Indian J Psychiatry. 2011;53:172–5.

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Preparing a manuscript for submission to a medical journal. Available on http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscript-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html . Accessed 10 May 2020.

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Department of Surgical Gastroenterology and Liver Transplantation, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

Zulfiqar A. Bhutta

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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Introduction

Purpose of writing abstract for a research paper, steps of writing abstract for a research paper, what to include in abstract writing, take help when needed, how to write an abstract for a research paper: a comprehensive guide.

• Read in 07 mins
• 16-Aug-2022

Writing an abstract for a research paper is an essential skill every student or researcher must master. An abstract is a summary of a research paper, usually not more than 250 words. It is the first section of a research paper that readers come across; thus, it plays an essential role in building the first impression.

Writing an abstract can be a very challenging task, especially for beginners. However, with the right guidance, anyone can write an excellent abstract that captures the essence of their research paper. This comprehensive guide will give you everything you need to know to write an impressive abstract for your research paper.

A research paper is often a long document with loads of technical explanations. So, something must summarize the context of the full paper so the readers do not have to read the entire content at once. An abstract serves this purpose. And to help researchers and companies write quality abstracts, many abstract writing services are now coming up.

The main purpose of an abstract is to highlight the most important points mentioned in the research paper so that the readers can get the gist just by reading the abstract. This blog will discuss how you can write a quality abstract. But before we jump into the process, it's important to understand some key points about the abstract itself!

An abstract serves the key purpose of:

•  Helping the reader get a preliminary glimpse of the research paper. Hence, they can decide whether they should continue to read the full paper or not.
•  Giving interested readers an insight into the analysis, experiments, and arguments used in the paper.
• Enabling the readers to remember or memorize the key points of the research. 
• Facilitating the SEO of the research paper published online. The title and the abstract are often used to index the page, and hence, can help the readers to locate the paper easily over the internet.

From the above discussion, it is clear that an abstract plays a crucial role in enabling the readers to read the paper, highlighting the key points mentioned in it, and making it searchable over the internet. You can understand this with a sample example of an abstract for a research paper given below:

Research Paper Sample

A research paper sample with the topic, "The effects of climate change on the growth of agricultural production in South America," can be looking at the region's current trends in climate change and its potential impacts on the agricultural sector. 

 It might also examine the potential for relief plans to reduce the impacts of climate change on agricultural production. The paper will conclude with policy recommendations for adapting to the effects of climate change in the region. 

To maximize the various related benefits, one must follow all the rules of writing an abstract. We will now discuss the step-by-step process of writing a good abstract.

The abstract writing process comprises three steps or three parts in general. First of all, we should decide what we need to include in our abstract. Secondly, we must decide on the verb tense in our abstract. And finally, we need to write a meaningful abstract highlighting the context, objective, method, result, and conclusion drawn from the research. We will now discuss each of these steps one by one.

Step 01: Content of an Abstract

An abstract should summarize the entire content of the research paper. So, deciding what should be added to it and what should be left out is important. To simplify the task, we have listed some do's and don'ts of this step. 

Aspects of a typical abstract:

• It always contains the context of the research. The context is the background or the topic of study based on which we are conducting the research. 
• The statement of problems highlights the issues which play an instrumental role in this research. 
• If necessary, one can also mention some previous research done in the domain.
• We should clearly describe the research's main purpose, objectives, or goals. 
• We should mention the research methodology briefly. It typically consists of the theorems and analytics used to derive the results. 
• We should mention the result of the research. 
• In the end, we should mention the conclusion drawn from the research.

Remember that we only get one line in the abstract to accommodate these points. Hence, it's important to write the abstract very thoughtfully with grammatical accuracy. If needed, one should take the help of professional abstract writing services providers. 

Need for Grammatical Accuracy in Writing Abstract for Research Paper

Grammatical accuracy is essential for writing an abstract for any research paper. It refers to proper grammar, punctuation, and syntax in writing. A well-written abstract with grammatical accuracy can enhance credibility and readability among the audience. 

It also helps to convey the intended message clearly and concisely to the readers. Moreover, online tools like grammarly can help identify and correct errors. 

Step 02: Forms of Verbs and Tenses

We should be very careful while choosing the verb forms and tenses of the abstract. We often use different verb forms and tenses for different research paper sections. However, we must pack all this content in an abstract in a paragraph or two. 

So, what's the way out? Usually, we decide the tense of the abstract depending on the research topic. For example, a social science or humanities abstract usually has all the past or present tense content.

But, a science abstract may contain two different tenses. Usually, we use past tense to write about a previous research and present tense to describe the current research. 

Again, deciding the appropriate tense involves careful consideration of the content, context, and objective of the research. So, one should take expert advice from abstract writing services providers when necessary. 

Read Also: What are Professional Proofreading Services ?

Step 03: Writing the Abstract

Before we start writing, we should decide when to write the abstract. Going serially, the abstract forms the beginning of the research paper. So, many writers write it in the very beginning. But is it an effective process to follow? The answer is a big NO!

Writing the abstract before the ultimate paper can lead to a lack of concentration and direction. The abstract should be written after the paper is completed when the writer adequately understands the central points and arguments. It allows the abstract to summarize the main points of the paper accurately.

For instance, if the abstract is written before the paper is finished, it may not accurately reflect the content of the paper, which can lead to confusion and miscommunication among readers. 

Robust technical writing services can assist you better in writing intriguing abstract for research papers. The most appropriate time to write the abstract is at the research paper's end. In this way, one can efficiently summarize the entire paper without hassle.

Read Also: What are Professional Proofreading Services?

The format of your abstract will vary depending on the field of study in which you are working. However, the majority of all abstracts cover the following categories:

• Motive for writing: How significant is the study? What makes the larger work appealing to a reader?
• Issue: What issue is this work trying to solve? What is the project's scope? What is the main thesis, claim, or argument?
• Methodology: A scientific work's abstract might mention specific approaches or techniques that were applied to the main investigation. Other abstracts could explain the different types of data used in the study.
• Results: Specific information indicating the results of a project may be included in an abstract of a piece of research. The findings may be covered in more detail in other abstracts.
• Effects: How does this research promote our understanding of the subject? Are there any theoretical or practical implications from your research or any repercussions for upcoming studies?

Writing a quality abstract demands professional expertise. The researchers and companies must consult an expert in Abstract Writing for a research paper whenever they need help. If you are also looking for a quality abstract writing services provider, Acadecraft will definitely be the right choice!

Our experienced abstract writing experts write precise, accurate, and effective abstracts that make the research papers all the more attractive! We cover subjects across all domains and provide abstract writing in multiple languages.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mary has extensive experience of over 5 years in writing on a wide range of topics, including healthcare, technology, science, and business. She is highly knowledgeable and skilled in researching and crafting accurate, well-structured, and engaging content. Mary is a reliable and professional writer who is always willing to go the extra mile to ensure her clients are satisfied with her work. She is committed to delivering quality content on time and within budget.

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Open Access

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Research Article

The last giants: New evidence for giant Late Triassic (Rhaetian) ichthyosaurs from the UK

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Palaeobiology Research Group, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation The Etches Collection – Museum of Jurassic Marine Life, Dorset, United Kingdom

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Paleontology division, Institute of Geosciences, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Braunton, Devon, United Kingdom

Affiliation Dinosaurs Will Always Be Awesome, DWABA Museum, Orlando, Florida, United States of America

• Dean R. Lomax, 
• Paul de la Salle, 
• Marcello Perillo, 
• Justin Reynolds, 
• Ruby Reynolds, 
• James F. Waldron

• Published: April 17, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289
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Giant ichthyosaurs with body length estimates exceeding 20 m were present in the latest Triassic of the UK. Here we report on the discovery of a second surangular from the lower jaw of a giant ichthyosaur from Somerset, UK. The new find is comparable in size and morphology to a specimen from Lilstock, Somerset, described in 2018, but it is more complete and better preserved. Both finds are from the uppermost Triassic Westbury Mudstone Formation (Rhaetian), but the new specimen comes from Blue Anchor, approximately 10 km west along the coast from Lilstock. The more complete surangular would have been >2 m long, from an individual with a body length estimated at ~25 m. The identification of two specimens with the same unique morphology and from the same geologic age and geographic location warrants the erection of a new genus and species, Ichthyotitan severnensis gen. et sp. nov. Thin sections of the new specimen revealed the same histological features already observed in similar giant ichthyosaurian specimens. Our data also supports the previous suggestion of an atypical osteogenesis in the lower jaws of giant ichthyosaurs. The geological age and giant size of the specimens suggest shastasaurid affinities, but the material is too incomplete for a definitive referral. Ichthyotitan severnensis gen. et sp. nov., is the first-named giant ichthyosaur from the Rhaetian and probably represents the largest marine reptile formally described.

Citation: Lomax DR, de la Salle P, Perillo M, Reynolds J, Reynolds R, Waldron JF (2024) The last giants: New evidence for giant Late Triassic (Rhaetian) ichthyosaurs from the UK. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0300289. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289

Editor: Dawid Surmik, University of Silesia, POLAND

Received: November 19, 2023; Accepted: February 24, 2024; Published: April 17, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Lomax et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript.

Funding: - Initials of the authors who received each award: DRL - Grant numbers awarded to each author: N/A - The full name of each funder: The Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 - URL of each funder website: https://royalcommission1851.org/ Did the sponsors or funders play any role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript?:No, this is part of a Research Fellowship given to DRL.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: BRSMG, Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, Bristol, UK; LACM DI, The Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, California, USA; MJML, The Etches Collection Museum of Jurassic Marine Life, Kimmeridge, Dorset, UK; TMP, The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, Alberta, Canada

Introduction

Ichthyosaurs were the first marine tetrapods to attain giant size. The recent discovery of Cymbospondylus youngorum from the early Middle Triassic (Anisian, ~245 Ma) of Nevada, USA, estimated to be around 15–17 m in length, shows that ichthyosaurs reached giant body size as little as 3–5 million years after their first appearance [ 1 , 2 ]. It was during the Late Triassic, however, when the largest known ichthyosaurs emerged, belonging to the family Shastasauridae. These include the Carnian (~230 Ma) Shonisaurus popularis (16 m) [ 3 , 4 ] and middle Norian (~215 Ma) Shonisaurus sikanniensis (21 m) [ 5 ]. The remains of giant ichthyosaurs from the Swiss Late Triassic have also been described recently, including what is believed to be the largest ichthyosaur tooth yet discovered [ 6 ].

In 2018, Lomax et al. [ 7 ] reported on a large, isolated jaw fragment (an incomplete left surangular) from a giant ichthyosaur collected by PdlS in 2016 from the latest Triassic (Rhaetian) in the UK, which provided a reassessment of the purported Aust ‘dinosaurian’ bones that were reinterpreted to belong to the jaws of giant Rhaetian ichthyosaurs. As discussed in Lomax et al., body size estimates (ranging from 22–30+ metres) based on these isolated bones suggest that they probably represent the largest ichthyosaurs known to date, larger even than S . sikanniensis .

This work reports the discovery of another large surangular from a giant Triassic (Rhaetian) ichthyosaur in the UK. The new specimen is a right surangular that is morphologically identical but more complete than the left surangular described by Lomax et al. [ 7 ]. A combination of unique morphological characters observed in both examples suggest that they represent a new taxon. Both specimens were discovered in Somerset, UK, and were collected from strata dating to the latest Rhaetian, approximately 202 Ma [ 7 , 8 ]. The stratigraphic horizon present immediately above the level of both finds represents a period of cataclysm with extensive seismite and tsunamite rocks [ 9 , 10 ], indicative of the Late Triassic global mass extinction event. This extinction greatly reduced both ecomorphological disparity and species diversity and is considered the most poorly understood of the ‘Big Five’ mass extinctions [ 11 – 14 ]. It is probable that this lineage of giant ichthyosaurs vanished during the end-Triassic mass extinction event, and that ichthyosaurs never reached this size again before their extinction in the early Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian), around 94 Ma [ 15 ].

Materials and methods

The newly found specimen that is the focus of this study, BRSMG Cg3178 (herein referred to as the BAS specimen, i.e. the Blue Anchor Surangular), is a large portion of an ichthyosaur surangular from the Westbury Mudstone Formation (latest Rhaetian), or Westbury Formation, collected at Blue Anchor, Somerset, UK (Figs 1 – 3 ; DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.25290661 ). A 3D photogrammetry model of the specimen can be found here, DOI: https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/ichthyotitan-severnensis-surangular-2d8556bc9cbd4cf1bd93b33044770a4f . BRSMG Cg2488, known as the Lilstock surangular, is also from the Westbury Mudstone Formation (latest Rhaetian), but was found at Lilstock, Somerset, UK (Figs 1 and 3 ; see supplementary data from [ 7 ] DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.5975440 ). As described by Lomax et al. [ 7 ], specimens BRSMG Cb3869, BRSMG Cb3870, and BRSMG Cb4063 are isolated, fragmentary bones from the jaws of giant ichthyosaurs collected from the ‘Rhaetic Bone Bed’ at the base of the Westbury Mudstone Formation (Rhaetian) of Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, UK; specifically, BRSMG Cb3869 is probably a portion of a very large surangular. Comparisons are made with specimens of Shonisaurus popularis (those discussed in [ 3 ] and also figured in [ 7 ]), the holotype of Shonisaurus sikanniensis (TMP 1994.378.02, [ 5 ]), and the holotype of Cymbospondylus youngorum (LACM DI 157871, [ 1 ]). For further comparative purposes, we also examined MJML K2577, a comparable section of surangular belonging to an example of Ophthalmosaurus icenicus from the Oxford Clay Formation (163 Ma) of the upper Thames Valley, England. No permits were required for the described study, which complied with all relevant regulations. Whilst this manuscript was under review, the authors were made aware of a recent discovery of another large, albeit much smaller fragment of jaw from a giant ichthyosaur collected from Lilstock. The specimen is presently in a private collection, but it adds yet another example to the growing collection of giant Triassic ichthyosaurs in the UK. The specimen is not discussed further.

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Modified from Lomax et al. 2018 [ 7 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g001

A. All associated pieces with an approximate outline of the complete surangular, in medial view. The surangular is separated into two main parts, Part #A to the right and Part #B to the left (see text). B. A close-up of the coronoid process in lateral view, showing moderate eminence. C. Bulbous coronoid process in dorsal view with lateral displacement. D. Subcircular cross section at the level of the coronoid process (posterior view, medial to the left). E-F. Comparison of the massively developed M.A.M.E. ridge observed in BAS (E) and the Lilstock surangular (F); arrows indicate top of the ridge. G. Oblique view of the medial surface highlighting part of the overhanging shelf that encloses the Meckelian canal. H. Ventromedial view of the mid-posterior portion of the surangular showing a distinct, continuous, and straight thin groove that might be a suture and could indicate two distinct bones (perhaps including a damaged angular).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g002

A-B. Lateral view of both surangulars showing same unique shape; note the upturned, almost 90-degree angle bend and the spatulate-shaped posterior end. C-D. Medial view of both surangulars displaying same morphology posteriorly; anteriorly the Lilstock specimen (D) has been heavily eroded and distorted along its length (see Discussion in Lomax et al. 2018 for more details). Note the position of an elongated foramen on the lateral surface (A-B), identified as part of the fossa surangularis that passes through the bone into the Meckelian canal. See also the damaged (?)angular that is articulated with the surangular and defined by a continuous groove (?suture) as seen in Fig 2H .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g003

To inspect the bone histology of the new specimen (BRSMG Cg3178) and compare it with the unique bone histology described for the Aust bones [ 16 ] and for the Lilstock surangular ([ 7 ]; but see [ 17 , 18 ]), we applied the core drill technique following Sander [ 19 ] and Stein and Sander [ 20 ] to produce histological samples to analyse. The core was extracted from the most anterior fragment of the posterior section of the surangular, in the immediate posterior portion of the clearly visible furrow (nutrient foramen), to match the sample area in BRSMG Cg2488 R-101 and BRSMG Cb3869 (see Fig 5). Two thin sections were produced from the core using wet silicon carbide powder of grit sizes 600 and 800 for grinding and polishing processes. Once covered, the thin sections were studied under a Leica DMLP light microscope with transmitted, cross-polarized light and circular polarized light. Circular polarized light [ 21 ] was obtained using a pair of commercially available 3D polarized lenses to replace the crossed polarizers. Photo-micrographs were obtained using a Mounted Dino-Eye camera (software DinoCapture 2.0 ver 1.5.45 © 2016 AnMo Electronics Corporation). Photo-micrographs were merged using Image Composite Editor (ver. 2.0.3 ©2015 Microsoft).

Histological terminology follows [ 22 , 23 ] for general osteohistology. Networks of coarse collagenic fibres integrated in the periosteal bone matrix with no clear connection to external structures are defined as periosteal intrinsic fibres (PIF). PIF appear as a widespread structural character of the entire primary bone matrix scaffold not connected to external structures. A combination of PIF set in amorphous background matrix is defined as intrinsic fibre matrix (IFM). A woven-parallel complex with longitudinal osteons integrating IFM as a woven matrix, is defined as periosteal intrinsic fibre tissue (PIFT). The concepts of PIF, IFM, PIFT, and the concept of ‘template’ remodelling follow [ 18 ].

Nomenclatural acts

The electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, and hence the new names contained herein are available under that Code from the electronic edition of this article. This published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in ZooBank, the online registration system for the ICZN. The ZooBank LSIDs (Life Science Identifiers) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the LSID to the prefix http://zoobank.org/ [zoobank.org]. The LSID for this publication is: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D099EF35-0035-4520-A20E-806A1B8B4109. The electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an ISSN, and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories: PubMed Central, LOCKSS.

Discovery and provenance

The BAS specimen (BRSMG Cg3178) was found in multiple pieces, including several parts of the better-preserved posterior portion found in situ (by JR, RR and PdlS). The first piece, representing a large, slightly worn bone section was collected on May 28, 2020, by JR and RR who were fossil collecting at the Blue Anchor location ( Fig 1 ). An anonymous member of the public had left the bone on a large boulder at the top of the beach, presumably thinking that it might be something of interest. JR and RR searched the vicinity of the area and RR found a better preserved, larger section clearly showing the distinct Meckelian canal of an ichthyosaurian surangular. Together, both identified the material as bone and compared the finds with the surangular described by Lomax et al. [ 7 ]. As a result, they informed DRL and PdlS of the discovery. Several trips to the site led to the recovery of additional remains of BRSMG Cg3178, which were found by JR, RR, PdlS, DRL and others (see Acknowledgments).

The most recently collected piece of BRSMG Cg3178 was recovered by PdlS on October 16, 2022. Despite searching the foreshore and in situ location, no more material has come to light, although there remains the strong possibility that more of this individual is out there. As a result, the precise location of the BAS site is not being divulged at this stage due to the potential for more material to be found.

Additional remains collected on the foreshore include eroded pieces of bone, along with isolated rib fragments, vertebrae, and a phalanx all found loose on the beach in the vicinity of the area where BRSMG Cg3178 was found. It is not possible to confidently associate any of the material with the surangular. Two large rib sections were also found embedded in a mass mortality bivalve mollusc bed which is stratigraphically just above where the rest of the surangular pieces were found, which demonstrates these rib sections do not come from the same individual but another potentially large-bodied ichthyosaur. Additionally, a large coprolite containing fish scales was found in the vicinity. Unless stated otherwise, these additional elements are not discussed further.

Similar to the left surangular described by Lomax et al. [ 7 ], the BAS specimen comes from the highest part of the Westbury Mudstone Formation (Upper Triassic, Rhaetian) and was found in twelve distinct pieces ( Fig 2A ). Like the Lilstock surangular, the specimen shows signs of abrasion and encrusting organisms, including multiple bivalves ( Atreta intrusstriata and Plagiostoma giganteum , DRL pers. comm. Crispin Little 2023) and probable scavenging/scratch-like marks (see also [ 7 ] Fig 4 ; Fig 4 ). Considering the stratigraphical position of this specimen, as in the Lilstock surangular, it narrowly predates the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event found in the above Cotham Formation ([ 7 , 24 , 25 ]). Together, these specimens represent the latest Triassic occurrence of giant ichthyosaurs in the UK.

A-B. Associated bivalves, including Atreta intrusstriata (A) and Plagiostoma giganteum (B); it is worth noting that a small group of the latter are preserved adjacent to the coronoid process, see Fig 2C . C-D. Examples of the probable scavenging marks that are also observed in the Lilstock surangular, see Lomax et al. 2018, Fig 4 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g004

Systematic palaeontology

Ichthyopterygia Owen, 1840

Ichthyosauria de Blainville, 1835

?Merriamosauria Motani, 1999

?Shastasauridae Merriam, 1902

Ichthyotitan severnensis gen. et sp. nov.

LSID for the genus: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:57B85E76-0A91-4EBF-9634-5B5A5FB10B60

LSID for the species: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:53F19051-D7E5-4ADB-8129-48D66B79C7A2

Giant fish lizard of the Severn. Ichthys derived from Greek meaning fish, taken from ichthyosaur meaning “fish lizard”, and - titan (Greek for giant), after the large size. Severn after the River Severn Estuary, Somerset, UK, where the remains were discovered and Latin - ensis pertaining to the location.

BRSMG Cg3178, a large right surangular comprising the posterior end and parts of the middle and anterior sections.

Referred material.

BRSMG Cg2488, a large left surangular comprising the posterior end and a portion of the shaft.

Type locality and horizon.

The type specimen was collected from the Upper Triassic Westbury Mudstone Formation (latest Rhaetian) at Blue Anchor, Somerset, UK. The referred specimen was collected from the Upper Triassic Westbury Mudstone Formation (latest Rhaetian) 0.8 m below the junction with the Cotham Formation, at Lilstock, Somerset, UK.

Giant, probable shastasaurid ichthyosaur distinguished by the presence of the following unique characters of the surangular: upturned, almost 90 degree angle bend at posterior end; subcircular cross section morphology of the shaft at the position of the coronoid, oblong in Shonisaurus ; minor eminence of coronoid process in lateral view, compared with prominent projection in Shonisaurus ; bulbous coronoid process displaced laterally and only occupying half of the width of the dorsal surface; massively developed dorsoventral M.A.M.E. ridge; spatulate shaped posterior end; and possibly dorsoventral height of posterior end in adults being more than 20% larger than in either Shonisaurus popularis or Shonisaurus sikanniensis .

Further to the last character in the diagnosis, this feature can be used to distinguish the new taxon from other giant ichthyosaurs, as mentioned, but this could be problematic for assigning immature or juvenile individuals of I . severnensis that would be smaller than adult specimens of Shonisaurus spp. Therefore, we feel that this character can be used to compare large, presumably adult specimens but might not be useful (unless scaling is taken into consideration) in assigning smaller individuals that may be discovered in the future. Another notable feature that might be of interest is a continuous, straight thin groove in the ventral surface of the BAS specimen. For further details, see the description below. Probable shastasaurid affinities are based on the large size of the ichthyosaur combined with the Upper Triassic age, a time when the largest-known ichthyosaurs (the Shastasauridae) existed.

Description and analysis

The holotype of Ichthyotitan severnensis (BRSMG Cg3178, BAS specimen) is a large, robust but incomplete right surangular, uncrushed and preserved in three dimensions (Figs 2 , 3A and 3C ). The only referred material comprises the Lilstock specimen (BRSMG Cg2488), which represents a near identical albeit less complete left surangular, preserved in three dimensions with a length of 96 cm ( Fig 3B and 3D ). The BAS specimen was chosen as the holotype because it is more complete and is generally better preserved. The Lilstock surangular was described in detail by Lomax et al. [ 7 ] and is, where appropriate, compared here with the new specimen. Relatively few surangulars are known from the largest Triassic ichthyosaurs and uncrushed three-dimensional preservation of isolated ones is rare. This is partly the reason why such bones have previously been misidentified [ 7 ].

The holotype is separated into at least 12 distinct sections that are associated and split into two main portions, termed Part #A and Part #B to aid with description ( Fig 2A ). The best-preserved part of the surangular is the middle to posterior portion (Part #A), made up of five key segments, which is approximately 99 cm in length. A more anterior section (Part #B) of the surangular was found scattered in five pieces on the foreshore and shows a moderate amount of wear from erosion. This section measures 46 cm long. The connecting material between these two sections of the surangular, along with the anterior-most portion, have not been found. Two additional pieces of the anterior portion were collected but the position of only one of them could be approximately located on the surangular (see Fig 2A ). We can be confident of the association between the anterior and posterior portions due to them being found in the immediate vicinity of each other, along with their size and their shared morphology. The combined preserved length of Part #A and Part #B measures 145 cm. Based on the extrapolation of measurements of the tapering thickness of the anterior portion, which indicates a potential minimum gap between the two main sections of 38 cm ( Fig 2A ), combined with the additional piece from the anterior region suggests a significant portion of the anterior is missing. We estimate the total length of the surangular to be >2 m ( Fig 2A ).

As in the Lilstock specimen, the posterior end of the BAS surangular is thick and dorsoventrally tall with an almost 90-degree curve (Figs 2A and 3 ). Lomax et al. [ 7 ] considered that the curvature might be the result of taphonomic distortion in the Lilstock specimen, but the preservation in BAS is much better and confirms that the curvature is natural. Nevertheless, when compared side-by-side in medial view, the Lilstock surangular is clearly distorted at the posterior-most end where the straightened edge of the dorsal surface is rotated posteriorly, a feature that is correctly oriented and in a natural position in the BAS specimen (compare Fig 3C and 3D ). As discussed in [ 7 ], a similar but less marked curvature occurs in the surangular of Shonisaurus sikanniensis and a slight curve is present in S . popularis . Lomax et al. [ 7 ] further noted that there might be some differences in the degree of curvature among taxa, stating that it is impossible to determine the significance with such a small sample size. However, we now have both the Lilstock and BAS specimens with the same degree of dorsoventral curvature. Overall, the rear section of the BAS surangular is remarkably similar in size and morphology to the Lilstock specimen. The maximum dorsoventral height is at the posterior end of the surangular and is 26 cm, as preserved.

A small, bulbous coronoid process with minor eminence is present and is laterally directed and laterally displaced, making it difficult to observe in lateral view (Figs 2B, 2C , 3A and 3C ); this morphology differs greatly from Shonisarus popularis which has a prominent triangular coronoid process (compare Fig 2A with [ 7 ], Fig 7A). It only occupies half of the width of the dorsal surface in the coronoid region and the medial side shows a slight concavity in this region ( Fig 2C ). Its surface is pitted with numerous forward-directed foramina and muscle scars. Note that due to distortion present in the Lilstock specimen, the identification observed herein on the BAS specimen shows that the coronoid process was misidentified in Lomax et al. [ 7 ] leading to the incorrect placement of the M.A.M.E. (M. adductor mandibulae externus) process in the Lilstock surangular ( Fig 3 ). Slightly anterior to the coronoid process, this part of the bone is subcircular in cross section, unlike in the surangular of Shonisarus popularis , which is distinctly oblong in cross section (see Fig 19 in [ 3 ]). As a result of the robustness at the point of the coronoid process, this section of the surangular is wider than it is anteriorly ( Fig 2D ).

There is a minor reduction in the dorsoventral height immediately posterior to the coronoid process. However, the height then greatly increases dorsally at the point of the almost 90-degree curve, marked by the presence of a massive, prominent and extensive M.A.M.E. ridge on the medial side for muscle attachment ( Fig 3 ). The ridge shows clear muscle attachment scars, as in the Lilstock specimen. A thin process curves dorsally from a point posterior to the M.A.M.E. at an angle of 90 degrees to the main shaft of the bone. This process carries prominent vertical ridges and furrows on its medial side (Figs 2E, 2F , 3C and 3D ), as reported in the Cuers ichthyosaur [ 26 ]. The purpose of this feature is unknown.

The Meckelian canal is prominently visible along the medial side of both parts (Part #A and #B; Figs 2A , 3C ) and would have provided a conduit for the passage of nerves and blood vessels (and cartilage during bone growth). It is partially filled with a light grey matrix and preserves bivalves in some places (Figs 2H and 4B ). The distalmost part of the posterior end of the ramus narrows laterally and expands dorsoventrally forming a large, spatula-shaped concavity for the reception of the articular bone (not present). Towards the anterior-mid section of Part #A, there is evidence of a broken, overhanging shelf enclosing the Meckelian canal dorsally along most of its length, from the anterior to the region of the coronoid process. In one area this is complete (Figs 2G, 2H and 3C ) and is likely for the reception of the dentary. In the posterior region, the Meckelian canal opens up posteriorly into a large fossa pierced by a number of foramina, the largest of which connects through the bone to the fossa surangularis on the lateral side ( Fig 3 ). The fossa surangularis opens into a number of forward-directed, elongated foramina on the lateral side of the rear section of the bone and into a continuous fossa along the lateral side of the anterior section (Figs 2A and 3A ); this fossa is visible in the bone cross sections. It is also observed in the Lilstock specimen and another large section of probable surangular (BRSMG Cb3869), where those bones also bear multiple, fine longitudinal indentations, preserved across the lateral and dorsal surfaces.

As described above, the posterior part of the surangular (Part #A) is the better preserved of the two main portions, showing little erosion or distortion. However, the anterior part of the surangular (Part #B) is more complex in cross-sectional outline than the posterior, showing complex concave facets on both the medial and lateral surfaces. Presumably, these are for the reception of the dentary on the lateral side, and the splenial on the medial side. The large lateral groove on this anterior portion probably represents the fossa surangularis in this region. This feature is also seen in the Cuers ichthyosaur ([ 26 ] Fig 2 ), a large incomplete surangular [see 7 ].

A damaged portion of bone is present ventral to the Meckelian canal, best viewed along the lower medial side (see e.g. Fig 2H ). Through direct comparison with the holotype of the Early Triassic Cymbospondylus youngorum (DRL and JFW pers. obs.), for which a well-preserved and articulated skull exists, the position of the bone suggests that it is probably part of the angular. It is present along the entire length of the surangular and can be seen on both the anterior and posterior sections, although best preserved on the posterior part (Part #A). There is a distinct, continuous, and straight thin groove (a probable suture) visible between the two bones at the surface. However, a close examination of the internal bone structure, visible in cross section, shows that it is continuous across the bone junction, with no discontinuity in cell structure and no intervening matrix. This may indicate that the bones were possibly fused together in life with no fossa separating them. If so, this would be unusual and possibly unique among ichthyosaurs, perhaps related to the large size and presumed mature nature of the individual. On a section of bone just anterior to the coronoid process, a vestigial suture between the surangular and (?)angular can be seen to disappear completely, further confirming the apparent fusion. A similar morphology is present in at least one of the Aust bones (BRSMG Cb3869), as also alluded to by Huene [ 27 ]. The Lilstock surangular is poorly preserved in ventral view, but direct observations suggest that there might also be a faint groove.

Results of core sampling

The section taken from BRSMG Cg3178, the BAS specimen ( Fig 5A and 5B middle), shows good preservation, although multiple osteons showing irregular breakage rims without clear Howship’s lacunae, and a long diagonal fracture in its lower half (Figs 5B and 6A ) indicate diagenetic or taphonomic-related damage. The bone histology is characterized by a highly vascularized woven-parallel complex [ 22 , 23 ] (Figs 5B , 6A and 6B ). Vascular canals are strictly longitudinally oriented (Figs 5B and 6A ). The primary bone matrix is characterized by a complex of networks of intrinsic longitudinal mineralized collagen fibres (periosteal intrinsic fibres, or PIF [ 18 ]) ( Fig 6D, 6E and 6G ). Under cross-polarized light, PIF appear bright against an isotropic amorphous dark background matrix ( Fig 6D ). PIF appear as circular or spirally coiled structures under circularly polarized view ( Fig 6D, 6E and 6G ). The network of PIF set in an amorphous dark matrix ( Fig 6D ) defines an intrinsic fibre matrix, IFM, [ 18 ] (and see Materials and methods ). IFM is identifiable both in the trabeculae interstitial bone ( Fig 6G ) and, as primary matrix of the rest of the cortex ( Fig 6D and 6E ). The section can be subdivided into an innermost half of spongious trabecular bone (trabecular region), and a compact cortex that can be further subdivided for description purposes, into a deep cortex and an outer cortex ( Fig 5B ).

A. Comparable sections for core drill(s) sampling position indicated by a white circle of (from left to right) BRSMG-Cb-3869 (an Aust bone, most probably a surangular), BRSMG Cg3178 (BAS surangular), BRSMG-Cg-2488 R-101 (Lilstock surangular). White arrows point to elongated surangular foramen. B. Binary drawings produced from stitched photos of the thin sections (respectively BRSMG-Cb-3869, BRSMG Cg3178 and BRSMG-Cg-2488 R-101) showing longitudinal vascularization and larger nutrient canals. Blue bars (upper) indicate extension of outer cortex, orange (middle) for deep cortex and pink (lower) for spongious trabecular bone.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g005

A. Composite image of thin section under circular polarized light. B. Close-up of the external margin of the outer cortex, showing the presence of multiple growth marks (GMs), open vascular canals and cortical vascular canals with all degrees of maturity (simple canals, primary osteons and secondary osteons), supporting an ongoing active and continuous growth. Note the evident darker border of the lumen of a diagonal canal running from the top left toward the margin of the large nutrient canal (NC) showing further longitudinal vascularization. C. Concentric secondary osteon in the outer cortex under lambda filter. D. Close-up of the upper margin of the nutrient canal under crossed polarized (left) and circular polarized light (right). The growth marks appear as alternated tightly packed rows of brighter and darker periosteal intrinsic fibres (PIF). The same tight packing of the GMs occurs also deeper in the cortex. E. Lateral margin of the nutrient canal under circular polarized view. PIF are evident as bright yellow and blue coiled structures. The presence of simple canals alongside osteons, indicates primary deposition of bone along the margin of the large nutrient canal. F. Concentric secondary osteon in the trabecular bone under transmitted light. It is evident the high amount of osteocyte lacunae and the presence of plump irregular shaped ones in the lamellar bone. G. Trabecular bone under circular polarized view. The presence of primary matrix and concentric secondary osteons indicate that the trabeculae are secondary, produced from compact bone made cancellous. White arrows (D, E, G) point at PIF; white arrowheads point at resorption lines in concentric osteons (C, F, G); white dotted lines indicate borders of primary osteons (C, F, G); yellow arrow heads (B, D) point at rows of GMs. Abbreviations. LB, Lamellar bone; NC, Nutrient canal; OC, Open periosteal canal; PO, Primary osteon; RC, Resorption cavity; SC, Simple canal; SO, Secondary osteon.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g006

The trabecular region presents secondary trabeculae constituted by compact bone made cancellous (sensu [ 22 ]) (Figs 5B , 6A and 6G ). The trabeculae are composed by islands of IFM bordered by large resorption cavities (RC) and hemiosteons ( Fig 6A and 6G ). RC and hemiosteons are lined by relatively few layers of lamellar bone ( Fig 6G ). It is possible to observe a preferential orientation of the trabecular bone in the horizontal plane (Figs 5B and 6A ).

Passing from the trabecular region to the deep cortex, the size of the RC gradually diminishes (Figs 5B and 6A ), giving space to a highly vascularized, well-arranged compact bone showing large numbers of secondary osteons that generally appear in an in-row arrangement ( Fig 6A ). The in-row arrangement appears parallel or slightly subparallel to the subperiosteal outer surface. The primary tissue constituting the compact cortex is periosteal intrinsic fibre tissue (PIFT) observed by Perillo and Sander [ 18 ].

A close inspection following the methods described in [ 16 , 18 ] shows that secondary osteons present successive resorption lines inside the osteon lamellar infill ( Fig 6C and 6F ). This phenomenon results from a consistent spatial correspondence between basal metabolic unit development and previously existing vascular canals. Secondary osteons develop preferentially inside preexisting osteons, either primary or secondary (in the latter case these are named concentric osteons). This phenomenon defines a ‘template’ remodelling [ 18 ]. It is nonetheless possible to see many resorption cavities in the deep cortex, although some of this may be related to preparation damages due to their shape. The number of resorption cavities present in the deep cortex increases the overall porosity of the bone structure (Figs 5B and 6A ) and suggests an advanced resorption front [ 28 ].

In the deep cortex, going toward the subperiosteal surface, the number of primary osteons, immature secondary osteons and concentric secondary osteons increases, while the amount of resorption cavities and non-concentric osteons decreases. Compared to the cancellous bone, the compact cortex shows also an increased amount of PIF clearly visible ( Fig 6B and 6E ). In the upper deep cortex and outer cortex, it is possible to identify numerous (~15) closely positioned wavey GMs formed by the alternation of brighter and darker layers of PIF ( Fig 6B and 6D ). The width and colour of the GMs is variable with darker and brighter ones alternating with no clear pattern. These GMs embrace the primary osteon and vascular canals and originate from periosteal apposition but do not show changes in tissue type, being always composed of IFM. Given the absence of a change of tissue type, these GMs are not identifiable as LAGs (see Discussion ). By close inspection, a scarce number of similar GMs, are identifiable in the rest of the deep cortex, always embracing the parallel rows of osteons but showing less continuity due to the higher number of RC.

A large longitudinal resorption cavity (diameter around 0.75 mm, area around 2 mm 2 ) occupies the upper central area of the section in the deep cortex (Figs 5B and 6A ), and is identifiable as a nutrient canal. The rim of the canals shows primary IFM ( Fig 6E ), primary osteons and simple canals, as well as Howship’s lacunae, indicating that this area was actively subjected to osteogenic and osteoclastic processes through the developmental stages of the animal. The large nutrient canal is connected to the outer surface by a large diagonal canal ( Fig 6A and 6B ). The section of the canal lumen measuring 0.3 mm in diameter (but tapering to 0.15 mm in its middle, assuming an hourglass shape). The diagonal canal is detectable by the darker colour of its lumen wall compared to the surrounding bone ( Fig 6A and 6B ). The borders of the diagonal canal show a clear continuity with the surrounding periosteal rims of the outer cortex as suggested by the organization of osteons and GMs ( Fig 6B ). The lumen wall of the diagonal canal shows longitudinal simple canals and secondary osteons orderly arranged parallel to its diagonal orientation ( Fig 6B ). Both under cross polarized view and circularly polarized view the canal lumen wall shows the presence of PIF ( Fig 6B and 6D ), indicating it is made of IFM.

In correspondence with the border of the large nutrient canal, the GMs show a clear descending down turning ( Fig 6B ). This skewed arrangement indicates that the periosteal apposition process was influenced by the presence of the major nerve and/or blood vessel occupying the nutrient canal.

The outer cortex shows simple canals, primary osteons and incipient concentric secondary osteons ( Fig 6B and 6D ). It is not possible to identify an External Fundamental System. The subperiosteal surface is characterized by various open periosteal canals (Figs 5B , 6A and 6B ). The latter show rims with no signs of breakage, therefore are identifiable as genuine biological open canals. The occurrence of open periosteal canals and simple canals indicates active growth at the time of death, as for some of the Aust bones described by [ 16 ]; see also [ 7 ]. The borders of the nutrient canal show primary bone tissue with simple vascular canals and primary osteons, resembling the condition observed on the outer cortex ( Fig 5B, 5D and 5E ). Numerous osteocyte lacunae are evident in the entirety of the section: dynamic flattened osteocytes are commonly found in lamellar bone ( Fig 5C, 5E and 5G ), while plump or irregular shaped ones are found both in the PIFT matrix and in its lamellar bone ( Fig 5F and 5C ).

A note on size estimations

When describing the Lilstock surangular, Lomax et al. [ 7 ] used large shastasaurid ichthyosaurs to provide a rough total length estimate of the ichthyosaur and for one of the Aust bones (BRSMG Cb3869), but emphasised the need for caution with such estimates when dealing with isolated remains. To determine these size estimates, using a simple scaling factor, they compared (1) the maximum dorsoventral height at the posterior end of the Lilstock surangular with the same point in the surangular of the large Shonisaurus sikanniensis and (2) the height of the Lilstock surangular at the coronoid process compared with the same in a smaller shastasaurid, Besanosaurus leptorhynchus [ 29 ]. Based on these comparisons, Lomax et al. [ 7 ] found that the Lilstock ichthyosaur had an estimated total length of between 26 and 22 m respectively and further stated that it is reasonable to suggest that the Lilstock ichthyosaur was on the order of 20–25 m long.

However, being better preserved than the Lilstock specimen, the BAS surangular has revealed that the identification of the position of the coronoid process and M.A.M.E. process on the Lilstock surangular are incorrect (see Fig 3 ) and therefore the size estimate compared with B . leptorhynchus is inaccurate. The position used by [ 7 ] for the measurement of the coronoid process (2) in the Lilstock surangular is actually the position of the M.A.M.E. Therefore, we use the position of the dorsoventral height of the M.A.M.E. in BAS, which measures 19 cm, and is the same height as that previously identified as the coronoid (now M.A.M.E.) in Lilstock, compared with the same point in B . leptorhynchus that measures approximately 3.5–4 cm at the M.A.M.E. (based on the illustration by Bindellini et al., [ 30 ], Fig 4 ; see also [ 7 ]). Note, however, that [ 30 ] follow a different terminology and refer to the M.A.M.E. in B . leptorhynchus as the coronoid process, but we regard their coronoid process as the M.A.M.E.; nevertheless, the measurement and scaling remains the same regardless of the identification. Based on this revised comparison, it suggests that the Lilstock/BAS ichthyosaurs are almost five times larger than Besanosaurus (which has a total body length of 5.4 m) with the largest total length estimate of 25 m, thus still in the 20–25 m range given by Lomax et al. [ 7 ].

To test the simple scaling further, we also compared the BAS specimen with a posterior section of surangular from an example of the common Upper Jurassic ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur, Ophthalmosaurus icenicus (MJML K2577; Fig 7 ). This specimen was chosen due to the same portion of surangular being three-dimensionally preserved and the fact that the M.A.M.E. and coronoid processes can easily be identified and compared between both specimens (see Fig 7 ). As a result, we could provide a new scaling comparison. This time, by comparing the distance between the M.A.M.E. and coronoid processes in the Ophthalmosaurus specimen (measuring 4 cm) and the same in BAS (measuring 20 cm), this suggests an individual with an estimated body length five times greater, at 25 m long, the same estimate as presented above.

A. BRSMG Cg3178 and MJML K2577 illustrating the distance between the M.A.M.E. and coronoid process. B. BRSMG Cg2488 and MJML K2577 are positioned obliquely in lateral view (with MJML K2577 rotated and held closer to the camera), illustrating the general shape of the ichthyosaurian surangular.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300289.g007

It is also worth reiterating the point made by Lomax et al. [ 7 ] that if the Aust specimen BRSMG Cb3869 is part of a surangular, which appears correct (see Fig 5A ), then by using the same simple scaling this individual would be estimated at a very speculative 30+ m. Based on the analysis of the BRSMG Cb3869 bone microstructure [ 16 , 18 ], this section is from an animal that was still growing at the time of death [ 16 , 18 ] and might be due to prolonged growth strategies as previously suggested (see Discussion in [ 7 ]).

Confidently assigning isolated, fragmentary, or poorly preserved remains to a specific taxon is challenging and can be problematic when key features are lacking, or insufficient material is preserved. When describing the Lilstock surangular, Lomax et al. [ 7 ] considered that the specimen might have possible shastasaurid affinities based on its geologic age and giant size. They further showed that it had an unusual morphology that appeared unique but refrained from assigning a specific name to the specimen due to its incompleteness, taphonomic distortion and the fact that it was represented by an isolated bone. Moreover, surangulars from the largest Triassic ichthyosaurs are poorly known and any three-dimensional specimens are rare, therefore making direct comparisons difficult. However, those specimens that could be compared were found to differ from the Lilstock specimen [ 7 ].

The discovery of yet another surangular (BRSMG Cg3178) possessing the same morphology as the Lilstock specimen, but which is much better preserved and more complete, provides additional support for the identification of something unique. Moreover, it illustrates that the Lilstock specimen was not simply a single bone with an unusual morphology. Although we appreciate that this new taxon is based on two large incomplete surangulars, we feel that having two identical bones showing the same unique morphology, and which were collected from the same geological formation separated by ~10 km, is enough to warrant the erection of a new taxon. Furthermore, these specimens are approximately 202 million years old, from the late Rhaetian, and appear roughly 13 million years after the stratigraphically latest giant Triassic ichthyosaurs with a name, Shonisaurus sikanniensis from British Columbia, Canada [ 5 ], and Himalayasaurus tibetensis from Tibet, China [ 31 ]. Thus, given the differences in surangular morphology compared with Shonisaurus (e.g. compare the surangular morphology with S . popularis figured in [ 7 ], Fig 7a ) along with the stratigraphic and geographic separation, it is highly unlikely that Ichthyotitan severnensis is an example of Shonisaurus or Himalayasaurus , which would also suggest an extremely long stratigraphic record and a much wider palaeogeographical distribution than what is known for both genera. Having two examples of the same bone with the same unique features from the same stratigraphic time zone supports the erection of a new taxon.

Considering the Rhaetian age and similar morphology of the bones, an argument could perhaps be made for the Aust bones (at least BRSMG Cb3869) and the Cuers ichthyosaur, a large surangular from the Rhaetian of France [ 26 ]; identified as a surangular by [ 7 ], to represent additional examples of I . severnensis . However, given that the Aust bones are stratigraphically slightly older (see [ 7 ], Fig 3 ), are much less complete and therefore do not show all the diagnostic features found in both the Lilstock and BAS specimens, we do not assign them to this species in this study. Similarly, although the Cuers ichthyosaur is more complete and shows some similarities with both specimens (see [ 26 ], Fig 2 ), the posterior end is somewhat poorly preserved and does not show the defining features necessary for positive identification. Nonetheless, these findings demonstrate that giant Rhaetian ichthyosaurs were present in the Tethys during this time. Similarly, it is worth noting that a fragmentary ichthyosaur comprising 17 ribs and two vertebral centra was recently discovered in the Gabbs Valley Range of Nevada, USA. Although this specimen has yet to be formally described, it demonstrates that giant ichthyosaurs were also present in Panthalassa during the Rhaetian [ 32 ].

Based on the core sampling results, the thin sections confirm that the BAS specimen shares peculiar histological characters with sections produced by other giant ichthyosaur specimens 16–18]. The same unique histology of the bones is supported by the presence of: 1) PIFT, 2) GMs determined by different arrangement e/o density of layers of PIF, 3) strictly longitudinal vascularization, 4) concentric osteons determining a cortical ‘template remodelling’. Thus, the results of this study are in agreement with the conclusions reached previously [ 16 – 18 ]. Furthermore, even in its absence, we predict that longitudinal sections of this specimen would most likely show the same structural collagen fibres arranged in a herringbone pattern, as observed in other giant ichthyosaurs [ 17 , 18 ]. The presence of a nutrient foramen in the BAS specimen, as with similar structures observed in both BRSMG Cg2488 R-101 and BRSMG Cb3869, further supports the anatomical homology hypothesized for these specimens [ 7 , 17 , 18 ]. Finally, it is noticeable that the horizontally oriented trabeculae, and the ratio of trabecular bone to compact cortex are also reminiscent of what was observed in BRSMG-Cb-3870 [ 16 – 18 ]. Although the consequences of matching histology paired with similar morphology of these specimens are intriguing, the lack of a more refined taxonomic resolution of the fragmentary material prevents support to any stable conclusion regarding the phylogenetic attribution to Ichthyotitan .

In the context of understanding the growth patterns and the developmental stage of BRSMG Cg3178, it is relevant to discuss the nature of the GMs we observed. The closely spaced GMs are, at first glance, reminiscent of LAGs forming the external fundamental system (EFS), which would advocate for an adult state of the animal and for the reaching of a stoppage in growth (i.e. [ 33 ]). Due to the same similarity, the identification of LAGs and the occurrence of an EFS was proposed by Redelstorff et al. [ 16 ] for another similar specimen (BRSMG-Cb-3870). It is noticeable, however, that the same study highlighted the thick width of BRSMG-Cb-3870 EFS as unusual and offered an alternative hypothesis to their conclusions. The GMs described here are characterized by a combination of higher brightness, lower brightness, and colour change of the same primary bone (IFM) and show no clear tissue type change (no lamellar bone or parallel fibered bone). This sharply contrasts with what defines LAGs [ 22 ], as already supported by [ 18 ], which described the same GMs from the specimens studied therein. The GMs described here are structures derived by modulations of orientation and density of longitudinal coarse fibres (PIF) deposited by active periosteal apposition [ 18 ] but with no clear connection to slowdown in growth. The identification of GMs as simple marks derived by changes in density and orientation of coarse longitudinal fibres is not unheard of, although it was observed in metaplastic tissue [ 34 , Fig 2e and 2f ]. To conclude, we do not observe an EFS given the absence in the outermost cortex of few layers of tightly packed LAGs. The absence of an EFS supports that the animal had yet to reach an asymptotic growth stage. The occurrence of the GMs already in the upper deep cortex, with no appreciable trend toward a diminishing space within them in the outer cortex, can be used as a further argument to exclude an ongoing progressive reduction in growth rate.

Further support for ongoing growth is offered by outer cortex vascularization. In both BRSMG-Cb-3870 [ 16 , 18 ] and our specimen, as well as in BRSMG Cg2488 R-101 [ 18 ] and BRSMG Cb3869 [ 16 , 18 ], the occurrence of multiple open periosteal canals and high vascularization in the outer cortex indicate that growth by periosteal apposition was not ceased at the moment of death. The few histological analysis carried on ichthyosaur rostra found them to be more compact than postcranial material [ 35 ]. We can therefore support that the high vascularization is a genuine indicator of active growth rather than being related to an increased osteoporotic specialization of the lower jaw. The sign of primary bone apposition and osteoclast activity around the large nutrient canal would indicate an ongoing reshaping of the nutrient canal overtime, through the development of the animal.

The absence of more complete and articulated remains prevents us to frame this specimen in a developmental series. Nonetheless, the histological features of the specimen here described (presence of primary bone, high superficial cortical vascularization, absence of EFS and a non-completely remodelled cortex) indicate a still growing subadult or an early adult. Lomax et al. [ 7 ] mentioned that processes like heterochronic sustained growth rates may have enabled the Late Triassic ichthyosaurs to reach giant sizes (~25+ m). However, more comparative histological data (e.g. juvenile specimens of Ichthyotitan and more histological samples of Triassic ichthyosaurs) is needed to identify such developmental strategies in Ichthyotitan .

Conclusions

A large ichthyosaur surangular was collected in 2016 from the UK Upper Triassic and was formally described by Lomax et al. [ 7 ] who also reinterpreted the Aust ‘dinosaurian’ bone shafts as belonging to the jaws of giant Triassic ichthyosaurs, something which had also been noted by Huene [ 27 ]. Recent support for these assertions was presented by Perillo et al. [ 17 ] who further assessed these claims by analysing the bone histology of the Lilstock specimen and the Aust bones. As such, they tested the “ Huene-Lomax hypothesis ” histologically and found that the histology of these bones supports an ichthyosaurian affinity (see also the “ Giant Ichthyosaur hypothesis ” in [ 18 ]).

The discovery of another giant ichthyosaur surangular from the Somerset coast of the UK provides additional support for the conclusions presented by [ 7 ] and the findings of [ 17 , 18 ]. The new specimen matches the Lilstock surangular in overall shape, bears the same unique morphology and comes from the same stratigraphic age (Westbury Mudstone Formation, Upper Triassic, latest Rhaetian). The specimen is, however, more complete and better preserved than the Lilstock surangular and includes a large portion of the anterior section, showing distinct facets for the dentary and a section of what is possibly the angular, which appears fused to the surangular. We herein formally assign these two specimens to a new genus and species, Ichthyotitan severnensis , which is the first-named giant ichthyosaur from the Rhaetian. This taxon has an estimated body length of around 25 m, or at least somewhere in the 20–26 m range and represents the largest estimate for a prehistoric marine reptile. The histological analysis agrees with similar specimens and advocates for a still growing sub-adult or early adult animal that had yet to reach an asymptotic growth stage. It is, however, worth reiterating that this is based on fragmentary remains and thus more complete specimens are required to confirm the giant size. Furthermore, if the estimates for the Aust bones are correct, as per Lomax et al. [ 7 ], then those individuals probably represent the largest ichthyosaurs known.

As summarized by Lomax et al. [ 7 ], these giant fragmentary jaw bones may easily be missed or could be mistaken for the remains of dinosaurs because of their size. The authors hoped that the description and identification of the Lilstock specimen would lead to more discoveries, which ultimately led to the identification of the BAS specimen described herein. It is our hope that more complete remains of this enigmatic giant ichthyosaur will be discovered in time. If any additional material is found, we kindly encourage the finders to contact the authors.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Prof Judy Massare for discussions around the newly collected specimen. Dr Ramues Gallois is thanked for his comments and field observations on the stratigraphy, and Dr Crispin Little is thanked for his identification of the bivalves. Dr Sarah Strachan is kindly acknowledged for reviewing the histology text and providing information that improved those sections in the paper. We also acknowledge the help of Beatrice Reynolds, Rosabel Reynolds, Tammy Humphreys, Carol Skiggs and Natalie Lomax for help in collecting additional pieces of the BAS specimen. The photogrammetry model(s) in the supplementary data were created by Steven Dey (ThinkSee3D) who is kindly acknowledged for his help and expertise. Barbara Billett is thanked for sharing details of the newly collected jaw fragment from Lilstock, which she found, and which is briefly mentioned in the materials section. Thanks also to Deborah Hutchinson (BRSMG), Brandon Strilisky, Tom Courtenay, and Dr Don Henderson (TMP), and Erika Durazo, Dr Nathan Smith, and Beau Campbell (LACM DI) for access to and assistance with specimens in collections at their institutions. DRL thanks Dr Bill Korth for discussions regarding the etymology of the name. Thanks are also due to Olaf Dülfer, Pia Schultz and Lucrezia Ferrari for assistance during preparation of the thin sections at Bonn University. DRL wishes to acknowledge The Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 for generous support in the form of a Research Fellowship. Finally, thanks to the editor, Dr Dawid Surmik, for his support and encouragement and thanks to two anonymous reviewers for your helpful comments and suggestions that helped to improve this manuscript.

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