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Fast Food Should Be Banned: Analysis of Health Effects

• Categories: Fast Food Junk Food Obesity

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Words: 1465 |

Published: Jan 28, 2021

Words: 1465 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

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Introduction, why should fast food be banned, works cited.

• Oliver, J. (2010, February). Teach every child about food. TED. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver?language=en
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Overweight & obesity: Adult obesity facts. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html
• World Health Organization. (2021). Obesity and overweight. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
• American Heart Association. (n.d.). Fast food and your heart. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/fast-food-and-your-heart
• Stuckler, D., & Nestle, M. (2012). Big food, food systems, and global health. PLoS Medicine, 9(6), e1001242. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001242
• Ludwig, D. S., Peterson, K. E., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2001). Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: A prospective, observational analysis. The Lancet, 357(9255), 505-508. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04041-1
• Rosenheck, R. (2008). Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: A systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk. Obesity Reviews, 9(6), 535-547. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x
• Nestle, M. (2013). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (3rd ed.). University of California Press.
• Roberts, C., Troop, N., & Connors, M. (2019). Eating Behaviours and Obesity. In R. F. Bell & J. M. Lundahl (Eds.), Handbook of Obesity Treatment (pp. 55-67). Springer.
• Smith, T., Smith, B., & Kelly, P. (2018). "Just one more piece of cake." Obesogenic environments and the irresistible pull of sweet treats. In M. K. Demauro (Ed.), Sugar Consumption and Health (pp. 61-76). Nova Science Publishers.

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Causes and Effects of Fast-Food Addiction

At the beginning of his career, Brad Pitt worked for El Pollo Loco to pay the bills for his acting classes. The fast-food industry may have given the world one of the most talented actors, but is it enough to turn a blind eye to all the adverse effects it exerts on our health? According to recent statistics, approximately 33% of adults and 17% of children and adolescents in the United States have been diagnosed with obesity. Studies show that those who frequently eat fast food have an increased risk of progressing from simple consumption to addiction. Even though fast food has its advantages, such as saving time and effort, as well as the convenience of a developed network of chain restaurants, people should realize that this food choice causes significant damage to their health, and if they continue eating fast food, they will become addicted to it.

Causes of Fast-Food Consumption

The main reasons for fast-food consumption among adults and children are a lack of time on the part of the former and the susceptibility to advertising for the latter. One of the most evident characteristics of fast food is its convenience because, as Van der Horst, Brunner, and Siegrist (2011) state, it “saves time and reduces the required physical and mental effort for food provisioning” (p. 597). Working mothers admit that even though pizza is not the most palatable food, it still helps to feed the family when they do not have enough time or energy to cook a healthy dinner. Researchers also have found that those who do not like cooking and refuse to spend their efforts preparing dinner are more likely to consume fast food (Richardson, Boone-Heinonen, Popkin, & Gordon-Larsen, 2011).

Several studies suggest that, unlike adults, children and adolescents consume fast food because of the extensive marketing activity of such fast food “giants” as McDonald’s, Subway, Taco Bell, Starbucks, and others (Boyland & Halford, 2013; Lichtenberg, 2012; Schlosser, 2012). According to Boyland and Halford (2013), “greater than 60% of overweight incidence” among American children and adolescents is attributed to television viewing (p. 238). Children are the primary targets of aggressive fast-food advertising because they are considered as “teenage and adult shoppers of the future,” which means that they tend to develop “brand loyalty” and remain consumers of the same product brands even after becoming adults (Boyland & Halford, 2013). Obviously, the reasons for fast-food consumption differ among various age groups; however, despite their dissimilar reasons, both adults and children are equally exposed to the harmful effects of fast food.

Everyone knows that unlimited consumption of fast food leads to such adverse effects as obesity; however, not all people realize the risk of developing fast-food addiction. Over the last three decades, obesity has become one of the primary concerns of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. According to Garcia, Sunil, and Hinojosa (2012), in the period between 2000 and 2005, the rate of obesity increased by 24%, the rate of morbid obesity increased by 50%, and the rate of super morbid obesity increased by 75% (p. 810). A current study reports that 33% of adults and 17% of children suffer from obesity, and forecasts a 130% increase in morbid obesity prevalence over the next two decades (Finkelstein et al., 2012).

In addition to these figures, people who like to consume fast food should remember that their innocent love for deep-fried potatoes, burgers, pizza, and tacos may turn into serious dependence. Garber and Lustig (2011) found that fast food contains several components “that have been investigated for addictive properties” and may trigger the development of addiction, though the rate of its progression significantly differs from the progression of drug and alcohol addiction (p. 148). Researchers also stress the idea that once a person is diagnosed with obesity, the individual’s diet may cause stress that will contribute to addictive overeating (Garber & Lustig, 2011). Since obesity and the risk of fast-food addiction have become two of the main concerns of society, the U.S. government has been pursuing various policies in order to reduce the adverse effects of fast-food consumption.

Assuming that people consume an excess number of calories because of the limited awareness of the calorie content of fast foods, the U.S. Congress passed the Affordable Care Act, obliging all big chain restaurants to publish calorie content on their menus. This policy seems to be reasonable, since both adults and adolescents, not to mention children, often do not count calories, or they may underestimate the number of calories in fast food. Block et al. (2013) conducted a study of 3,000 diners in six fast-food restaurant chains and found that the majority of their customers “underestimated the calories of meals, especially if the meal was large” (p. 6). Such results allow considering that the Affordable Care Act may help increase the awareness of people and show them the importance of calorie counting. Namba’s (2013) research stresses the importance of the Affordable Care Act, considering the issue from a different angle as it expresses the idea that the legislation affects not only consumer behavior but also the fast-food industry (p. 2). Indeed, negative consumer references that may be influenced by a high-calorie menu are helping to motivate restaurant owners to offer lower-calorie items and alter portion sizes and methods of preparation, as well as include healthier dishes on their menus. As a result of the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, as Namba (2013) states, “on average, calories for fast-food chain restaurants decreased by 19 kilocalories” (p. 7). Thus, the policy approach to the prevention of obesity and fast-food addiction has proven to be effective.

Although the fast-food industry remains successful because people are attracted to a large number of its items due to various reasons such as saving time and effort, society should find ways to control the unlimited consumption of fast food in order to avoid its adverse effects on health. Ubiquitous, aggressive advertising of fast food and a lack of time to prepare healthy meals are factors that lead to the development of such diseases as obesity and fast-food addiction. Fortunately, the U.S. government has already put in motion a policy that helps to improve the situation by passing the Affordable Care Act, obliging restaurants to put calorie numbers on their menus. It seems to be the right course because if society ignores the problems caused by fast-food consumption, the situation will only worsen over time. Luckily, at the present time, not only governmental policies but also the growing healthy lifestyle trend are contributing to the reduction of the number of fast-food consumers.

Block, J. P., Condon, S. K., Kleinman, K., Mullen, J., Linakis, S., Rifas-Shiman, S., & Gillman, M. W. (2013). Consumers’ estimation of calorie content at fast food restaurants: Cross sectional observational study. BMJ, 346 , f2907.

Boyland, E. J., & Halford, J. C. (2013). Television advertising and branding. Effects on eating behaviour and food preferences in children . Appetite, 62 , 236-241.

Finkelstein, E. A., Khavjou, O. A., Thompson, H., Trogdon, J. G., Pan, L., Sherry, B., & Dietz, W. (2012). Obesity and severe obesity forecasts through 2030. American journal of preventive medicine , 42 (6), 563-570.

Garber, K. A., & Lustig, R. H. (2011). Is fast food addictive? Current drug abuse reviews, 4 (3), 146-162.

Garcia, G., Sunil, T. S., & Hinojosa, P. (2012). The fast food and obesity link: Consumption patterns and severity of obesity. Obesity surgery , 22 (5), 810-818.

Lichtenberg, A. L. (2012). A historical review of five of the top fast food restaurant chains to determine the secrets of their success (Senior thesis, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA). Web.

Namba, A. (2013). Exploratory analysis of fast-food chain restaurant menus before and after implementation of local calorie-labeling policies, 2005–2011. Preventing chronic disease, 10 , 1-8.

Richardson, A. S., Boone-Heinonen, J., Popkin, B. M., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2011). Neighborhood fast food restaurants and fast food consumption: A national study. BMC Public Health, 11 (1), 1-8.

Schlosser, E. (2012). Fast food nation: The dark side of the all-American meal . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Van der Horst, K., Brunner, T. A., & Siegrist, M. (2011). Fast food and take‐away food consumption are associated with different lifestyle characteristics. Journal of human nutrition and dietetics, 24 (6), 596-602.

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Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process Argumentative Essay

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Fast food service is definitely one of the scourges of the modern society. Making people get used to the quick and comfortable way of eating, fast food service offers the unhealthy food and, thus, provokes a number of health complexities.

Because of the growing popularity of the fast food products, the concern for the effect that the fast food meals have on the population is growing increasingly big, yet the solutions for the problems and dangers that fast food chains pose to people’s health have not even yet offered. Consequently, it cannot be denied that the consumption of fast food products is greatly harmful for people’s health and must be given up once and for all.

It is required to say the specific features of the fast food that makes it incredibly unhealthy meals. According to the recipes used for cooking the fast food meals, the latter are nutritionally imbalanced. The aforementioned presupposes that fast food incorporates a mixture of sugar, fats and sodium, which are refined in such a way so that the consumers were willing to buy more food from the food chains in question.

For instance, in McDonalds, the intake of fats in French fries makes 570; for hamburgers, the calorie intake is 270, and for sandwiches, it makes 470 (A Calorie Counter), which is already a reason for concern.

Speaking of the consequences that the consummation of fast food triggers, one should remember that the fast food meals have negative effect on a variety of organs due to the specific elements that the former is composed of.

Therefore, several effects of the fast food consummation are to be mentioned. Among the worst effects that fast food has on human health, the diseases that concern the blood system and the endocrine system are to be mentioned. It must be admitted, though, that fast food does not seemingly have any effect on the nervous system.

The first and the foremost effect that has to be mentioned is the clogging of the arteries due to the high rates of cholesterol in the fast food. It is important to mention that excessive consumption of fast food can cause hypertension because of the elements that increase blood pressure. In addition, the specific refined sugar that most fast food contains can lead to various forms of diabetes.

It is also essential to explain that due to a great percentage of fats in fast food, people who consume much fast food are likely to become overweight and even obese. Comprised with the effect that fast food has on blood pressure, the above-mentioned factor can lead even to a heart disease and, therefore, to an untimely death. In the light of the above-mentioned, the fact that fast food can drive to premature dedentition seems rather tolerable issue.

Therefore, it is obvious that the consumption of fast food is incredibly harmful for people’s health. Once giving up the addiction to the meals offered by the fast food chain stores, one will, doubtlessly, observe the improvement of his/her state. As a result of the healthier diet and the refusal from eating fast food products, the improvement of one’s health is bound to occur.

Even though the owners of the fast food chains cannot be denied their rights of doing business, the negative effect that the fast food has on people must not be tolerated, which gives the reasons for refusing to consume the fast food products. It is necessary to admit that staying healthy is a sensible reason to stop buying the food that provides fast saturation, yet has the most deplorable effect on people’s health.

Thus, a solution for the consumption of fast food must be offered. Since most of the people who consume fast food are college students, it can be suggested that there should be a cafeteria next to the college, where the students can have the meals that do not include fast food. One of the probable solutions for the problem is offered by the fast-food chain owners themselves and includes the use of soya bean oil, organic meat and vegetables and the minimized quantity of sodium.

Works Cited

“ Fast Food Restaurants and Nutrition Facts .” A Calorie Counter. 2007. Web.

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• Food and Its Influence on America
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• Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Toward Salt Intake
• Sodium Chloride - Science of Salt
• Obesity: Psychological/ Sociological Issue
• Quality and Value of Food
• Rice: Thailand Native Foods
• Fast Food and Hate Groups
• Recommendations for Ensuring Food Safety & Reducing Disease-Causing Mosquitoes
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IvyPanda. (2018, June 12). Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process. https://ivypanda.com/essays/fast-food-quick-problem-emergence-rapid-addiction-and-slow-recovery-process/

"Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process." IvyPanda , 12 June 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/fast-food-quick-problem-emergence-rapid-addiction-and-slow-recovery-process/.

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1. IvyPanda . "Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process." June 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/fast-food-quick-problem-emergence-rapid-addiction-and-slow-recovery-process/.

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IvyPanda . "Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process." June 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/fast-food-quick-problem-emergence-rapid-addiction-and-slow-recovery-process/.

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Current Status of Evidence for a New Diagnosis: Food Addiction-A Literature Review

Food addiction is considered an important link for a better understanding of psychiatric and medical problems triggered by dysfunctions of eating behaviors, e. g., obesity, metabolic syndrome, binge eating disorder, or bulimia nervosa. At behavioral level, food addiction has high degrees of similarity with other eating disorders, a phenomenon that creates difficulties in finding specific diagnostic criteria. Food addiction has been also described as “eating addiction” or “eating dependence” by several researchers, who placed the emphasis on the behavior and not on the food itself. High-sodium foods, artificially flavored-foods, rich carbohydrate- and saturated fats-containing foods are triggers for the activation of the same neural pathways, therefore they act similarly to any drug of abuse. Food addiction is considered a disorder based on functional negative consequences, associated distress and potential risks to both psychological well-being and physical health. A clinical scale was validated for the quantification of the eating addiction severity, namely the Yale Food Addiction Severity Scale (YFAS), constructed to match DSM IV criteria for substance dependence. Using this instrument, a high prevalence of food addiction was found in the general population, up to 20% according to a meta-analytic research. The pathogenesis of this entity is still uncertain, but reward dysfunction, impulsivity and emotion dysregulation have been considered basic mechanisms that trigger both eating dysfunctions and addictive behaviors. Genetic factors may be involved in this dependence, as modulators of higher carbohydrate and saturate fat craving. Regarding the existence of potential therapeutic solutions, lorcaserin, antiepileptic drugs, opioid antagonists, antiaddictive agents are recommended for obesity and eating disorders, and they may be intuitively used in food addiction, but clinical trials are necessary to confirm their efficacy. In conclusion, a better understanding of food addiction's clinical profile and pathogenesis may help clinicians in finding prevention- and therapeutic-focused interventions in the near future.

Introduction

There has been extensive research in the field of behavioral addictions in the last two decades, with an increasingly large number of papers being published about this topic. A simple search in the PubMed database for “behavioral addictions” had found over 64,000 papers published between January 2000 and November 2021. Both the inclusion of the “gambling disorder” together with substance use disorders in the 2013-launched DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, 5th Edition) and the creation of a new diagnosis -“Internet gaming disorder”- mentioned in the section dedicated to “Conditions for further study” have fueled even more the interest for this relatively newly discovered category of addictions ( 1 ). Other Internet-related disorders, like social networking, shopping, pornography use, gambling, and binge-watching are actively investigated, and so are the non-Internet related addictions (e.g., video-gaming, television viewing), sport/physical exercise addiction, sex addiction etc. Although they are not currently recognized as independent diagnoses by the American Psychiatric Association or World Health Organization ( 1 – 3 ), people are becoming more and more aware of the negative consequences of their addictions and are looking for help. Data regarding clinical manifestations and risk factors for behavioral addictions are gathering, therefore physicians have to be informed about the vulnerable populations, early signs of addiction, validated methods of detection, and to search for preventive and therapeutic measures ( 2 ).

“Food addiction,” also named “eating addiction,” is one of these recently-cornered behavioral pathologies, but the research of specific diagnostic criteria, measurement methods, prognostic factors, and therapeutic interventions is still in its early phase. Food addiction is a very complex entity because it includes clinical components of an eating disorder (i.e., lack of control over eating behavior) and a substance use disorder (i.e., craving, or continuous use despite awareness of the negative consequences), but also of impulsive personality traits (i.e., dispositional impulsivity is routinely associated with high-risk behaviors including addictive consumption of substances) and an obsessive-compulsive disorder (i.e., intrusive thoughts related to food cues) ( Figure 1 ) ( 4 – 6 ). This addiction may associate various health problems, ranging from psychological/psychiatric (e.g., depressed mood, lower self-esteem based on weight gain, major depressive disorder, binge eating disorder) to somatic (e.g., becoming obese or overweight, development of metabolic imbalances due to selective food consumption, diabetes mellitus, or cardiovascular diseases) or social (e.g., fear of stigmatization due to overweight/obesity or addictive-like behavior) ( 4 , 7 – 12 ).

The complex nature of food addiction and its associated health problems.

The construct of “food/eating addiction” is controversial ( Figure 2 ), and several factors tend to negatively interact with its nosographic validation: (a) eating is considered a physiological behavior, therefore distinguishing pathological aspects from whims or culinary preferences is difficult in certain circumstances; (b) the risk to stigmatize socially and culturally-accepted behaviors as being ab-normal is a challenge for mental health specialists, especially if no clear-cut diagnostic criteria exist for this disorder; (c) it is not conceivable to formulate as a therapeutic objective for these patients a complete abstinence, as it is the case with other behavioral addictions; (d) there are no evidence-based therapeutic guidelines, and no clinical or laboratory exams that may be use as definitive, diagnostic methods; (e) there is a high degree of overlap between obesity, binge-eating disorder, bulimia nervosa and food addiction, and separating them solely on clinical basis is difficult ( 13 ).

Arguments for and against the diagnosis of “food addiction.”

“Eating addiction” is sometimes preferred instead of “food addiction” because both animal and human data are consistent with the existence of addictive eating behaviors, while the evidence for a substance-based food addiction is less consistent ( 14 ). Other authors defend the term “food addiction,” stating the substance-based framework is more appropriate than the behavioral-based conceptualization because not all foods are equally addictive, e.g., chocolate vs. high fiber foods, or pizza/fries vs. fruit/vegetables ( 15 ). Also, the presence of a behavior (like binging) is not enough to trigger an addictive-like response without the presence of a substance with abuse potential, while the food addiction requires the interaction of certain foods, behavioral patterns of engagement, and individual risk factors for addiction ( 15 ). For the purpose of this review we consider that food addiction could be considered a behavioral addiction, since there is no clear evidence that a specific food remains the unique trigger for the abusive behavior in a certain individual, and because eating behavior is still the main focus of research in this field. However, the term “food addiction” is by far the most commonly used term in the literature for this pathology, so it will be used in this review instead of the more adequate term of “eating addiction.”

Food addiction has a high degree of comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders, a phenomenon which is also frequently reported in patients presenting other substance use disorders or behavioral addictions ( 16 , 17 ). Some authors even state that dual diagnosis is the rule, rather than the exception, especially in clinical samples ( 8 ). Possible explanations for this high rate of comorbidity may include self-medication, shared genetic vulnerability, common environment, lifestyle, or neural pathways ( 16 ). This clinically- and epidemiologically-supported observation has severe negative consequences reflected in lower treatment adherence, higher risk for physical complications, poorer overall health, poorer self-care, increased suicide or aggression risks, possible legal problems, and greater health burden for patients with dual diagnosis ( 16 ). Also, co-addiction is frequently reported in patients, and multiple substance and/or behavioral addictions are being clustered together ( 17 , 18 ). Mental health professional may, however, be more focused on the acute psychological manifestations of a certain disorder, and ignore or minimize the importance of addictive behaviors, which may occupy the background of the clinical presentation. The use of screening questionnaires or structured interviews may increase the rate of early detection, especially in cases of behavioral addictions, a nosological category that is not yet very well-acknowledged by clinicians ( 18 ).

The objective of the current review is to verify if there are enough data in the literature to support the existence of this newly described diagnosis, i.e., “food addiction.” Five dimensions are considered important in order to delineate such a disorder: (1) clinical criteria for diagnosis, (2) one or more validated instruments for the quantification of this disorder's severity, (3) epidemiological data, (4) evidence for specific pathophysiology, and (5) available treatments.

A literature review dedicated to finding available evidence for the diagnosis, pathogenesis, epidemiology, methods of structured evaluation, and treatment of food addiction was based upon electronic databases search. The main databases included in the analysis were PubMed, Cochrane, Medscape, Thomson Reuters/Web of Knowledge, APA PsycNet, and the search paradigm was “food addiction” OR “eating addiction” AND “treatment” OR “therapy” OR “epidemiology” OR “diagnosis” OR “clinical criteria” OR “pathogenesis” OR “clinical scales” OR “psychometric instruments.” All papers published between January 1990 and October 2021 were screened for eligibility. Inclusions and exclusions criteria for review are presented in Table 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

This systematic review is based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, and all the data collection, review, reporting, and discussion were conducted according to this statement ( Figure 3 ) ( 19 , 20 ).

Results of the PRISMA-based search paradigm.

A number of 1,740 papers surfaced after the primary search, with 13 citations identified by other sources. After filtering these papers using the inclusion/exclusion criteria, only 43 remained for the secondary analysis. An important degree of overlap between papers regarding the information retrieved was detected, because they analyzed in the same time multiple variables of interest for food addiction. A number of 10 papers explored clinical criteria for the diagnosis of food addiction and its subtypes, while 6 papers investigated psychometric properties of a scale dedicated to this pathology. Regarding the pathophysiology of food addiction, 6 papers were retrieved, and 16 papers were reviewed in order to find available information about its epidemiology. Data about the efficacy and/or tolerability of potential treatments for food addiction were extracted from 10 papers, which were mainly reviews.

Clinical Definitions and Suggested Criteria for Diagnosis

Food addiction is defined as an “eating behavior involving the overconsumption of specific foods in an addiction-like manner” ( 21 ). Not all foods are equally addictive, therefore an investigation of the chemical characteristics that may trigger addictive behaviors is needed. Hyperpalatable foods, containing high proportion of saturated fat, sugar, artificial flavors, or sodium have been associated with addictive properties, and public health interventions focused on reducing the impact of addictive drugs may have also a role in targeting obesity and other, related, metabolic diseases ( 4 ).

“Sugar addiction” is a subtype of food addiction which is considered to be defined by overconsumption of highly processed foods with rich sugar content ( 22 ). Sugar may be addictive through potent reinforcing effects via both gustatory and post-ingestive pathways ( 23 ). If sweetness or nutritional signals engage distinctive brain pathways to motivate ingestion is still a matter of debate ( 23 ). In mice there are evidence that separate basal ganglia circuitries are responsible for the hedonic and nutritional actions of sugar, and the cell-specific ablation of dopamine-excitable cells in dorsal, but not ventral, striatum inhibited sugar's ability to drive the ingestion of unpalatable foods ( 23 ). The non-alimentary stimulation of dopamine-excitable cells in dorsal, but not ventral, striatum determined the ingestion of unpalatable foods ( 23 ). In conclusion, sugar recruits a specific dopaminergic circuitry that acts to prioritize energy-seeking over taste quality, and its localization and functioning indicate a possible involvement of the reward system ( 23 ). A literature review focused on sugar and food addiction did not find, however, enough evidence to support the existence of sugar addiction in humans, while data from the animal literature suggest that addiction-like behaviors occur only in the context of intermittent access to sugar (as a consequence of limited access to sweet tasting/highly palatable foods, not due to the neurochemical effects of sugar) ( 22 ).

“Chocolate addiction” was investigated in a study ( N = 50 participants, self-defined as “chocoholics”) and the average consumption reported was 60 grams chocolate per week, with specific craving for chocolate about 6 times a week ( 24 ). The amount of chocolate consumed was significantly correlated with disinhibition, and 76% of the respondents centered their definition of chocolate addiction on a lack of control around the trigger-food ( 24 ). The addictive factor in chocolate was reported to be orosensory, i.e., taste, smell, and texture ( 16 ). Consumers who preferred to eat in secret reported a higher degree of aberrant eating ( 24 ). Another study ( N = 15 subjects, self-labeled as “chocolate addicted,” age between 18 and 49) identified several psychological effects reported secondary to the chocolate consumption (an average of 50 g per day of pure cacao): feelings of increased energy, increased concentration ability, and anxiolytic effect during stress ( 25 ). Minor withdrawal symptoms were described in 7 cases, and mood disorders, anxiety disorders, pathological personality features were identified in this sample ( 25 ).

“Fast food addiction” is yet another controversial subject, with factors like certain nutrients, the characteristics of fast food consumers and the presentation/packaging of fast food being analyzed as potential triggers for dependence ( 26 ). High fat and salt content of the fast food, combined with caffeine and rich in sugar beverages served in this type of restaurants contribute to the addictive potential ( 26 ). Fast food advertisement provide environmental cues that may trigger addictive overeating, and another important aspect is that obese patients tend to eat more fast food than general population ( 26 ). Therefore, obesity may be supported by the rewarding properties of fast food, and lead to tolerance due to leptin and other hormonal imbalance, a phenomenon which further lead to lack of appetite suppression.

“Fat rich food addiction” can be a diagnosable condition, as this food (usually combined with high salt or sugar) is hyperpalatable, and it is liable to be consumed in excess amounts ( 27 ). Psychological vulnerabilities like attentional biases have been identified in people presenting tendency toward this type of addiction, while craving and liking for fat has been explored in patients reporting high consumption of saturated fats, meat, butter, sweetened cream desserts, and pastries ( 27 ).

Diagnostic criteria for food addiction have mainly been extrapolated from the DSM criteria for substance dependence, based on the model of a common pathogenetic and clinical background for behavioral and drug addictions ( 28 ). The consumption of more than initially desired substance/food, or for a longer period of time, intense preoccupation with the substance/food, craving for specific substance/food, and continuous use despite knowledge of adverse events have been the core criteria for the diagnosis of food addiction ( 7 , 28 ).

Psychometric Evaluation

The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) was created in 2009 for the measurement of the food addiction severity, based on the DSM-IV criteria for substance dependence and updated to YFAS 2.0 after the publication of DSM-5 ( 29 , 30 ). The content of YFAS is represented by 25 questions adapted to assess the full range of diagnostic criteria for dependence in case of overconsuming high fat- or high sugar-containing foods in the last 12 months ( 29 ). This scale has good internal consistency, incremental, and convergent validity ( 29 ). The YFAS uses two scoring systems for food addiction symptoms (from 0 to 7, according to the DSM-IV diagnosis criteria) and diagnosis (in patients who endorse 3 or more symptoms plus clinical impairment/distress in the past year) ( 29 ). There are several limitations in the interpretation of the YFAS scores derived from the fact that it is self-administered and from its restrictive, DSM criteria-based, perspective.

The latest form, YFAS 2.0, is a longer version that contains 35 items, with 4 new criteria added, namely craving, use despite interpersonal or social consequences, failure in role obligations, and use in hazardous situations, according to DSM-5 criteria ( 30 , 31 ). This version has unifactorial structure and presents high convergent validity with measures of impulsive eating, obesity, and weight cycling ( 30 , 31 ).

A modified version of the YFAS (mYFAS) was created for administration in large epidemiologic cohorts, by adapting the original scale to 9 items (7 diagnostic criteria plus 2 individual items for clinically significant impairment and distress) ( 32 ). The answers to the questions in the symptoms section could be added, resulting in a global 0 to 7 mYscore ( 32 ). The internal consistency, the convergent and discriminant validity of the mYscore were adequate and identical to that of the original YFAS ( 32 ). The mYFAS and YFAS 2.0 performed similarly on indexes of reliability, convergent validity with related constructs, discriminant validity with distinct measures, and incremental validity supported by associations with frequency of binge eating ( 33 ).

A specific variant of YFAS was created for children (YFAS-C), and it has been proven to present adequate internal consistency, convergent validity and incremental validity in predicting body mass index (BMI) ( 34 ). This scale has 9 items, scored from 0 (never) to 4 (always) based on the frequency reported in the last 12 months ( 34 ). Higher YFAS-C scores correlated not only with higher BMI values, but also with a greater tendency to overeat in response to emotional stimuli ( 34 ). YFAS-C scores negatively correlated with satiety responsiveness (although not significantly), which suggests that children with more severe food addiction may be less sensitive to homeostatic indicators related to food consumption ( 34 ).

Prevalence and Risk Factors

Food addiction was found more frequently in patients with obesity, severe depression, higher impulsivity, posttraumatic stress disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in childhood ( 8 ). According to a systematic review ( n = 25 studies, N = 196,211 patients, 60% overweight/obese) the prevalence of food addiction was almost 20%, based on the YFAS scores ( 8 ). Factors like the age >35, female gender, and higher BMI values were correlated with higher risk for food addiction ( 8 ). In obese/overweight sample the incidence of food addiction was double than in the healthy BMI sample (25 vs, 11%), and it was also double in females compared to males (12 vs. 6.4%) ( 8 ). In both food addiction and substance use disorders similar clinical, neurobiological, psychopathological and sociocultural risk factors have been found by multiple studies ( 35 ).

In two large studies with middle-aged women and older women the prevalence of food addiction measured by mYFAS was reported to vary between 1 and 9%, and it was inversely associated with age and positively correlated with obesity ( 32 ). Former smoking status was positively correlated, while physical exercise was negatively associated with food addiction, if age and BMI were controlled for ( 32 ).

Eating disorders were comorbid with food addiction in 57.6% of the reviewed cases, comparative to 16.2% in population without diagnoses of eating disorders ( 8 ). Patients with bulimia nervosa showed a higher incidence of food addiction compared to people with binge eating disorder in a study ( N = 815 participants) in which food addiction was also associated with lifetime highest BMI, weight cycling, and other eating pathologies ( 36 ). The comorbidity of food addiction and eating disorders in certain patients may reflect a more severe variant of eating pathology ( 36 ).

Certain foods, especially processed foods with added sweeteners and fats, demonstrated the highest addictive potential ( 7 ). Women with current ( N = 26) or remitted ( N = 20) bulimia nervosa were compared to women matched for age and BMI ( N = 63) in order to evaluate the differences in the YFAS score between the groups ( 37 ). All patients with current diagnosis of bulimia nervosa had also criteria for food addiction, according to the YFAS scores, while only 30% of the women with remitted bulimia nervosa had this comorbidity ( 37 ). In the same time, none of the participants in the control group received a food addiction diagnosis, therefore it is possible that bulimia nervosa might represent an addiction-like behavior and food addiction might improve when bulimia nervosa symptoms remit ( 37 ).

Pathophysiology

Hyperpalatable foods and drugs of abuse may induce similar behavioral consequences, like craving, continuous use despite negative effects over own health, and reduced control over consumption ( 4 ). Reduced D2 receptor availability in obesity and substance use disorder vs. healthy controls may explain a dopamine deficiency in these patients ( 38 ). Food addiction, in a similar manner to drugs of abuse, has been supposed to decrease D2 receptors density ( 39 ). Individuals who experience less reward to food intake may overeat in order to compensate for this reward dysfunction ( 40 ). A systematic review and meta-analysis ( n = 33 studies) compared patients with A1 allele of the Taq1A polymorphism (associated with a 30–40% lower number of D2 receptors, and being considered a risk factor for drug addiction) and patients without this allele, but no BMI difference between the two groups has been found ( 41 ). Although this meta-analysis did not support the presence of a reward deficiency in food addiction, there are reports that individuals with A1 allele are less able to benefit from an intervention aimed to reduce weight, possibly by interfering with increased impulsivity ( 39 ). In a trial, greater carbohydrate and fast food craving were associated with A1 vs. A2 allele among Asian Americans college students ( N = 84), although no BMI differences were found between A1/A1 or A1A2 genotype and A2A2 genotype ( 41 ).

A composite index of elevated dopamine signaling (a multilocus genetic profile score) was higher in patients with food addiction diagnosed on the YFAS scoring system, and it correlated positively with binge eating, food cravings, and emotional overeating ( 42 ). The relationship between the genetic index of dopamine signaling and food addiction is mediated by certain aspects of reward-responsive overeating ( 42 ).

Serotonin has an important role in modulating food and drug reinforcement ( 43 ). A 11 C-DASB-PET study in 60 healthy volunteers reported a negative correlation between cortical and subcortical serotonin transporter (SERT) with BMI values, while tobacco and alcohol consumption did not affect cerebral SERT binding ( 44 ). Several anti-obesity drugs act through SERT blockade, which is also an argument for the involvement of serotonergic transmission in the pathogenesis of eating disorders ( 44 ).

Foods modulate endogenous opioids and cannabinoids as a function of palatability, and cause delayed increases of dopamine by increasing glucose and insulin ( 45 ). The combination of naltrexone and bupropion is marketed for the treatment of obesity, supporting the positive impact of opioidergic neurotransmission in the regulation of food intake, food craving, and other aspects of eating behavior that affect body weight ( 46 ).

Dysfunctions of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and CRF have been reported in the withdrawal phase of the addictive cycle ( 45 ). Wihdrawal was accompanied by increased CRF expression and CRF1 electrophysiological responsiveness in the central nucleus of the amygdala in rats withdrawn from palatable foods ( 47 ).

In a trial with 48 healthy adolescent females, ranging from lean to obese, food addiction scores correlated with significantly greater activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial orbitofrontal cortex, and amygdala in response to anticipated food consumption ( 48 ). Higher YFAS scores were present in patients presenting greater activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and caudate in same tests, but less activation in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, when compared to low scores ( 48 ).

In conclusion, similar patterns of neural activation have been found in food addiction and substance use disorders, consisting mainly in elevated activity within the reward circuitry in response to food/drug cues and low activity in the circuitry responsible for inhibition of responses to food intake ( 48 ). These data are supported by meta-analyses which evidence greater activation in the amygdala/hippocampus in obese patients compared to normal weight participants in the pre-meal phase, while in the post-meal phase obese individuals had geater activation in the caudate and medial prefrontal cortex vs. normal weight individuals ( 40 ). Neural structures involved in the caloric evaluation, arousal, and memory were more active in obese patients before eating, while less activity was found in areas linked to interoceptive processing ( 40 ). In the post-meal phase, greater activity was detected in obese patients in areas related to risk vs. reward evaluation and reward processing ( 40 ).

A study compared the EEG activity in food-addicted and non-food addicted obese people with alcohol-addicted and non-addicted lean controls ( N = 20 healthy normal-weight adults, 46 obese participants, and 14 alcohol dependent patients) ( 49 ). The results of this study showed the neural brain activity was similar in alcohol addiction and food addiction, a neural pattern consisting of activation in the dorsal and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, parahippocampal area, and precuneus ( 49 ). Another neural pattern was correlated with obesity and consisted of activation in dorsal and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate extending into the precuneus/cuneus, and in the parahippocampal and inferior parietal area ( 49 ). Food-addicted and non-food-addicted obese people differed by opposite activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus ( 49 ).

The involvement of an impaired cognitive control has been suggested in both substance use disorders and behavioral addictions ( 50 ). Patients diagnosed with food addiction according to the YFAS scores ( N = 34) were compared with a control group ( N = 34) while performing an Eriksen flanker test and an EEG evaluation ( 50 ). A higher number of errors in the cognitive test and reduced response-locked components on the EEG (ERN and Pe) have been reported in the food addiction group ( 50 ). Therefore, food addiction seems to be associated with impaired performance monitoring, similar to other addictions ( 50 ).

A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of food addiction that used mYFAS in 9,314 women of European ancestry showed that two loci met genome-wide significance, and they were mapped to 17q21.31 and 11q13.4 areas ( 51 ). These loci could not be related to genes clearly involved in eating behavior ( 51 ). The results were significantly enriched for gene members of the MAPK signaling pathway, and no candidate single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) or gene for drug addiction was significantly associated with food addiction after correction for multiple testing ( 51 ).

Highly processed foods may present similar pharmacokinetic properties with drugs of abuse, i.e., concentrated dose and rapid rate of absorption, due to the addition of fat and/or refined carbohydrates ( 52 ). These properties may explain the highly addictive properties of hyperpalatable foods ( 52 ). This hypothesis was tested experimentally in a group with 120 participants, who were invited to indicate which foods out of 35 types were most associated with addictive-like eating behaviors ( 52 ). Processed food, higher in fat, and glycaemic load were more frequently associated with problematic, addictive-like eating behaviors, probably due to their ability to induce a faster absorption of fat/sugar into the bloodstream ( 52 ).

Three main mechanisms have been suggested in the pathogenesis of obesity as an addictive disorder: reward dysfunction, impulsivity and emotion dysregulation ( 53 ). The reward dysfunction is based mainly on dopamine neurotransmission abnormalities, and increased activation of the dorsal- and ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex by palatable food ( 53 ). Impulsivity is another feature shared by obesity and addictive disorders, and it is a reflection of an executive-control deficiency that favors short-term rewards of foods/drugs instead of long-term benefits, and it is correlated with decreased activation of medial prefrontal cortex and other executive-control regions ( 53 ). Emotional dysregulation precipitates drugs use or overeating behaviors, and consumption of foods high in fat and/or refined carbohydrates in response to emotional states like stress or negative affect may be relevant for food addiction and obesity ( 53 ).

Food addiction is a complex and multidimensional disorder, with an intricate bio-psycho-social pathogenesis, therefore requiring an integrated therapeutic approach, consisting of psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and social oriented support ( Figure 4 ) ( 35 ).

Therapeutic strategies for food addiction.

Because no well-defined diagnostic criteria for food addiction exist, and the population reported to present this disorder is very heterogeneous, no clinical trial focused on the treatment was identified in the literature. Therefore, data regarding the therapeutic interventions are derived from trials with other, related, eating disorders and from different case management strategies that are based on the presumed neuropathological substrate.

Serotonin, dopamine, and endogenous opioids are considered the main neurotransmitters involved in the dysregulation of eating behaviors, therefore pharmacologic agents targeting these systems have been suggested as possible interventions in food addiction. Lorcaserin is a 5HT2C receptor agonist administered for the treatment of obesity, but it has also been recommended for patients diagnosed with drug dependence, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and gambling disorder ( 43 ). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors were efficient for treatment of binge eating disorder and they were associated with the highest rate of symptoms reduction in placebo-controlled trials ( 54 ). Tricyclic antidepressants (desipramine, imipramine) and dual, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (duloxetine) may also be useful for this pathology ( 54 ). Bupropion may also be useful in the treatment of food addiction based on its favorable effects in obese patients with binge-eating disorder ( 55 ). Anticonvulsants (topiramate, lamotrigine) have been proven efficient in binge eating disorder, anti-obesity agents may help by targeting consequences of food addiction, while antiaddiction drugs (acamprosate, opioid antagonists) may target the reward system involved in the response to hyperpalatable stimuli ( 54 ). The synergistic combination naltrexone/bupropion has been proven more efficient when combined with lifestyle intervention and calorie reduction for patients with obesity than each individual medicine alone ( 56 ).

Based on the high degree of overlap between binge eating disorder and food addiction, the main psychotherapeutic interventions recommended are cognitive-behavioral therapy (with anti-binging effects maintained on follow-up), interpersonal therapy (decreased binge eating behavior and depressive comorbidity), dialectical behavior therapy (decreased binge eating behavior and associated eating disorder psychopathology), behavioral weight loss, self-help techniques, or combined therapies ( 54 ). Overeaters Anonymous (OA) and Weight Watchers International (WW) are self-help groups emphasizing psychological and spiritual components (OA) or behavioral strategies (WW) that provide a framework for developing positive, adaptive, and self-nurturing modalities to cope with eating disorders and obesity ( 57 ).

Neuromodulation techniques have also been explored for their potential of reducing craving and addictive behaviors ( 58 ). Decrease of substance craving has been demonstrated for transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) or repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) applied to the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), an area involved in the inhibitory control, mediated by dopaminergic neurotransmission ( 58 ). In adults with food craving ( N = 19), tDCS improved the percentage of change in cravings rating from pre- to post-stimulation significantly more than sham tDCS ( 59 ). Post-hoc analyses suggest that active prefrontal tDCS acutely and significantly decreased food cravings for sweet foods more than sham tDCS ( 59 ).

Macro-social interventions may be focused on changing the availability of addictive foods, on increasing the taxation for these products or for their ingredients, on decreasing the marketing of these type of products for children and adolescents, or on increasing the availability of healthier foods ( 4 ).

Preventive measures are important for food addiction and for decreasing the incidence of obesity, although it should be noted that not all patients with food addiction are obese or viceversa. Avoidance of triggers for food consumption that may be included in the daily routine (e.g., visual stimuli, like commercials, or olfactory stimuli, like passing by a bakery on the way to work), eating only when someone is feeling hungry (using a 0 to 10 points scale, from starvation to overeating, may be useful in grading the need to eat), improving the emotional control, and regular physical exercise are simple methods that may have a significant impact ( 60 ).

Food addiction is a controversial diagnosis which is not included in the current classificatory systems created by either American Psychiatric Association or World Health Organization ( 1 , 3 ). Also, no unanimously accepted, well-defined diagnosis criteria were detected in the literature during this review. However, the vast majority of the found papers used the same criteria for food addiction that are commonly used for substance use disorders. A set of psychometric instruments has been validated (YFAS, mYFAS, YFAS 2.0, YFAS-C) for quantification of the food addiction severity in adult and children populations.

As in the case of other behavioral addictions, the neurobiological, and psychological factors contributing to the food addiction pathophysiology are common with other substance use disorders. The main explanation for the pathogenesis of food addiction remains a dysfunction in the reward system. Similar clinical, neurobiological, psychopathological, and sociocultural risk factors have been identified in food addiction and substance use disorders ( 35 ). Data derived from genetic studies are still sparse, but the less functional dopamine 2 receptor allele has been associated with food addiction and substance dependence ( 41 ).

No clinical trial focused on the treatment of food addiction has been identified in the literature, therefore no clear therapeutic recommendation could yet be formulated. A high degree of overlap between food addiction, eating disorders recognized by current classifications, and obesity could be a significant obstacle for designing such trials. The importance of finding a correct conceptual framework for food addiction derives from the same, high degree of overlap between this pathology and obesity. Also, integration of food addiction in the therapeutic management of obese patients could be useful in reaching better outcomes for this population.

This review has inherent limitations based on the scarcity of data derived from clinical trials, which seriously limits the possibility of treatment recommendations. Diagnostic criteria for “food addiction” are controversial, and the heterogeneity of the studied population also limits the possibility of formulating screening strategies that are already implemented for other addictive disorders.

Author Contributions

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Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Fast Food Addiction Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Leadership , Health , Education , Environmental Issues , Food , World , Knowledge , Body

Words: 1200

Published: 11/08/2019

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Fast food is a real scourge of the contemporary world. Not only does it lead to obesity, but it also causes a number of illnesses, indigestion, and self-destruction. Dieticians, nutritionists, and doctors have been screaming and shouting about the problem world is facing nowadays, let alone the United States of America. Fast food industry has literally bulked into the contemporary society, making people first and foremost addicted to it. Fast food is ruthless to everyone, irrespective of his/ her age, nationality, social status, profession, etc. The world has turned into a huge fast food customer, where the only ones who benefit are the producers. However, despite the fact that everyone is aware of the scourge, at the same time it turns out that little do we know why exactly fast food is so dangerous. The article ‘Why You Should Avoid Fast Food at All Costs’ by Richard Stossel is shedding light on the process of fast food production. He is opening to the reader all the pros and cons of fast food, all the nuts and bolts, which, by the end of the story, will never leave one indifferent. The article itself was written a year ago after Richard conducted a huge research to understand why people should steer clear of fast food. The author is a network engineer with deep knowledge in Chinese material arts, medicine and chi-gung. He is specialised in many Chinese health and healing arts, what enabled him help many people lose weight and overcome various health ailments. Richard is spreading his knowledge in nutrition, meditation, physics, and supplements through the web, seminars, and articles. His main goal is to open people’s eyes, to fight with ignorance about what we are actually eating. The topic, which was chosen by Richard for this article is more than timely. There have already been a number of articles devoted to fast food; however, the majority of them are more focused on the figures: the percentage of obese people, the number of illnesses, the geographical aspect of the problem, etc. Nonetheless, this particular article is ‘harder’ than the others, as it is revealing the process of production, describing even slightest details in all the colours. There is a feeling that throughout the article Richard is simply trying to disgust the reader to fast food, and he is doing it perfectly. Richard Stossel structured his article, dividing it into several main topics, which are finally tightly connected with each other, and finally lead to the same conclusion – unhealthy. In his first part ‘the Processing Line’ Richard is revealing the secrets of the production industry, conditions and sources of labor. The second part ‘Animal Cruelty’ is devoted to the quality of meat people consume. The third and fourth parts tell the reader about chemicals, which are used to add taste or color to food. And finally, the fifth part is more scientific one, as it describes what happens with our body if we consume such food. If one compares the number of cattle processed per hour twenty years ago and contemporary volumes, he will be shocked – 175 compared to 400 cattle per hour respectively. The process has become like an assembly line – people are standing close to each other performing the same motions with a knife. No doubt, when the process is so incessant, percentage of mistake is incredibly high: for example, they can cut off the wrong parts of the carcass. According to Stossel, such pace of work has even lead to a number of deaths, either caused by machine injures, or accidental falling into machine itself. Even though the second theory sounds a bit exaggerated, Richard claims that such accidents did happen. If some reader may not believe in the abovementioned, as these are single instance facts, but the way animals are bred has been proved many times before. First and foremost, cattle are usually kept in abominable conditions, where they are standing close to each other, irrespective of their health condition. Not only do animals receive hormones and cramped feedlots, but they are finally slaughtered even if they are in poor health. The reason of their health problems is surely feed. Up to 1997 almost 75% of the US cattle were fed with livestock wastes, which remain of dead sheep and cattle. Even though later it was banned by the FDA due to bovine spongiform encephalopathy, also known as ‘mad cow disease’, current FDA regulations actually allow turning dead cattle and poultry into feed. Well, indeed, if one thinks this statement over, he will understand that meat we consume is frankly bred on carrion. Such a statement not only does disgust, but also explains such a huge number of poisoned people. However, unfortunately, these factors are not the only ones which cause the abundance of problems. Flavor and color chemicals also do their job perfectly. If somebody bought food relying on its color and flavor, he/ she would never do it again, as this article reveals all the truth about such chemicals as Ethyl-2-methyl butyrate, methyl-2-peridylketone, or Ethyl-3- hydroxybutanoate. One will never understand that he is eating some methyl-2-peridylketone, as it has a perfect taste of popcorn. All the taste as well as color chemicals are widely used in food production. Not only do they help to attract more customers, but also convince a consumer that he is buying health and fresh food. Here lies deception! Almost all the products we may find in a shop are soaked through with these ‘frauds’. Taking a look at a more medical side of the story, it is important to mention that every person should consume digestive enzymes to ensure proper digestion. As it has been already proved, all the above mentioned products lack enzymes, nutritional and energy elements; the body is consuming its own digestive enzymes to digest food. Contrary to dead food, natural raw food is rich with its own natural enzymes, which help the body process food. It is extremely important to get these natural enzymes, as it is common knowledge that not only is this element a part of immune system, but they are also responsible for every process in the human body, including heart beating. Throughout this article Richard is not trying to scare the reader, he is not convincing to give up fast food; he is simply trying to help people think. Unfortunately, people are too ignorant about the problem – our country is one of the ‘fattest’ countries in the world, it is widely spread among children and adults, irrespective of their nationality. The real problem is that if we do not stop and think right now, the population will be degenerating, and after this process starts it would be hard to turn back.

Works cited

Stossel, Richard. “Why you should avoid fast food at all costs.” Natural News, 6 Jan. 2009. Web. 4 Feb. 2011.

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Review Article

Fast food addiction: a major public health issue.

Abdul Kader Mohiuddin*

Nasirullah Memorial Trust, Bangladesh

Corresponding Author

Abdul Kader Mohiuddin, Nasirullah Memorial Trust, Tejgaon, Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh.

Received Date: December 30, 2019;   Published Date: January 23, 2020

Fast food/Junk food is designed to be tasty, comforting and convenient. Unfortunately, whilst these foods contain lots of calories, they often have far lower levels of fiber, water and minerals as compared to natural foods. Packaged food and snacks are also created specifically so that we get enough texture and taste from each bite to tantalize our taste buds; but not enough to make us feel full. It’s evident that fast food feels good to eat and tempts us in many different situations. Fast food first popularized in the 1970s in the United States, which has today the largest fast food industry in the world. As taste, time considerations, convenience, and cost are major factors that contribute to an adolescent’s or young adult’s food choices, fast food restaurants serve as popular sites for their meals eaten outside the home. Current approaches suggest that fast food restaurants should be required to clarify nutrition information such as energy and fat content on their menu boards and on product packaging. This is important to help the consumer to make better food choices before purchasing. An adequate, nutritious, and balanced diet is essential to maintain health for one’s lifetime. To achieve this healthy diet, fast food consumption should be limited.

Keywords: Morbidity and Overweight; Obesity Among Children; Junk Food; Stroke and Heart Diseases; Food Induced Neurodegeneration; Carbonated Beverages; Red Meat Over-Consumption; Food Effects in Fertility and Sex Drive; Artificial Sweeteners and Condensed Milk

• Introduction

Menus, as lists of prepared foods, provides origin of the food items (Thai, Chinese, Continental), restaurant’s mission, chef’s philosophy of cooking, brief idea about food processing, special combo offers along with their cost. The colorful menu or flyers attracts fast food lovers to spend more and more in their favorite restaurants for both its decadent yumminess and its ultra-convenience. High income, rapid urbanization, free home deliveries, mouthwatering advertisements and international cuisines have contributed to a rising trend in increased junk food intake. Calculation of monetary cost gets more priorities than the actual hidden health costs, as usual. The growing widespread use of fast food among adolescents and young adults is of concern due to the high fat and energy intake, which may cause obesity and subsequently obesity-related chronic diseases. The added fat, sugar, and salt create a taste that makes people crave these foods, a sensation that many describe as an addiction. Increase in the junk food consumption is a global phenomenon having a prevalence of around 70% [1]. US fast-food sales increased exponentially between 1970 and 2000, from $6 billion to $110 billion [2]. During this time, obesity rates among US adults doubled and it is expected that 85% of US citizens will be affected by obesity by 2030 [3]. The real-life cost of fast foods in terms of obesity, diabetes and cardiac complications are well documented, repeated several times in newspapers, health bulletins, journals and so on. New York city became the first jurisdiction in the US to require restaurant chains to post calorie information on menus and menu boards [4]. However, the dark side of the fast food consumption is not ended yet, some more are there to look forward (Figure 1).

Most of the fast food contains a large amount of sugar, fats and carbs and less minerals and vitamins. This means that people are taking in large amounts of unhealthy calories in the shape of fast food which leads to weight gain and ultimately obesity. In a Brazilian study, several products were identified as obesogenic: sweets and sugar, typical rich food dishes, pastries, fast food, oils, milk, cereals, cakes and sauces [5]. Obesity is linked to several long-term health conditions, premature death and illness including diabetes, heart disease, stroke, gall bladder disease, fatty liver, arthritis and joint disorders and some cancers [6]. In a newspaper interview, Professor AK Azad Khan, President, Diabetic Association of Bangladesh said 40% school going children of Dhaka city were either obese or overweight [7]. A community level cross-sectional study in Bangladesh, Hossain et.al, 2019 reported that nearly 65% of the mothers of preschool aged children were not aware of childhood obesity as a health problem [8]. Fast food consumption habit has been found as a potential risk factor for overweight and/ or obesity among children in other studies [9,10]. Also, Al Muktadir et.al, 2019 reported that (systematic random sampling attending in 27 established public and private universities) more than 40% of the youth went to fast food restaurants at least once per week and over 27% went regularly (2 times/week). Youth having fast foods 2 times/week, consuming soft drinks 3-4 times/week were more likely to be obese [11]. Processed and fast foods contain high amounts of saturated fats. Fast foods reduce the quality of diet and provide unhealthy choices especially among children and adolescents raising their risk of obesity (Figure 2).

Junk food includes many types of fast food, processed foods, and premade snack foods. Fast food is often highly processed, and this can have a negative impact on health. Fast food consumption and outof- home eating behavior is a main risk factor for lower diet quality, higher calorie and fat intake and lower micronutrients density of diet [12]. The fast food market is mostly unregulated in Bangladesh with no government policy to control pricing and advertisements giving the way of new global chains in the market. Consumption of fast foods ≥2 times/week increased the risk of insulin resistance and T2DM. Frequent consumption of fast foods was accompanied with overweight and abdominal fat gain, impaired insulin and glucose homeostasis, lipid and lipoprotein disorders, induction of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress [13]. Fast food restaurants were found to be positively associated with diabetes prevalence in all counties except high poverty/medium-minority [14]. Research has shown that excess calories shorten lifespan, whereas moderate caloric restriction slows the aging process and protects the body and brain [15]. Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Again, nitrosamines of processed meats, mostly used in fast foods, have been demonstrated to be toxic to beta cells and subsequently to increase the risk of T2D in animal studies [16]. Higher pre-pregnancy consumption of fast foods was associated with an increased risk of diabetes in pregnancy and high birthweight in first-time mothers, found in a southwest Sydneybased study [17].

Stroke, previously thought a condition belonging to the elderly, is now increasingly a middle-aged health problem too. Healthy lifestyle choices reduce the risk of stroke by ~80%, according to Spence, 2019. Also, each 5 kg/m2 increase in BMI, within the range of 25–50 kg/m2 is associated with about 40% higher stroke mortality [18]. Higher consumption of fast food was associated with higher BMI Z score [13]. Frequent consumption of fast food, ≥2 times/week, compared to <1 time/week, has been accompanied with ≥4.5 kg weight gain during a fifteen-year follow-up of US adolescents and young adults, says the same study. Fuhrman, 2018 stated that eating unhealthier fast and processed foods 7-fold increase the risk of early-life stroke [15]. Vaitkevičiūtė et.al, 2019 also pointed associations between the frequencies of consumption of unhealthy, high-fat food, soft drinks and higher BMI in children [19]. Wall et.al, 2018 found an inverse association between BMI and higher consumption of fruit, vegetables, pulses and nuts in adolescents [20]. There was a significant association between fast food restaurants and stroke risk in neighborhoods in a communitybased study. Accessibility to fast food restaurants may be one pathway by which neighborhood disadvantage contributes to atherosclerosis [21]. Interestingly, living farther away from a fast food restaurant was found to be associated with lower BMI for children, as reported by Huang et.al, 2019 [22]. Caffeinated energy drinks have also been associated with seizures and stroke [23].

• Heart Diseases

The prevalence of fast food consumption, obesity and hypertension is high among children in major cities in China, according to Zhao et.al, 2017. 16-20% of Chinese children have high BP [24]. Association between increased BMI and hypertension in children with fast food is also detailed in another study done in Sikkim, India [25]. A significant association was found between fast food consumption, BP levels, and anthropometric indices in another Iranian study among children [26]. Body size has a major impact on the association between intake of the modern dietary pattern and hypertension. Alsabieh et.al, 2019 demonstrates that increased systolic BP significantly correlated with an increase in BMI [27]. Both Kar et.al and Bahadoran et.al, 2015 supports association between increased BMI and fast food [13], [25]. Shi et.al, 2019 concluded that reducing the consumption of modern fast foods is important to prevent hypertension in Thailand [28]. Higher consumption of fast foods and higher exposure to multiple sources of accessible, cheap, energy-dense fast foods were also accompanied with a 56-162% increased risk of coronary heart disease mortality [13].

• Neurodegeneration and Psychological Changes

Several cross-sectional studies have found significant associations between poor nutritional status and behavioral disturbances, worse cognitive status, and more impaired functioning in adult daily living activities [27]. Fat-filled snack foods may heighten the risk of developing advanced age-related neuro-degeneration, the leading cause of vision and hearing impairment [29]. Researchers from the University of Bristol warn that such poor diets can also permanently damage the nervous system, particularly vision [4]. It negatively affects brain health by damaging regions relevant to memory tasks and by diminishing brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels. This amplifies the risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease later in life [6], [27]. Also, presence of depressive symptoms is positively associated with fast-food intake [30] and junk food consumption may increase the risk for psychiatric distress and violent behaviors in children and adolescents [31,32]. A study among Iranian children and adolescents reveals that junk food consumption was significantly associated with mental distress, including “worry, depression, confusion, insomnia, anxiety, aggression, and feelings of being worthless” [33]. In addition, caffeine content of cola and carbonated beverages are responsible for hyperactivity/attention deficit in children [34].

• Headache/Precipitation of Migraine

Monosodium Glutamate is one of the most widely used foodadditives in commercial foods. It has linked with obesity, metabolic disorders, thyroid disorders, Chinese Restaurant Syndrome (headache, skin flushing, and sweating), neurotoxic effects and detrimental effects on the reproductive organs [35-39]. As it triggers tenderness of the peri-cranial muscles (most prominent clinical finding in tension-type headache), people with migraine should strictly avoid it. The absence of a significant relationship between processed meat products and canned foods consumption and migraine headache might be due to people’s interest in traditional foods and lack of tendency to consume fast foods in Iran [40]. The interruption of daily consumption of caffeine-containing beverages can cause headache and other symptoms within 8 hours [41]. Also, caffeine abstinence is associated with better efficacy of acute migraine treatment [42].

• Physical Performance

A Newcastle-based study among elderly people shows that dietary pattern high in red meats, potato or butter may adversely affect muscle strength and physical performance in later life [43]. The fat and sugar levels in junk foods stress the metabolism, causing it to work less effectively. Particularly daily consumption of junk food may be associated with poorer mental and physical health [44]. Abstaining from junk foods is one way to keep cholesterol levels low and prevent clogged arteries, which can reverse the symptoms of heart disease and improve athletic performance. Excess consumption of junk food can affect the physical as well as mental performance of children. Addiction of junk-food in early age may cause serious illness in later age. The harmful effect of junk-food are overweight, low physical stamina and other health problems among adolescents [45,46]. Also, Stokes et.al, 2018 suggested fast food alternatives to young athletes [47] (Figure 3).

• Cancers and Auto-Immune Disorders

Gluten, another notorious protein responsible for auto-immune disorders, was found in more than 50% pizza and pasta samples in “Gluten-Free” labelled restaurants [47]. A new study in PLOS Medicine finds eating unhealthy food is associated with a higher risk of developing cancer [48]. People who ate the most junk food showed a higher risk of stomach, colorectal, and surprisingly, lung cancers. Separately, men showed a higher risk of lung cancer, and women showed a higher risk of liver and postmenopausal breast cancers [49]. Nitrate and nitrite, which are abundant in processed meats, are potential carcinogens found in breast, prostate, pancreas, colorectal cancers along with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and insulin resistance [50-58]. Beyond nutritional composition, neoformed contaminants, some of which have carcinogenic properties (such as acrylamide, heterocyclic amines, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), are present in heat treated processed food products as a result of the Maillard reaction, says Cangemi et.al, 2019 [59]. Again, Buckley et.al, 2019 demonstrated that the packaging of ultra processed foods may contain some materials in contact with food for which carcinogenic and endocrine disruptor properties have been postulated, such as bisphenol A [60]. Finally, ultra-processed foods contain authorized, but controversial, food additives such as sodium nitrite in processed meat or titanium dioxide (TiO2, white food pigment), for which carcinogenicity has been suggested in animal or cellular models [59], [61]. Interestingly, people hooked on fast food and have limited intake of vegetables and fruits. High salt intake, including salt preserved foods, smoked or dried meat and fish, pickled food, low intake of fresh fruit and vegetables, obesity are among the most contributory to stomach and colorectal cancers [62].

• Gut, Bone Health & Premature Aging

A moderate increased risk of irritable bowel syndrome is reported in a French Internet based study [63]. Symptoms of bloating, gas, or pain passing bowel movements may be aggravated by high fast food consumption [64]. Use of Aspartame, a low-calorie sugar substitute in Coke Zero or Diet Coke is still controversial due to possibility of cancer development [65]. Another study says that a high-fat diet alters the structure of the microbiome even in the absence of obesity [66]. Western diet is characterized by a high intake of saturated and omega-6 fatty acids, reduced omega-3 fat intake, an overuse of salt, and too much refined sugar [67]. “Ingestion of sugar, in particular, can accelerate premature aging”, says The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology [68], as exceeded free blood sugar promotes cross-linking of skin collagen fibers [69]. Fast food and carbonated beverages often contain large amounts of phosphate additives. This, according to another leading journal In Vivo, hampers kidney function and bone health [70].

• Reproductive Health

Over-consumption of cheese, yogurt, modified grains (bread, pasta, crackers, cereals) may jeopardize testosterone, male sex hormone that plays a major role in fertility and sex drive, according to Dr. Michael Hirt, founder of the Center for Integrative Medicine in California [71]. In addition, diets that are low in whole-grain foods, legumes, vegetables and fruits, and high in red meat, full-fat dairy products, and sugary foods and beverages are all associated with an increased risk of erectile dysfunction [72]. An official publication of the Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecological Societies of India says that popularity of junk food in adolescence are responsible for the increasing polycystic ovarian syndrome in adolescent girls and is challenge for gynecologists treating them [73]. Market available ice creams or raita salads in hotel-restaurants are storehouse of E. coli bacteria, can be responsible for diarrhea, abdominal cramp, fever, vomiting and uncomplicated urinary infections sometimes [74]. The so-called condensed milk added as artificial sweeteners is nothing but over-boiled palm oil that deposits in the deep tissues, imparts metabolic disorders and poorly eliminates.

• Conclusion and Recommendations

Children and adolescents are exposed to various forms of food marketing while using social media applications, most of which promotes unhealthy foods [75]. Teenagers are aggressively targeted by food marketing messages (primarily for unhealthy foods) and susceptible to this messaging due to developmental vulnerabilities and peer-group influence [76]. Fast-food consumption is associated with lower diet quality [77]. Healthier foods cost nearly twice as much as unhealthier foods per serving on an average among high income countries [78]. Americans allocate more than 40% of their food budget to restaurants and fast foods [40]. The scenario is opposite in Bangladesh. In capital city, people often pay restaurant bills equivalent to more than 500% cost involved in regular meals. Again, traditional fast foods including Singara, Samucha, Puri, Piaju, Lachcha Shemai and Paratha all are generally deeply fried. Commercially available packaged bakery and fast foods often do not contain any declaration of their fat content [79]. Occasional fast food consumption (considered as cheat foods) has been encouraged in various bodybuilding websites, as it stimulates many enzymes that were previously deactivated. But in Bangladesh, Non- Communicable Disease Risk Factor Survey 2013, consumption of inadequate fruit and/or vegetables (<5 servings per day) was found in more than 90% people [80]. Strong advocacy on the detrimental effects of fast food consumption should be routinely done in educational institutions. But Alas! Most fast foods are consumed by youth and children from the nearby shops of educational institutions or the canteens run by the institutions themselves.

• Acknowledgement

I’m thankful to Dr. Colin D. Rehm, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Epidemiology & Population Health, Alert Einstein College of Medicine, NY, USA for her precious time to review my literature and thoughtful suggestions. Also, I’m also grateful to seminar library of Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka and BANSDOC Library, Bangladesh for providing me books, journal and newsletters.

• Conflict of Interest

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

Table 1: Summary of Diabetic Risk Factors in Bangladesh.

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• DOI: 10.33552/ABEB.2019.03.000569
• Volume 3 - Issue 4, 2019
• Open Access

Abdul Kader Mohiuddin. Fast Food Addiction: A Major Public Health Issue. A Review. Arch Biomed Eng & Biotechnol. 3(4): 2020. ABEB.MS.ID.000569.

Morbidity and Overweight, Obesity Among Children, Junk Food, Stroke and Heart Diseases, Food Induced Neurodegeneration, Carbonated Beverages, Red Meat Over-Consumption, Food Effects in Fertility and Sex Drive, Artificial Sweeteners and Condensed Milk

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .

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Is fast food addictive?

Affiliation.

• 1 Division of Adolescent Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 21999689
• DOI: 10.2174/1874473711104030146

Studies of food addiction have focused on highly palatable foods. While fast food falls squarely into that category, it has several other attributes that may increase its salience. This review examines whether the nutrients present in fast food, the characteristics of fast food consumers or the presentation and packaging of fast food may encourage substance dependence, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association. The majority of fast food meals are accompanied by a soda, which increases the sugar content 10-fold. Sugar addiction, including tolerance and withdrawal, has been demonstrated in rodents but not humans. Caffeine is a "model" substance of dependence; coffee drinks are driving the recent increase in fast food sales. Limited evidence suggests that the high fat and salt content of fast food may increase addictive potential. Fast food restaurants cluster in poorer neighborhoods and obese adults eat more fast food than those who are normal weight. Obesity is characterized by resistance to insulin, leptin and other hormonal signals that would normally control appetite and limit reward. Neuroimaging studies in obese subjects provide evidence of altered reward and tolerance. Once obese, many individuals meet criteria for psychological dependence. Stress and dieting may sensitize an individual to reward. Finally, fast food advertisements, restaurants and menus all provide environmental cues that may trigger addictive overeating. While the concept of fast food addiction remains to be proven, these findings support the role of fast food as a potentially addictive substance that is most likely to create dependence in vulnerable populations.

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• DOI: 10.33552/abeb.2019.03.000569
• Corpus ID: 213420056

Fast Food Addiction: A Major Public Health Issue

• Abdul Kader Mohiuddin
• Published in Archives in Biomedical… 29 December 2019

2 Citations

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• Highly Influential

Fast food consumption and its associations with heart rate, blood pressure, cognitive function and quality of life. Pilot study

Fast-food consumption, diet quality and body weight: cross-sectional and prospective associations in a community sample of working adults, fast food fever: reviewing the impacts of the western diet on immunity, association of junk food consumption with high blood pressure and obesity in iranian children and adolescents: the caspian-iv study., related papers.

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Fighting food addiction

Yale University graduate student Ashley Gearhardt has found surprising connections between substance abuse and food cravings, and is pioneering a new field along the way.

By Tori DeAngelis

Print version: page 28

Imagine a pizza slice dripping cheese seductively off of a plate, or envision a thick, rich chocolate bar. Hungry? You're in good company, says Yale University graduate student Ashley Gearhardt. These "hyperpalatable" foods are specifically engineered to spark cravings, triggering brain responses that look surprisingly like the brain's response to alcohol or even hard drugs, according to her research, conducted under the mentorship of Yale obesity researcher Kelly Brownell, PhD, and Arizona State University addiction researcher Will Corbin, PhD.

Unfortunately, people aren't struggling with the nutritious foods they actually need more of, she says. Instead, the food that is "really jacked up" in its reward value is junk food, like french fries, "where you'd benefit if you never had another one," she says.

Gearhardt began wondering whether food can be addictive when, as an undergraduate, she heard Caroline Davis, PhD, a professor at York University and Oxford University, discuss whether eating behaviors might share similarities with addictive behaviors — a line of research being explored by a few researchers via animal models. "I found the idea fabulously interesting, but it was a field that really hadn't evolved yet," says Gearhardt.

So she began studying traditional addiction as a psychology graduate student under Corbin. She found herself again drawn toward food when Brownell gave a guest lecture to her class. Brownell's talk clinched her focus: Instead of studying well-established addictions, Gearhardt would help pioneer the entirely new field of food addiction. It was a gutsy move, but one that has been fruitful. Gearhardt has been first author on 10 published or in press papers over the last two years alone — a remarkable feat for a graduate student, says Brownell.

"Ashley Gearhardt has done groundbreaking work," Brownell says, "and it is being noticed in the scientific world and beyond."

Foundational Studies

The team's first task was to develop the Yale Food Addiction Scale, first published in the journal Appetite (Vol. 52, No. 2) in 2009. The measure takes the substance-dependence criteria from the revised fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and translates them to reflect eating behaviors associated with foods high in fat, salt and sugar.

The seven-item scale has since been cited in 13 published studies, used in a number of ongoing studies and translated into several languages. "I think the strength of our scale is that it takes the gold standard for diagnosing any other sort of addiction and applies it to eating behavior," she says.

To test the scale, Gearhardt and her colleagues used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the brains of 48 women as they viewed images of a chocolate milkshake and again when they sipped a milkshake. When participants who met the criteria for food addiction saw the milkshake pictures, they showed high levels of activation in brain areas associated with craving and motivation, including the caudate and the medial orbitofrontal cortex, according to results published in the April Archives of General Psychiatry . They also found that the addicted women's brains were less active in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, a region associated with self-control, while they were actually drinking the shake.

"The findings suggest that besides behavioral similarities among people who might be addicted to food and those addicted to other substances, there may be potentially similar biological underpinnings as well," Gearhardt says.

The research also suggests that people with food addictions respond to food cues in much the same way that alcoholics respond to drinking cues. That initial stimulus — a picture of a pizza, a smoky bar — sparks deep-seated cravings in both cases, she says. Also, the dulled restraint-related brain activity that takes place when a food-addicted person drinks a milkshake may parallel what happens with alcoholics who take a sip of alcohol and then can't stop drinking, the findings suggest.

The team was shocked at the strength of the findings, which showed medium to large effect sizes both in food addicts' sighting of cues and in consumption, says Gearhardt. A subsequent trip to the Obesity and Food Addiction Summit in Seattle brought the issue home for her, she says. At the conference, people who described themselves as food addicts shared their struggles. One woman said she often lacked the energy to play or interact with her child because she felt "hung over" from the amount of food she had consumed. A man talked about missing work after a junk-food binge because he felt so sluggish and fatigued.

"Hearing their stories and their frustration in having their experience dismissed by the scientific and clinical community really brought this work to a new level for me," says Gearhardt.

The Big Picture

Gearhardt and her colleagues are expanding their initial findings. In one study, they're examining people's brain activity in response to food ads that feature these uber-engineered consumables. In another, they're collaborating with researchers in the Harvard Nurses' Health Study, where they're using an abbreviated version of their addiction scale to examine associations between obesity and food addiction in a large community sample. They're also planning to study which foods are most addictive, Gearhardt says.

"If we're going to combat the food addiction process, we'd better have strong evidence to show what those foods are," she says.

Combating food addiction, however, can't be done through research alone, Gearhardt and Brownell say. The country needs policy solutions as well, such as taxing potentially addictive food and drink items; restricting the inclusion of these foods in vending machines; or limiting junk-food advertising to children, who otherwise are all too easily sucked into images of gooey, fattening candy bars or cheese-laden pizza slices.

For his part, Brownell is confident that Gearhardt's already groundbreaking work will continue to provide solid evidence to back up the notion that some foods are indeed designed to lure us in.

"Ashley is still technically a grad student," he says, "and she's one of the leading figures in this important and exciting field."

Tori DeAngelis is a writer in Syracuse, N.Y.

Diagnostic Tool

Are you a food addict? Try out Gearhardt's diagnostic tool .

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Fast Food Addiction Essay – the Case of UAE

Introduction

• Fast Food & Obesity in UAE

Fast Food Addiction: Literature Review

• Further Research Questions & Areas

Appendix 1 – Separate Sheet

This fast food addiction essay explores the causes of obesity in UAE. The United Arab Emirates in one of the world’s most obese countries, and one of the key reasons for the fact is addictive junk food consumption.

The first section introduces the topic to the reader. The second section contains a literature review. The last two sections summarize the ideas and provide some ideas for further research.

Fast Food & Obesity in UAE

Earlier, the locals of United Arab Emirates (UAE) had the habit of eating nutritious and freshly cooked food in the warmth of their homes. Recent times have witnessed a change in this perception due to changed preferences of the people – especially the younger lot ( The United Arab Emirates , 2010). They now prefer having fast food such as burgers, French fries, shawarma (a local non-vegetarian delicacy wrapped in a khuboos), etc. There are several reasons that can be attributed to this change. The transformation from home-made food to fast food has been so severe and wide-spread that people have become addicted to fast food in the UAE. Besides considering the reasons for this addiction, this paper will also explain (briefly) the implications of such an addiction.

As is understood, UAE has an abundance of oil on which the country’s economy is mainly based. After the discovery of oil, the living standard of people has changed dramatically. While earlier the people of UAE were confined to their place of residence, today they have exposure to the global community. The Western culture has had great influence on the locals of the UAE. The incoming Western culture was accompanied by the eating habits as well and this is how the concept of fast food got introduced in the UAE.

Likewise other businesses, the fast food sector also adopts strategies depending on the target audience. Considering the addiction of the people of the UAE, fast food companies are introducing innovative concepts in their products and marketing strategies to woo their customers. The buyers have an inclination to buy good quality products at cheaper prices. As such, they don’t mind changing the suppliers and buying from the one that offers good quality at better prices. In other words, buyers want best value for their money. There is a noteworthy chance for the purchasers to concentrate on the industry and its firm benefits.

There are several factors that acted as catalysts in promoting this concept throughout the UAE. The first one that comes to mind is the change in the lifestyle of the people living in the UAE (locals and expatriates). Hectic work schedules (for elders) don’t allow them to devote time to shop for ingredients of food to cook. This particular situation became more critical once women were allowed to work in offices in the UAE. So, the time factor is also responsible for preference for fast food (Zafar, Abbasi, Choudhry, & Riaz, 2002) 1 .

Oil has brought prosperity to the country and as such, the younger lot has started having ample money to spend. Long school hours necessitate food intake and since they don’t bring packed-food from their homes, they rely on fast-food (that can be found in abundance throughout the country).

Another important factor is the country’s technological development. Relating addiction (to fast food) to technology might seem awkward but the fact is that the advanced technology has enabled the fast food companies to advertise their products through various media options. It is understood that advertisements have a great influence on the people’s mind (especially the younger lot). People want to try any new product that is launched. Even foreign fast food companies want to launch their products in the UAE; Pizza Hut launched its ‘Crown Crust Pizza’ in the UAE (Cheeseburger pizzas , 2012).

Nonetheless, this change in the eating habits of the people of the UAE has serious implications. The most significant among such implications is the impact on the health of people. Fast food addiction has resulted in obesity among the people. Obesity makes a person lethargic and as such, his/her performance gets affected. Obesity might also lead to cardiac problems and diabetes (Khalaf, 2011) 2 . There are some economic implications as well. According to a study, fast food is costlier than home-cooked food (Bankman, 2014).

Moreover, most of the fast-food outlets are franchisees of foreign companies. As such, most of the revenue goes to those countries. However, the most significant implication is on the culture of the UAE. The family tradition has lost its values and incidents of families eating together are very rare. The Abu Dhabi government has taken an appreciable step to safeguard the children from the negative impacts of fast food; fast food was banned in schools (Johnson, Sahu, & Saxena, 2012).

Considering the aforementioned discussion, it becomes necessary to conduct a study on the reasons that have led the people of the UAE to get addicted to fast food. The fact that fast food is delicious (Zafar et al., 2002) does not undermine its side-effects (implications) and zero nutritional value (Johnson, Sahu, & Saxena, 2012).

The literature referred for this study is a mix of one journal, one market analysis report, one scholarly paper, one news article, and one university publication. The variety of literature was selected in order to have views and opinions of past scholars and the current trends. Most of the literature is recent and so the information will further enhance the quality and relevance of the paper.

The first referred literature is a journal, titled “Consumer behaviour towards fast food”. The authors of this journal are Zafar, Abbasi, Choudhry, and Riaz. The authors conducted a survey (interview) with 90 participants. The findings of the survey indicated that a majority of the participants preferred fast food due to its time-saving capability and deliciousness. The results also gave an idea about the amount that the participants spent on fast food on a monthly basis.

The second referred literature is a market analysis report, titled “The United Arab Emirates consumer behaviour, attitudes and perceptions toward food products”. The market analysis was conducted by the International Markets Bureau in the year 2010. As the title of the report suggests, it has details about the perceptions of the UAE consumers about their food preferences. The report also contains interesting details about various demographic aspects.

The third referred literature is a scholarly paper, titled “Nutritional analysis of junk food”. The paper was compiled by Johnson, Sahu, and Saxena in the year 2012. The paper analyzes the nutritional aspect of junk food and the implications of consuming junk food. As such, it was necessary to include this paper in the literature review.

The fourth referred literature is a publication from the University of Pennsylvania. The article was published in the year 2012. It analyzes the UAE fast food market and reports that foreign companies (fast-food bigwigs) prefer the UAE market to their homelands when it comes to launching new products.

The fifth referred literature is a news article reported by Hala Khalaf. The news article was published in the UAE’s national newspaper, ‘The National’ in the year 2011. The report discusses about the results of a survey carried out on the eating habits of people.

Garber and Lustig are authors of a journal titled, “Is fast food addictive?” The journal is all about arguments and counter-arguments on the given topic. The authors inform the reader about the details of food constituents and their effect on human health (Garber & Lustig, 2011). Cardiff (2013) also has written on similar lines and confirms that fast food is hazardous for human health. Greviskes (2013) goes to the extent of comparing fast food addiction to that of heroin.

In a news article titled, “How to stop your UAE based child turning into a junk food junkie”, the reporter first tries to establish that parents are responsible for creating a liking for junk food among their children. Then, she discusses the ways that parents should adopt to make their children stay away from fast food (Lewis, 2013a).

In yet another news article titled, “Could food cravings be addiction”, the reporter argues whether craving for food could lead to addiction toward fast food. The reporter informs the reader about the effect of certain food ingredients on being addictive (Matthews, 2012) 3 .

Habib Toumi’s article titled, “High incomes and a taste for fast food and sugary drinks push UAE nationals into obesity club”, informs the reader about the implications of fast food and aerated drinks. The writer also feels that having high incomes is responsible for the inclination towards fast food and aerated drinks (Toumi, 2014).

Euromonitor International’s report titled, “Fast food in the United Arab Emirates”, is a consolidated report on the facts and figures of the fast food scenario in the UAE. The report includes interesting topics such as the current trends, the competitive landscape and the future prospects of the fast food sector (Euromonitor, 2013).

Moushumi Chaudhary, in her article titled, “UAE fast-food industry on threshold of fast growth”, gives her opinion about the increasing demand of fast food in the UAE. She feels that the future for the fast food sector is quite bright in the UAE (Chaudhary, 2005). In his book titled, “Fast food nation”, the author discusses the reasons why and how American fast food has brought the complete globe under its enchantment. (Schlosser, 2002).

An article titled, “Industry focus: Fast food in the UAE”, published in Arabian Business focuses on the current trends in fast food sector. The article also discusses about the hurdles in the expansion plans of fast food outlets. ( Industry focus , 2012). Kristin Kirkpatrick, by way of her article titled, “6 ways the food industry is tricking you”, warns the consumers about the risks associated with junk food and how the companies are fooling the blindfolded consumers (Kirkpatrick, 2014).

The article titled, “The immediate effect fast food has on children” by Richard Lewis is an eye opener for both parents and children. Parents should abstain from giving in to their children’s demands of eating fast food. The article enlists the risks of being addict to fast food (Lewis, 2013b). Addiction of fast food can even result in the person being prone to hypertension (Ahmed, 2012). Addiction to fast food can be either chemical or emotional (Relfe, 2013). Relfe further claims that the risks of fast food can be more than what we are actually aware of. Relfe refutes the claim of fast food companies that obesity is caused due to excessive intake of calories. According to her, obesity is a result of the toxins present in fast food and other junk foods.

The article titled, “Comparative cost analysis of healthy cooking vs. eating fast food regularly” by Bankman compares the costs of both kinds of food and on the basis of the comparison, it is understood that fast food is costlier than home-cooked food (Bankman, 2014).

The referred literatures suggest that a majority of the people prefer fast food due to specific reasons. In order to attract their clients, the fast food outlets are adopting innovative ways such as ‘well trained staff’ so that the existing customers might be retained and a new customer base might be established. Making the ambience culturally compatible is another method adopted by such outlets. It is reported that not only people who eat fast food are prone to obesity but even the newborn babies of mothers who are addicted to fast food face this risk.

The monetary consideration for eating fast food is limited to a specific segment of people; otherwise the affluent families are ready to pay exorbitant prices for eating tasty fast food in comfortable and luxurious surroundings. There is a mixed perception among people about the health effects of fast food. Even though the government is spreading health awareness related to fast food, the fast food sector is poised for a brilliant performance during the ensuing years.

Further Research Questions & Areas

• How far are advertisements responsible for pushing people towards addiction of fast food?
• Does the hectic life-style play any role in people becoming addicted to fast food?
• Do you feel that fast food is the main culprit of instances of obesity among people?
• Will awareness about the implications of fast food help in improving the health condition of people?
• To what extent are organizations such as FDA and UDSA responsible for the health effects of fast food?
• Can low fat fast food reduce the health risks?
• Can parents be instrumental in persuading their children to abstain from fast food?
• What role has fast food played in transforming the culture of the UAE?
• What are the transformations witnessed in the fast food culture in the UAE?
• What are the tactics adopted by fast food chains to attract the youth?
• Should fast food be banned in all the schools in the UAE?
• What will be the benefits of going ahead with such a ban?
• Do people consider the price while going for fast food?
• What are the measures that the UAE government is taking in order to reduce the health risks associated with fast food?
• Are such measures adequate in convincing the people to abstain from fast food?

This research is significant due to the fact that the UAE today is at a stage where people prefer fast food without knowing its implications. The government of the UAE is doing a lot for the economic prosperity of the country but at the same time, it is not taking any strong measures to stop the health hazards faced due to fast food. The most important factor is the awareness among the people about the implications of fast food. The government is doing its bit but the efforts are not enough.

Ahmed, B. (2012). Fast food’s addiction can cause you hypertension . Web.

Bankman. (2014). Comparative cost analysis of healthy cooking vs. Eating fast food regularly . Web.

Cardiff, E. (2013). Addictive ingredients in fast food and their effect on your body . Web.

Chaudhary, M. D. (2005). UAE fast-food industry on threshold of fast growth. Web.

Cheeseburger pizzas, designer French fries and a post-war cinnabon: Fast food’s booming Middle East market . (2012). Web.

Euromonitor. (2013). Fast food in the United Arab Emirates . Web.

Garber, A., & Lustig, R. (2011). Is fast food addictive? Current Drug Abuse Reviews . 4(3), 146-162. Web.

Greviskes, A. (2013). Fast food as addictive as heroin, study confirms. Web.

Industry focus: Fast food in the UAE. (2012). Web.

Johnson, S., Sahu, R., & Saxena, P. (2012). Nutritional analysis of junk food. Web.

Khalaf, H. (2011). Fast food’s low cost draws diners . Web.

Kirkpatrick, K. (2014). 6 ways the food industry is tricking you . Web.

Lewis, R. (2013a). How to stop your UAE based child turning into a junk food junkie . Web.

Lewis, R. (2013b). The immediate effect fast food has on children . Web.

Matthews, R. (2012). Could food cravings be addiction? . Web.

Relfe, S. (2013). Junk food is addictive and is killing people. Web.

Schlosser, E. (2002). Fast food nation. England: Penguin Books. Web.

The United Arab Emirates consumer behaviour, attitudes and perception toward food products. (2010). Web.

Toumi, H. (2014). High incomes and a taste for fast food and sugary drinks push UAE nationals into obesity club. Web.

Zafar, I., Abbasi, S. S., Choudhry, A., & Riaz, A. (2002). Consumer behaviour towards fast food. Pak J. Food Sci, 12 (3-4), 71-75. Web.

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Is This the Edinburgh Fringe, or a Wellness Convention?

Grief narratives were in vogue, and psychological maladies, too, at the annual Scottish arts showcase.

By Houman Barekat

The critic Houman Barekat traveled from London to Edinburgh for the Fringe.

As I made my way to Scotland for this year’s Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the three-week arts showcase that finished on Monday, I felt a little apprehensive. A conspicuous number of shows were themed around psychological maladies. These included plays about grief, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and gambling addiction. I had thought I was going to a festival, but this sounded more like a wellness convention.

Theater geared toward raising awareness can often be underwhelming, because the message gets in the way of a good time. But “ 300 Paintings ,” by the Australian performer Sam Kissajukian, was a pleasing exception. Kissajukian, who has bipolar disorder, quit comedy a couple of years ago, when he was in his mid-30s, to become an artist — a frying-pan-to-fire trajectory if ever there was one.

In this one-man show, he recounts, with the help of a slide show, a six-month manic streak during which he fast-tracked his way onto the art circuit through prolific productivity and business chutzpah: the delusional confidence of the unwell. Then he crashed, sought psychiatric help and got diagnosed. Kissajukian’s monologue is a whimsical delight, and the paintings aren’t bad either.

Grief narratives have been much in vogue onstage since the success of “Fleabag,” which was performed at the Fringe in 2013. “ So Young ,” a sentimental comedy written by the Scottish playwright Douglas Maxwell, was one of several shows about bereavement at this year’s festival.

Set in Glasgow, it centers on the conflict between two grieving people: a middle-aged widower who has just found a new, much younger girlfriend; and his dead wife’s best friend, who is affronted at how quickly he has moved on. The play foregrounds an often overlooked truth: that grief, though primarily personal, has an inherently social dimension.

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