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Victoria d. suarez.
1 Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
2 Village Autism Center, Marietta, GA USA
3 Behavioral Health Center of Excellence, Los Angeles, CA USA
Human service practitioners from varying fields make ethical decisions daily. At some point during their careers, many behavior analysts may face ethical decisions outside the range of their previous education, training, and professional experiences. To help practitioners make better decisions, researchers have published ethical decision-making models; however, it is unknown the extent to which published models recommend similar behaviors. Thus, we systematically reviewed and analyzed ethical decision-making models from published peer-reviewed articles in behavior analysis and related allied health professions. We identified 55 ethical decision-making models across 60 peer-reviewed articles, seven primary professions (e.g., medicine, psychology), and 22 subfields (e.g., dentistry, family medicine). Through consensus-based analysis, we identified nine behaviors commonly recommended across the set of reviewed ethical decision-making models with almost all ( n = 52) models arranging the recommended behaviors sequentially and less than half ( n = 23) including a problem-solving approach. All nine ethical decision-making steps clustered around the ethical decision-making steps in the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts published by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board ( 2020 ) suggesting broad professional consensus for the behaviors likely involved in ethical decision making.
Ethical decision making is operant behavior involving a behavior chain of complex responses (Marya et al., 2022 ). As behavior analysts, we make difficult ethical decisions daily. Behavior analysts are typically taught to respond to ethical scenarios via vignettes or descriptions of real-world ethical dilemmas (e.g., Bailey & Burch, 2016 ; Sush & Najdowski, 2019 ). However, the variability in ethical dilemmas that behavior analysts contact can be extensive and often contains contextual information not included in past training. Such contextual variables (e.g., impact of and on stakeholders, organizational variables, perspective of the funding source) might alter one’s course of action. Ethical decision-making models can equip behavior analysts with the needed tools to navigate varied and complex dilemmas. Thus, behavior analysts can benefit from models that allow an analysis of contextual variables because those variables often impact solutions.
Ethical conduct of board certified behavior analysts is governed by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) ethical codes. Since its inception, the BACB has disseminated three major codes— Guidelines for Responsible Conduct for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2004 , 2010 ), the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2014 ), and most recently the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2020 ). Although versions prior to 2020 outlined specific ethical obligations and provided a framework and reference for considering paths of action when confronted with ethical challenges, no ethical decision-making tool was embedded until the most recent Code iteration.
Within applied behavior analysis (ABA), several ethical decision-making models have been published to guide behavior analysts to make optimal decisions (BACB, 2020 ; Bailey & Burch, 2013 , 2022 ; Brodhead, 2015 ; Brodhead, Quigley, & Wilczynski, 2018 ; Newhouse-Oisten et al., 2017 ; Rosenberg & Schwartz, 2019 ; Sush & Najdowski, 2019 ). These models unanimously share the common goal of providing readers with a systematic approach to ethical decision making, yet include unique elements that provide varying contextual recommendations. Some models offer a generalizable approach affording wider applicability to a variety of ethical situations (BACB, 2020 ; Bailey & Burch, 2013 , 2016 , 2022 ; Brodhead et al., 2018 ; Rosenberg & Schwartz, 2019 ; Sush & Najdowski, 2019 ), and other models provide guidance to navigate specific ethical situations (Brodhead, 2015 ; Newhouse-Oisten et al., 2017 ). Moreover, some models incorporate a problem-solving approach wherein multiple behaviors are considered along with their possible outcomes to aid decision making in ethical contexts (Rosenberg & Schwartz, 2019 ).
Existing models within the behavior analytic literature have all emerged in the last 7 years and offer a discipline-specific approach. However, many other allied disciplines (e.g., medicine, psychology) have published literature offering models for ethical decision making for a longer period than the field of behavior analysis. Recently, there have been calls to action where behavior analysts have been looking to and learning from related professions (LaFrance et al., 2019 ; Miller et al., 2019 ; Pritchett et al., 2021 ; Taylor et al., 2019 ; Wright, 2019 ). Learning from other disciplines may help the field of behavior analysis rule out ineffective approaches or derive novel effective solutions more quickly.
The purpose of this systematic literature review was to conduct a descriptive analysis of ethical decision-making models across behavior analysis and allied disciplines. This literature review aimed to identify similarities and differences in approaches to ethical decision making that could inform future ethical decision-making models and aid the development of ethical decision-making skills in behavior analysts.
Articles included in this systematic review met the following three criteria: published in peer-reviewed journals through June 2020, written in English, and the title or abstract included keywords from the search (described below). We began the review in July 2020 and completed it in August 2021.
We conducted a systematic review of the literature on ethical decision-making models for the fields of applied behavior analysis, education, medicine, occupational therapy, psychology, social work, and speech language pathology using the Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & Prisma Group, 2009 ). We chose these fields because of their similarities to behavior analysis’ mission in serving vulnerable populations. The following procedures were completed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines: (1) potential articles meeting inclusion criteria were identified; (2) the identified articles were comprehensively screened; (3) the eligibility of each article was evaluated across dependent measures; and (4) the included articles were analyzed.
The first and second authors completed primary database searches using PsycINFO and PubMed. The keywords used to identify potential articles to be included in this analysis were: applied behavior analysis, clinical psychology, counseling psychology, decision mak*, educat*, ethic*, model, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, speech and language*, and social work. In particular, the key words “ethic*”, “decision mak*”, and “model” were used in combination with the terms “applied behavior analysis,” or “clinical psychology,” or “counseling psychology,” or “medicine,” or “nursing,” or “occupational therapy,” or “speech,” or “language.”
The initial PsycINFO and PubMed searches yielded 635 articles. Of these, 46 were duplicates. The titles and abstracts of the remaining 589 articles were read by the first and second authors to evaluate the inclusion of keywords. Full-text articles were retrieved for studies that included the words ethics or ethical , decision making , or model in their abstracts or titles ( n = 249). Of these, a total of 173 articles were selected for full-text review.
The articles selected for full-text review ( n = 173) were read in their entirety to evaluate whether they met these criteria: (1) included humans as the population of interest; (2) mentioned decision making; (3) mentioned ethics; (4) provided at least three identifiable steps to be followed as a part of a model in either a text or figure format; and (5) the provided model addressed how to respond to ethical dilemmas. The first and second authors scored each of the 173 articles across the aforementioned criteria to determine whether they would be included in the final analysis. Articles ( n = 27) for which it was unclear whether they met any of the criteria were coded as needing additional review, and the third and fourth authors completed an additional full-text review to determine whether they would be included in the final analysis. A total of 126 articles were removed for not meeting all five of the criteria. Thus, 47 articles remained to be included in the analysis.
Next, the first and second authors conducted a manual search (i.e., identification through other sources) of the references ( n = 1,354) for the remaining 47 articles. The screening criteria for this search was identical to the initial screening in which the title and abstract were searched for the inclusion of the words ethics or ethical , decision making , and model . Seventy-nine additional articles were identified through this process. Of these 79 articles, 16 were identified as duplicates from the initial PsycINFO and PubMed searches. Twelve articles were inaccessible to us online or through available library loans and were thus excluded. A list of these articles is not included in this article but is available upon request. Upon reviewing the full text of the remaining 51 articles, 26 additional articles met eligibility to be included in the analysis. In sum, a total of 60 articles met all inclusion criteria and were included.
Interrater reliability was scored using a consensus-based approach. In particular, all four authors collaboratively scored each of the models across the various measures described in the section below. If there was disagreement on scoring at any point, the authors collaboratively reviewed the model using figures provided within the article and any available text describing the model until consensus in scoring was reached.
Articles that met criteria for inclusion were evaluated across four dependent measures. First, we evaluated the steps included within the models from each article. Second, we categorized the model by the professional discipline or field of study. Third, we evaluated whether the model author presented the model in a specific order or sequence (i.e., linear or sequential model). Lastly, we scored whether the model included a problem-solving approach. We provide greater detail on each of these dependent measures below.
The models from each article were evaluated across nine steps (Table (Table1). 1 ). These steps were developed during the process of data synthesis. We read the included articles and identified common themes based on their prevalence in the examined literature. Next, we began classifying articles by the inclusion of these steps, indicating whether each article contained each of the identified steps. Then, we began tracking additional steps that appeared in articles. If those steps appeared in multiple articles, we added them as official steps in the analysis. When this was done, all previously coded articles were recoded for these additional steps. For the purpose of the current review, we identified the following nine components of ethical decision making: (1) ethical radar; (2) urgent detour; (3) pinpoint the problem; (4) information gathering; (5) available options/behaviors; (6) ranking and weighing; (7) analysis; (8) implementation; and (9) follow-up. Details on scoring criteria for each of these steps can be found in Appendix Table Table4. 4 . We scored models included in each article as either including or not including the steps listed above. This was done by using the text description of the model, if provided, or the figure representation of the model if descriptive text was not included.
Steps from the Decision-Making Model from the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts ( 2020 ) and from the Current Literature Review
Steps from BACB code | Steps from current literature review |
---|---|
1. Clearly define the issue and consider potential risk of harm to relevant individuals. | 1. Ethical radar ( ). |
2. Urgent detour | |
3. Pinpoint the problem ( ). | |
2. Identify all relevant individuals. | 4. Information gathering ( ?) 4a. Affected parties ( ). 4b. Reference professional code of ethics. 4c. Reference other codes of ethics ( ). 4d. Case specific information ( ). |
3. Gather relevant supporting documentation and follow-up on second-hand information to confirm that there is an actual ethical concern. | |
4. Consider your personal learning history and biases in the context of the relevant individuals.* | |
5. Identify the relevant core principles and Code standards. | |
6. Consult available resources (e.g., research, decision-making models, trusted colleagues). | |
7. Develop several possible actions to reduce or remove risk of harm, prioritizing the best interests of clients in accordance with the Code and applicable laws. | 5. Available options/behaviors |
8. Critically evaluate each possible action by considering its alignment with the “letter and spirit” of the Code, its potential impact on the client and stakeholders, the likelihood of it immediately resolving the ethical concern, as well as variables such as client preference, social acceptability, degree of restrictiveness, and likelihood of maintenance. | 6. Ranking/weighing of information |
9. Select the action that seems most likely to resolve the specific ethical concern and reduce the likelihood of similar issues arising in the future. | 7. Analysis |
10. Take the selected action in collaboration with relevant individuals affected by the issue and document specific actions taken, agreed-upon next steps, names of relevant individuals, and due dates. | 8. Implementation |
11. Evaluate the outcomes to ensure that the action successfully addressed the issue. | 9. Follow up |
*Step 4 of the BACB model aligns with components from Step 6 of current literature review.
Decision-making Steps
Steps | Description |
---|---|
Ethical radar | This step was coded if the author(s) referenced a signal-detection component in the process of decision making. Signal detection refers to the experience of detecting an ethical dilemma. In particular, the individual may feel that something is unusual, that something is out of the ordinary, or they may feel some vague discomfort. This step was coded to be present if the model made a reference to the practitioner coming into contact with a situation wherein they suspected there might be an ethical issue present. For example, if a practitioner was instructed by their supervisor to round up the time they actually spent delivering services. Encountering such a situation might lead a practitioner to be uncomfortable such that further analysis is warranted. |
Urgent detour | This step was coded if the model author(s) referred to situations in which a practitioner would need to report the issue to a legal or other governing body prior to taking any other actions or analyzing the situation further. For example, if a practitioner encountered a situation in which they had reasons to suspect abuse of their client by the parent. Provided that the practitioner had enough evidence to support their suspicion, it would be essential for them to report the abuse to child services prior to taking any other action. |
Pinpoint the problem | This step was coded if the model author(s) referred to the practitioner explicitly identifying the ethical issue. The distinguishing feature of this step as compared with the earlier step of ethical radar is the precise identification of the ethical issue beyond a general suspicion that an ethical issue might be present. For example, in the case of a practitioner who is approached by a client to purchase an item from the client’s business, pinpointing the problem would include labeling the actions as the potential development of a dual relationship. |
Information gathering | This step was coded when the model author(s) recommended gathering contextually relevant information that would be needed to make an ethical decision. The information collected was further divided into the following subcategories where appropriate: a. : This step was coded if the model author(s) included any language that mentioned different people involved in the situation or how the situation might impact different parties. For example, if parents, teachers, or other affected individuals are relevant to the ethical dilemma or decision. b. This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model users to follow their professional code of ethics. c. This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model users to follow other codes of ethics that differ from the code of ethics from their professional affiliation(s). For example, if the practitioner is prompted to refer to the rules and regulations specific to their organization, or a reference is made to their religious or personal values. d. This step was coded if the model author(s) referenced any other information that might be specific to the situation but was not captured in the other subcategories listed above. For example, issues of client preferences, quality of life, contexts and settings, and assessment of the practitioners’ understanding of the circumstances all fell into this category. |
Available options/behaviors | This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model users to consider information that would limit or constrain the practitioners’ set of available behaviors. For example, if there were any medical indications that required consideration or if colleagues should be consulted. |
Ranking and weighing | This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model user to consider the influence of their learning history, the impact of personal values, application of guidelines, or the results of a risk-benefit analysis. |
Analysis | This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model user to consider and synthesize the information from the prior steps to make a decision. |
Implementation | This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model user to implement the decided plan of action. |
Follow up | This step was coded if the model author(s) guided the model user to evaluate the solution or action after it was implemented. |
The field of study of each article was recorded (e.g., psychology). Where possible, we also included a secondary field of study (e.g., school psychology). The primary field of study of the article was determined based on the journal that it was published in and the intended audience of the article. Secondary fields of study were coded to further gather information about the specific subfield. For example, if the article was published in a psychology journal and the audience of the article was specifically school psychologists.
Models within each article were scored as including a problem-solving component or approach if the model author(s) guided the model users to identify two or more possible solutions and likely outcomes or consequences to the possible solutions. Models that did not include more than one possible solution and did not anticipate outcomes to solutions were scored as not including a problem-solving component.
We coded whether the proposed model was linear or sequential in nature. That is, the model author(s) indicated that steps in the model followed a certain order or sequence wherein each preceding step in the model was to be considered prior to moving on to subsequent steps. If a model was not linear or sequential, this was also recorded.
A total of 55 ethical decision-making models across 60 peer-reviewed journal articles were analyzed. Models included in more than one article were counted as duplicates, and papers that included more than one model resulted in each unique model being coded.
Table Table2 2 shows the number of models that included each of the nine steps. None of the steps were present in all models and the step that was included in the greatest number of models was ranking and weighing information ( n = 51; 93%). After ranking and weighing information, the steps found in the most-to-least number of models were: affected parties and available options/behaviors ( n = 49; 89%); reference other codes of ethics (e.g., personal, religious, organizational; n = 44; 80%); analysis ( n = 43; 78%), reference of professional codes ( n = 40; 73%); case specific information ( n = 38; 69%); implementation and pinpoint the problem (29 models each; 52%); follow up ( n = 26; 47%); ethical radar ( n = 21; 38%); urgent detour ( n = 16; 29%); and, information gathering ( n = 11; 20%).
Steps Included in Each Model
Steps | No. of models (%) | Models |
---|---|---|
Ethical radar ( ) | 21 (38%) | Boccio, ; Bommer et al., ; Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; DeWolf, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Macpherson et al., ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Zeni et al., |
Urgent detour | 16 (29%) | Boccio, ; Bolmsjö, Sandman, & Andersson., ; Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; DeWolf, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Greipp, ; Hill et al., ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Soskolne, ; Tymchuk, |
Pinpoint the problem ( ) | 29 (53%) | Boccio, ; Bolmsjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Christensen, ; Fan, ; Green & Walker, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Marco et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Zeni et al., |
Information gathering | 11 (20%) | Cassells et al., ; DeWolf, ; Ehrich et al., ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Hough, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Jones, ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tymchuk, |
Affected parties | 49 (89%) | Boccio, ; Bolmsjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Candee & Puka, (Utilitarian); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Fan, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Green & Walker, ; Greipp, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Hundert, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Phillips, ; Park, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schaffer et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Siegler, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tunzi & Ventres, ; Tymchuk, ; |
Reference professional code of ethics | 40 (73%) | Boccio, ; Bolmsjö et al., ; Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; DeWolf, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Green & Walker, ; Greipp, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Johnsen et al., ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Marco et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schaffer et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Siegler, ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, |
Reference other codes of ethics | 44 (80%) | Boccio, ; Bolmsjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Garfat & Ricks, ; Green & Walker, ; Greipp, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Hundert, ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Marco et al., ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Schaffer et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tymchuk, ; Zeni et al., ; |
Case specific information | 38 (69%) | Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; DeWolf, ; Ehrich et al., ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Greipp, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Hundert, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schneider & Snell, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Siegler, ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tunzi & Ventres, ; Zeni et al., |
Available options / behaviors | 49 (89%) | Boccio, ; Bolsmjö et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Candee & Puka, (Utilitarian); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; DeWolf, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Fan, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, 1996; Garfat & Ricks, ; Greipp, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Hundert, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Marco et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schaffer et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Siegler, ; Sileo & Kopala, ; Soskolne, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tunzi & Ventres, ; Tymchuk, |
Ranking / weighing of information | 51 (93%) | Boccio, ; Bolsmjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Candee & Puka, (Utilitarian); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Garfat & Ricks, ; Green & Walker, ; Greipp, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Hayes, ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Hundert, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Marco et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schaffer et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Shahidullah et al., ; Siegler, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tunzi & Ventres, ; Tymchuk, ; Zeni et al., |
Analysis | 43 (78%) | Bolsmjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Candee & Puka, (Utilitarian); Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; Cottone, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Fan, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Green & Walker, ; Grundstein-Amado, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Hundert, ; Johnsen et al., ; Johnson et al., ; Jones, ; Kaldjian et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Macpherson et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Nekhlyudov et al., ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Schaffer et al., ; Shahidullah et al., ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tunzi & Ventres, ; Tymchuk, ; Zeni et al., |
Implementation | 29 (53%) | Bolsmjö et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; DeWolf, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Duff & Passmore, ; Ehrich et al., ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Garfat & Ricks, ; Haddad, ; Harasym et al., ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Jones, ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Laletas, ; Macpherson et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tsai & Harasym, ; Tymchuk, |
Follow up | 26 (47%) | Bolsmjö et al., ; Bommer et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; DeWolf, ; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Ferrell et al., ; Forester-Miller & Davis, ; Garfat & Ricks, ; Harasym et al., ; Heyler et al., ; Hill et al., ; Hough, ; Johnsen et al., ; Kanoti, ; Kirsch, ; Liang et al., ; Macpherson et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Ponterotto & Reynolds, ; Soskolne, ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, ; Tymchuk, |
Figure Figure1 1 shows a stacked bar chart of the primary and secondary fields of the ethical decision-making models. Medicine dominated the resulting set of models, followed by psychology, education, business, then child and youth care and organizational behavior management (OBM). Nevertheless, 23 different subspecialties were represented in the secondary field of the ethical decision-making models.
Stacked-Bar Graph Showing the Number of Ethical Decision-Making Models Based on the Primary and Secondary Literatures from which It Came
Table Table3 3 presents a list of the synthesized models and their respective fields of study. The most common field of study across the 55 models was medicine ( n = 34; 62%). Seventeen of the models from medicine were specific to the subfield of nursing (50%) and three were specific to the subfield of psychiatry (9%). Of the remaining models from the field of medicine, one each was specific to critical care (3%), dentistry (3%), emergency medicine (3%), geriatrics (3%), internal medicine (3%), and oncology (3%). The remaining models from the field of medicine were coded as “general medicine” because they did not indicate a specific subfield.
Field of Study of Included Models
Primary field | Secondary field | Models |
---|---|---|
Business | Leadership | Zeni et al., |
Management | Jones, | |
Child and Youth Care | Not Specified | Garfat & Ricks, |
Education | Administration | Green & Walker, |
Teaching | Ehrich et al., ; Johnson et al., | |
Engineering | Not Specified | Fan, |
Medicine | Critical care | Kanoti, |
Dentistry | Johnsen et al., | |
Emergency medicine | Marco et al., | |
Epidemiology | Soskolne, | |
Family medicine | Tunzi & Ventres, | |
Geriatrics | Kirsch, | |
Internal medicine | Kaldjian et al., | |
Nursing | Bolmsjö, Sandman, & Andersson, ; Cassells et al., ; Cassells & Gaul, ; Christensen, ; DeWolf, ; Ferrell et al., ; Greipp, ; Haddad, ; Hough, ; Hughes & Dvorak, ; Macpherson et al., ; Murphy & Murphy, ; Park, ; Phillips, ; Schaffer et al., ; Sullivan & Brown, ; Toren & Wagner, | |
Oncology | Nekhlyudov et al., | |
Psychiatry | Grundstein-Amado, ; Hayes, ; Hundert, | |
Not Specific | Candee & Puka, (Deontology); Candee & Puka, (Utilitarian); Harasym et al., ; Schneider & Snell, ; Siegler, ; Tsai & Harasym, | |
Organizational behavior management | Business | Bommer et al., |
Psychology | Coaching | Duff & Passmore, |
Counseling | Cottone, ; Forester-Miller & Davis, 1996; du Preez & Goedeke, ; Sileo & Kopala, | |
I/O psychology | Heyler et al., | |
Pediatric psychology | Shahidullah et al., | |
Psychobiography | Ponterotto & Reynolds, | |
School psychology | Boccio, ; Laletas, | |
Not Specified | Tymchuk, ; Hill et al., ; Liang et al., |
Thirteen models were specific to the field of psychology (24%). Four of the psychology specific models were from the subfield of counseling (31%) and two were specific to the subfield of school psychology (15%). Other specified psychology subfields included coaching ( n = 1; 8%), industrial/organizational psychology ( n = 1; 8%), pediatric psychology ( n = 1; 8%), and psychobiography ( n = 1; 8%). The remaining models were coded as “general psychology” because they did not indicate a specific subfield.
Three models were specific to the field of education (5%). Two of these were specific to the subfield of teaching (67%) and one was specific to the subfield of administration and leadership (33%). Two models were specific to the field of business (4%); one of these was specific to the subfield of management (50%) and the other to the subfield of leadership (50%). One model was specific to the field of child and youth care (2%), one was specific to engineering (2%), and one was specific to OBM (2%).
Figure Figure2 2 shows the number of models that contained a problem-solving approach. A total of 23 models included a problem-solving approach (42%) and 32 did not (58%). Most of the models with a problem-solving component came from medicine ( n = 15; 65%), followed by psychology ( n = 7; 30%), and engineering ( n = 1; 43%). No models from the fields of business, education, or OBM included a problem-solving component.
Bar Graph Showing the Number of Decision-Making Models with and without a Problem-Solving Component, and Models that were Sequential or Nonsequential
Figure Figure2 2 also shows the number of models that were sequential. A total of 52 models were linear or sequential in nature (95%), whereas 3 were not (5%). Most of the models that were sequential came from medicine ( n = 32; 62%), followed by psychology ( n = 14; 27%), education ( n = 3; 58%), business ( n = 2; 4%), engineering ( n = 1; 2%), and child and youth care ( n = 1; 2%).
The goal of this literature review was to identify and analyze published ethical decision-making models in behavior analysis and allied disciplines to determine consistency in recommended approaches. We examined 55 ethical decision-making models to collect data on what recommended steps were included and what approaches were most frequently emphasized. Three general themes within ethical decision-making models arose from our analysis. These include: (1) What steps were included within models; (2) Whether the steps were sequential (i.e., a behavior chain); and (3) Whether the entire process could be labeled as problem solving (i.e., Szabo, 2020 ). We discuss each of these findings in turn.
The first main finding surrounds the variability in recommended steps of ethical decision making across models. We found that each of the nine steps coded appeared in an average (arithmetic mean) of 58% of the articles (range: 20%–93%). This suggests that some consistency exists in what behaviors various scholars recommend practitioners should engage in when faced with an ethical decision. However, the wide variability in how frequently each behavior appeared also highlights that ABA practitioners would benefit from researchers clarifying at least three important characteristics of ethical decision-making models. These are: (1) What behaviors are necessary and sufficient to make an optimal ethical decision in ABA contexts (i.e., component analysis)? (2) What are the conditions under which specific steps are and are not needed (i.e., conditional discrimination analysis)? (3) Is there an optimal functional result of ethical decision making that is more important than the specific topographies a practitioner uses to contact that outcome (i.e., functional analysis; see Cox, 2021 )? Practitioners and researchers may begin to explore some of these questions when engaging in ethical decision making.
More than half of the articles examined emphasized the need for consulting ethical codes. It is interesting that more ethical models recommended practitioners reference codes of ethics from outside their discipline ( n = 44; 80% of models; e.g., personal, religious, organizational) than their own discipline’s code of ethics ( n = 40; 73%). To our knowledge, the conflict between personal and professional codes of ethics is an underexplored topic in the ABA literature. Nevertheless, the slightly greater emphasis on other codes of ethics in addition to one’s own discipline suggests this might be an important area where practitioners could use guidance. Also, the field of ABA would likely benefit from future research and scholarship surrounding the conditions and functional outcomes of ethical decisions where personal and professional values conflict.
It is important to mention that our review was done prior to the publication of the BACB’s ( 2020 ) ethical decision-making model. The BACB’s model was published in the analysis and writing stage of this review. Our findings suggest a robust literature spanning 40+ years, 60+ articles, and 50+ models all clustered around similar ethical decision-making steps published by the BACB. Perhaps most intriguing is that we identified the nine steps from our review prior to the publication of the BACB’s model, and no previous models had incorporated all nine ethical decision-making steps until the BACB published their decision model (BACB, 2020). Practicing behavior analysts would benefit from future component analyses, conditional discrimination analyses, functional analyses, and empirical support surrounding the BACB’s ethical decision-making model.
Our analysis also suggests that behavior analysts and allied professionals approach ethical decision making similarly. Given the complexity of ethical decision making and the shared types of dilemmas human service professionals contact, some convergence is expected. However, there are many reasons that two professionals from different disciplines may come into disagreement (Boivin et al., 2021 ; Bowman et al., 2021 ; Cox, 2019 ; Gasiewski et al., 2021 ). Having familiar systems with empirical support for how to navigate ethical dilemmas might improve the likelihood that a positive resolution occurs. Further, such interprofessional similarities in ethical decision-making processes allows future interdisciplinary dialogue to focus more on specific areas of agreement because what and how information will be used to make a decision is already agreed upon.
We found that 95% of the ethical decision-making models could be described as a behavior chain (e.g., Catania, 2013 ). Framing ethical decision making as a behavior chain might be useful as it highlights the interrelated and sequential nature of ethical decision making. That is, completing one step in an ethical decision-making behavior chain leads to a context wherein the next response in the chain is more likely to contact reinforcement. For example, until you have gathered all relevant information about how the decision will affect all relevant parties, your ranking and weighing of information seems less likely to lead to the best outcome. That said, the temporally delayed nature of behaviors and consequences involved in ethical decision making is different than how behavior chains have been studied in laboratory settings (e.g., Baum, 2017 ; Cox, 2021 ; Slocum & Tiger, 2011 ). Future research will likely be needed to better understand the effects of temporal relations on behavior chains and thus determine what approach best provides a behavioral description of ethical decision making.
It is interesting that the order in which steps were proposed differed across models. We are unaware of any research that compares the effectiveness of different sequential ethical decision-making models to understand whether the order of behaviors recommended as a chain are more or less useful. Nevertheless, future research that identifies the extent to which rigid sequences of behaviors need to occur to optimize decision making would be helpful for the field of ABA. Such information would likely improve behavior analytic training programs and prove useful for clinical directors, ethics committee chairs, case supervisors (e.g., BCBAs), and direct staff (e.g., RBTs).
Recent attention has been given to the common-sense problem-solving approach (Szabo, 2020 ), which we used to score models within the current analysis. This problem-solving approach may offer great utility and is observed across various fields (e.g., cognitive psychology; Szabo, 2020 ). Within behavior analysis, this problem-solving approach has increasingly been applied to teach complex skills (e.g., Suarez et al., 2021 ). Our review involves an interesting extension of this analysis to ethical decision making and indicates the steps of the models may also point to additional precurrent behaviors or mediating strategies that could prove to be important elements of the behavioral chain.
We found that 42% of the ethical decision-making models could be described as including problem solving (e.g., Kieta et al., 2019 ). Framing ethical decision making as involving problem solving is advantageous because of the existing empirical literature on how to teach problem-solving skills and recognition of the importance of verbal stimuli and verbal behavior (e.g., Kieta et al., 2019 ). However, this also might have the drawbacks of adding complexity and less empirical support specific from the behavior analytic literature on describing, predicting, and controlling problem solving. This suggests that there are either components of ethical decision making outside of problem solving or that there are components of problem solving that might be missing from current decision-making models. Future research using concept analysis (e.g., Layng, 2019 ) combined with laboratory experiments may help clarify which of the above scenarios is more likely (or if there’s an unknown third!).
We also found that 58% of the ethical decision-making models could not be described as including problem solving. We are unaware of any research that has directly compared the effectiveness of ethical decision-making models with and without problem-solving components. Nevertheless, a practically useful set of empirical questions might identify the conditions under which ethical decision-making models with and without problem-solving components are more helpful for practitioners. Behavior analytic training programs subsequently could teach fluency toward ethical decision making via problem solving under some conditions and ethical decision making without problem solving under other conditions.
The current study included several limitations. One limitation centers on the procedures used for rater agreement. Article ratings were completed in a group format and by consensus among the authors. It is possible that reactivity to other members of the group affected overall ratings (e.g., Asch, 1956 ). It is also possible that the search terms we used failed to capture relevant ethical decision-making models or that additional search terms would have led to different results. Further, we also restricted our inclusion criteria to specific human service fields allied to ABA. Thus, it is possible that a more comprehensive search of ethical decision-making models across more varied professions would lead to different outcomes. Finally, we did not include ethical decision-making models published in books mainly due to access issues and a typical lack of peer-review for books. Regardless, these limitations may provide greater support for our primary findings that the existing variability in ethical decision-making steps and overall lack of empirical support suggest this area is ripe for future research.
The development of an ethical decision-making skill set is vital for behavior analysts and for other human service providers. Dilemmas present as complex circumstances, with specific and unique contextual variations that require nuanced assessment. The process of training behavior analysts to meet these demands is daunting. There is a need to identify strategies for navigating dilemmas and for making ethical decisions. Allied professions and behavior analysis have identified steps in this process. Many of these models use problem-solving techniques. The BACB’s Decision Making Model overlaps substantially with existing literature across professions, and uses a problem-solving, sequential approach. These results are especially interesting as we had completed identifying the decision-making steps scored in the current article before the BACB model was released. It seems that the field has built a model that is entirely aligned with and built upon this interprofessional database. It will be important to empirically evaluate this new model. It will also be important to explore other decision-making approaches, to compare models, and to (potentially) match models to the contextual variables embedded in the presenting dilemma. The field of behavior analysis has, at times, been insular, and this has been a source of internal and external criticism. However, this review of the literature supports the substantial overlap across fields and provides concrete hope for mutually beneficial interdisciplinary collaboration. So, although decision-making models can be field-specific, ethical dilemmas appear to be universal and so are the intended outcomes. As behavior analysis tackles this complex skill set, it is important to learn from colleagues in allied disciplines, examine the component skills likely to be crucial to the development of this behavioral repertoire, and develop procedures for measuring, teaching, and training clinicians to methodically approach ethical dilemmas.
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.
The authors do not have any potential conflicts of interest to disclose and have no relevant financial or nonfinancial interests to disclose.
No human participants were involved in this research, and therefore informed consent was not obtained.
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In this guide, we will explore effective decision-making techniques to help you make better decisions in various aspects of your life. Whether you’re facing personal dilemmas, professional challenges, or ethical quandaries, these techniques will provide you with the tools you need to navigate through any situation with confidence and clarity.
A decision-making technique is a method or approach used to help people make better decisions. These techniques provide step-by-step processes or tools to consider options, weigh their pros and cons, and choose the best course of action. Examples include listing the advantages and disadvantages of each option, visualizing potential outcomes, or prioritizing based on key factors. These techniques help people make clearer, more informed decisions in different situations, like personal choices or business strategies.
Here are 6 decision-making techniques that can be applied in various contexts, including personal decision-making, professional decision-making, strategic planning, problem-solving, and more. These techniques help individuals and organizations make better choices by providing structured approaches to analyze options, mitigate risks, and achieve desired outcomes.
What it is : The Pugh Matrix, also known as the Decision Matrix, is a structured technique for comparing multiple alternatives against a set of criteria. It helps objectively evaluate options by assigning scores based on predefined criteria.
How to use it in decision-making :
What it is : Brainstorming is a creative technique used to generate a large number of ideas or solutions to a problem in a short amount of time. It encourages free thinking and idea generation without criticism.
How to use it in decision making :
What it is : The heuristic method involves using practical rules or shortcuts to make decisions quickly, often in situations with limited information or time.
What it is : Tiered voting is a decision-making technique where participants vote on options in multiple rounds, with the lowest-ranking options eliminated in each round until a consensus is reached.
What it is : SWOT Analysis is a strategic planning tool used to identify the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of a decision, project, or organization.
What it is : Game Theory is a mathematical framework used to analyze decision-making in situations where the outcomes depend on the choices of multiple parties, or “players.”
What it is : Scenario planning is a technique used to make decisions in the face of uncertainty about the future. It involves creating multiple plausible future scenarios and analyzing their potential impact on the decision at hand.
What it is : A Priority Matrix, also known as an Eisenhower Matrix or Urgent-Important Matrix, is a tool used to prioritize tasks or decisions based on their urgency and importance. It helps individuals or teams focus their efforts on the most critical tasks or decisions, thereby improving productivity and effectiveness.
Effective decision making is a skill that can be honed through practice and awareness. By understanding the decision-making process, utilizing proven decision making techniques, and adapting to different contexts, you can navigate through life’s challenges with confidence and clarity. Remember, every decision you make shapes your future, so choose wisely.
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Amanda Athuraliya is the communication specialist/content writer at Creately, online diagramming and collaboration tool. She is an avid reader, a budding writer and a passionate researcher who loves to write about all kinds of topics.
5 time tested mental models to help you become a better change leader.
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In today's fast-paced environment, effective change leadership is essential. However, navigating the complexities of transformation can be daunting. This is where mental models come into play. Mental models are cognitive frameworks that help us comprehend and interpret our surroundings. For change leaders, these models can serve as valuable tools, enabling clearer thinking and better decision-making. Let's explore five time-tested mental models that can elevate your change leadership abilities.
First Principles Thinking is about deconstructing complex problems into their most basic elements. It allows leaders to identify the core truths and build solutions from the ground up.
Why is this relevant to leading change? Because change often involves complex challenges with many moving parts. By breaking down these challenges to their fundamental components, you can uncover innovative solutions and avoid getting bogged down by assumptions and conventions. It's like stripping down a machine to its essential parts to understand how it works and how it can be improved.
How can you practice First Principles Thinking? Start by questioning every assumption related to the change you're leading. Ask yourself, "What do I know for sure?" and "Why is this important?" Challenge the status quo and encourage your team to do the same. When faced with a problem, try to reconstruct it from scratch, focusing on the fundamental truths rather than accepted practices.
Second Order Thinking involves considering the long-term consequences of decisions, not just the immediate outcomes. It's about thinking several steps ahead.
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Why is this mental model crucial for change leaders? Because any significant change will have ripple effects throughout an organization. These effects aren't always immediately apparent and failing to anticipate them can lead to unforeseen challenges. By adopting Second Order Thinking, you can better prepare for and mitigate potential negative impacts, ensuring a smoother transition.
To incorporate Second Order Thinking into your decision-making, always ask, "And then what?" Consider the cascading effects of your actions. For example, if you're implementing a new technology, think beyond its immediate benefits and consider how it might affect workflow, employee morale and customer experience in the long run. This holistic approach will help you make more informed and sustainable decisions.
The Inversion Technique is about thinking backward to move forward. Instead of asking how to achieve a goal, you consider what might prevent you from achieving it.
Why is inversion relevant to leading change? Because identifying potential obstacles and pitfalls in advance can help you avoid them. It forces you to look at the change process from a different angle, revealing blind spots and helping you develop more robust strategies.
To practice the Inversion Technique, start by envisioning the worst-case scenarios. Ask yourself, "What could go wrong?" and "What would failure look like?" Once you have a clear picture of potential pitfalls, you can take proactive steps to address them. This negative visualization can be a powerful tool for risk management and contingency planning, ensuring you're prepared for any eventuality.
The Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, suggests that 80% of outcomes result from 20% of efforts. It's about focusing on what truly matters.
Why should change leaders care about the Pareto Principle? Because in any change initiative, resources are limited. By identifying and concentrating on the critical few factors that will have the most significant impact, you can maximize efficiency and effectiveness. It's about working smarter, not harder.
To apply the Pareto Principle, start by analyzing your change initiative to identify the key drivers of success. Ask yourself, "What are the 20% of activities that will yield 80% of the results?" Focus your energy and resources on these high-impact areas. This targeted approach will help you achieve more with less, driving meaningful progress without overextending your team.
This mental model reminds us that our perceptions and representations of reality are just that—representations. They are not the reality itself.
Why is this distinction important for leading change? Because leaders often rely on data, reports, and plans to guide their decisions. While these tools are valuable, they can never fully capture the complexity and nuances of real-world situations. Recognizing this limitation helps you stay adaptable and responsive to actual conditions as they unfold.
To practice this mental model, remain open-minded and flexible. Regularly validate your assumptions and plans against the real-world outcomes. Engage with your team and stakeholders to gather diverse perspectives and feedback. The goal is to adapt and iterate based on what you learn, not to rigidly follow a plan that might become outdated or incomplete.
These models provide frameworks for navigating the intricacies of transformation, helping you to break down complex problems, foresee long-term impacts, identify potential obstacles, focus on high-impact activities and remain adaptable to real-world conditions. Embrace these mental models as part of your change leadership toolkit and you'll be well-equipped to lead your organization through successful change.
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Have you ever asked why it’s so difficult to get things done in business today—despite seemingly endless meetings and emails? Why it takes so long to make decisions—and even then not necessarily the right ones? You’re not the first to think there must be a better way. Many organizations address these problems by redesigning boxes and lines: who does what and who reports to whom. This exercise tends to focus almost obsessively on vertical command relationships and rarely solves for what, in our experience, is the underlying disease: the poor design and execution of collaborative interactions.
This article is a collaborative effort by Aaron De Smet , Caitlin Hewes, Mengwei Luo, J.R. Maxwell , and Patrick Simon , representing views from McKinsey’s People & Organizational Performance Practice.
In our efforts to connect across our organizations, we’re drowning in real-time virtual interaction technology, from Zoom to Slack to Teams, plus group texting, WeChat, WhatsApp, and everything in between. There’s seemingly no excuse to not collaborate. The problem? Interacting is easier than ever, but true, productive, value-creating collaboration is not. And what’s more, where engagement is occurring, its quality is deteriorating. This wastes valuable resources, because every minute spent on a low-value interaction eats into time that could be used for important, creative, and powerful activities.
It’s no wonder a recent McKinsey survey found 80 percent of executives were considering or already implementing changes in meeting structure and cadence in response to the evolution in how people work due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Indeed, most executives say they frequently find themselves spending way too much time on pointless interactions that drain their energy and produce information overload.
Most executives say they frequently find themselves spending way too much time on pointless interactions.
What can be done? We’ve found it’s possible to quickly improve collaborative interactions by categorizing them by type and making a few shifts accordingly. We’ve observed three broad categories of collaborative interactions (exhibit):
Below we describe the key shifts required to improve each category of collaborative interaction, as well as tools you can use to pinpoint problems in the moment and take corrective action.
When you’re told you’re “responsible” for a decision, does that mean you get to decide? What if you’re told you’re “accountable”? Do you cast the deciding vote, or does the person responsible? What about those who must be “consulted”? Sometimes they are told their input will be reflected in the final answer—can they veto a decision if they feel their input was not fully considered?
It’s no wonder one of the key factors for fast, high-quality decisions is to clarify exactly who makes them. Consider a success story at a renewable-energy company. To foster accountability and transparency, the company developed a 30-minute “role card” conversation for managers to have with their direct reports. As part of this conversation, managers explicitly laid out the decision rights and accountability metrics for each direct report. The result? Role clarity enabled easier navigation for employees, sped up decision making, and resulted in decisions that were much more customer focused.
We recommend a simple yet comprehensive approach for defining decision rights. We call it DARE, which stands for deciders, advisers, recommenders, and executors:
Deciders are the only ones with a vote (unlike the RACI model, which helps determine who is responsible, accountable, consulted, and informed). If the deciders get stuck, they should jointly agree on how to escalate the decision or figure out a way to move the process along, even if it means agreeing to “disagree and commit.”
Advisers have input and help shape the decision. They have an outsize voice in setting the context of the decision and have a big stake in its outcome—for example, it may affect their profit-and-loss statements—but they don’t get a vote.
Recommenders conduct the analyses, explore the alternatives, illuminate the pros and cons, and ultimately recommend a course of action to advisers and deciders. They see the day-to-day implications of the decision but also have no vote. Best-in-class recommenders offer multiple options and sometimes invite others to suggest more if doing so may lead to better outcomes. A common mistake of recommenders, though, is coming in with only one recommendation (often the status quo) and trying to convince everyone it’s the best path forward. In general, the more recommenders, the better the process—but not in the decision meeting itself.
Executers don’t give input but are deeply involved in implementing the decision. For speed, clarity, and alignment, executers need to be in the room when the decision is made so they can ask clarifying questions and spot flaws that might hinder implementation. Notably, the number of executers doesn’t necessarily depend on the importance of the decision. An M&A decision, for example, might have just two executors: the CFO and a business-unit head.
To make this shift, ensure everyone is crystal clear about who has a voice but no vote or veto. Our research indicates while it is often helpful to involve more people in decision making, not all of them should be deciders—in many cases, just one individual should be the decider (see sidebar “How to define decision rights”). Don’t underestimate the difficulty of implementing this. It often goes against our risk-averse instinct to ensure everyone is “happy” with a decision, particularly our superiors and major stakeholders. Executing and sustaining this change takes real courage and leadership.
Routine working sessions are fairly straightforward. What many organizations struggle with is finding innovative ways to identify and drive toward solutions. How often do you tell your teams what to do versus empowering them to come up with solutions? While they may solve the immediate need to “get stuff done,” bureaucracies and micromanagement are a recipe for disaster. They slow down the organizational response to the market and customers, prevent leaders from focusing on strategic priorities, and harm employee engagement. Our research suggests key success factors in winning organizations are empowering employees and spending more time on high-quality coaching interactions.
Haier, a Chinese appliance maker, created more than 4,000 microenterprises (MEs) that share common approaches but operate independently. Haier has three types of microenterprises:
Take Haier. The Chinese appliance maker divided itself into more than 4,000 microenterprises with ten to 15 employees each, organized in an open ecosystem of users, inventors, and partners (see sidebar “How microenterprises empower employees to drive innovative solutions”). This shift turned employees into energetic entrepreneurs who were directly accountable for customers. Haier’s microenterprises are free to form and evolve with little central direction, but they share the same approach to target setting, internal contracting, and cross-unit coordination. Empowering employees to drive innovative solutions has taken the company from innovation-phobic to entrepreneurial at scale. Since 2015, revenue from Haier Smart Home, the company’s listed home-appliance business, has grown by more than 18 percent a year, topping 209 billion renminbi ($32 billion) in 2020. The company has also made a string of acquisitions, including the 2016 purchase of GE Appliances, with new ventures creating more than $2 billion in market value.
Empowering others doesn’t mean leaving them alone. Successful empowerment, counterintuitively, doesn’t mean leaving employees alone. Empowerment requires leaders to give employees both the tools and the right level of guidance and involvement. Leaders should play what we call the coach role: coaches don’t tell people what to do but instead provide guidance and guardrails and ensure accountability, while stepping back and allowing others to come up with solutions.
Haier was able to use a variety of tools—including objectives and key results (OKRs) and common problem statements—to foster an agile way of working across the enterprise that focuses innovative organizational energy on the most important topics. Not all companies can do this, and some will never be ready for enterprise agility. But every organization can take steps to improve the speed and quality of decisions made by empowered individuals.
Managers who are great coaches, for example, have typically benefited from years of investment by mentors, sponsors, and organizations. We think all organizations should do more to improve the coaching skills of managers and help them to create the space and time to coach teams, as opposed to filling out reports, presenting in meetings, and other activities that take time away from driving impact through the work of their teams.
But while great coaches take time to develop, something as simple as a daily stand-up or check-in can drive horizontal connectivity, creating the space for teams to understand what others are doing and where they need help to drive work forward without having to specifically task anyone in a hierarchical way. You may also consider how you are driving a focus on outcomes over activities on a near-term and long-term basis. Whether it’s OKRs or something else, how is your organization proactively communicating a focus on impact and results over tasks and activities? What do you measure? How is it tracked? How is the performance of your people and your teams managed against it? Over what time horizons?
The importance of psychological safety. As you start this journey, be sure to take a close look at psychological safety. If employees don’t feel psychologically safe, it will be nearly impossible for leaders and managers to break through disempowering behaviors like constant escalation, hiding problems or risks, and being afraid to ask questions—no matter how skilled they are as coaches.
Employers should be on the lookout for common problems indicating that significant challenges to psychological safety lurk underneath the surface. Consider asking yourself and your teams questions to test the degree of psychological safety you have cultivated: Do employees have space to bring up concerns or dissent? Do they feel that if they make a mistake it will be held against them? Do they feel they can take risks or ask for help? Do they feel others may undermine them? Do employees feel valued for their unique skills and talents? If the answer to any of these is not a clear-cut “yes,” the organization likely has room for improvement on psychological safety and relatedness as a foundation to high-quality interactions within and between teams.
Do any of these scenarios sound familiar? You spend a significant amount of time in meetings every day but feel like nothing has been accomplished. You jump from one meeting to another and don’t get to think on your own until 7 p.m. You wonder why you need to attend a series of meetings where the same materials are presented over and over again. You’re exhausted.
An increasing number of organizations have begun to realize the urgency of driving ruthless meeting efficiency and of questioning whether meetings are truly required at all to share information. Live interactions can be useful for information sharing, particularly when there is an interpretive lens required to understand the information, when that information is particularly sensitive, or when leaders want to ensure there’s ample time to process it and ask questions. That said, most of us would say that most meetings are not particularly useful and often don’t accomplish their intended objective.
We have observed that many companies are moving to shorter meetings (15 to 30 minutes) rather than the standard default of one-hour meetings in an effort to drive focus and productivity. For example, Netflix launched a redesign effort to drastically improve meeting efficiency, resulting in a tightly controlled meeting protocol. Meetings cannot go beyond 30 minutes. Meetings for one-way information sharing must be canceled in favor of other mechanisms such as a memo, podcast, or vlog. Two-way information sharing during meetings is limited by having attendees review materials in advance, replacing presentations with Q&As. Early data show Netflix has been able to reduce the number of meetings by more than 65 percent, and more than 85 percent of employees favor the approach.
Making meeting time a scarce resource is another strategy organizations are using to improve the quality of information sharing and other types of interactions occurring in a meeting setting. Some companies have implemented no-meeting days. In Japan, Microsoft’s “Work Life Choice Challenge” adopted a four-day workweek, reduced the time employees spend in meetings—and boosted productivity by 40 percent. 1 Bill Chappell, “4-day workweek boosted workers’ productivity by 40%, Microsoft Japan says,” NPR, November 4, 2019, npr.org. Similarly, Shopify uses “No Meeting Wednesdays” to enable employees to devote time to projects they are passionate about and to promote creative thinking. 2 Amy Elisa Jackson, “Feedback & meeting-free Wednesdays: How Shopify beats the competition,” Glassdoor, December 5, 2018, glassdoor.com. And Moveline’s product team dedicates every Tuesday to “Maker Day,” an opportunity to create and solve complex problems without the distraction of meetings. 3 Rebecca Greenfield, “Why your office needs a maker day,” Fast Company , April 17, 2014, fastcompany.com.
Finally, no meeting could be considered well scoped without considering who should participate, as there are real financial and transaction costs to meeting participation. Leaders should treat time spent in meetings as seriously as companies treat financial capital. Every leader in every organization should ask the following questions before attending any meeting: What’s this meeting for? What’s my role? Can I shorten this meeting by limiting live information sharing and focusing on discussion and decision making? We encourage you to excuse yourself from meetings if you don’t have a role in influencing the outcome and to instead get a quick update over email. If you are not essential, the meeting will still be successful (possibly more so!) without your presence. Try it and see what happens.
High-quality, focused interactions can improve productivity, speed, and innovation within any organization—and drive better business performance. We hope the above insights have inspired you to try some new techniques to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of collaboration within your organization.
Aaron De Smet is a senior partner in McKinsey’s New Jersey office; Caitlin Hewes is a consultant in the Atlanta office; Mengwei Luo is an associate partner in the New York office; J.R. Maxwell is a partner in the Washington, DC, office; and Patrick Simon is a partner in the Munich office.
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Integrating remote sensing methods for monitoring lake water quality: a comprehensive review.
Batina, A.; Krtalić, A. Integrating Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Lake Water Quality: A Comprehensive Review. Hydrology 2024 , 11 , 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11070092
Batina A, Krtalić A. Integrating Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Lake Water Quality: A Comprehensive Review. Hydrology . 2024; 11(7):92. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11070092
Batina, Anja, and Andrija Krtalić. 2024. "Integrating Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Lake Water Quality: A Comprehensive Review" Hydrology 11, no. 7: 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11070092
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A decision-making model works by walking you through the decision-making process — and there are several such models available for you to choose from. To help you improve your problem-solving abilities and make better decisions, let's take a look at five proven decision-making models and when you should use them. Defining decision-making ...
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As a decision-maker, to help you understand when to use some common decision-making models, examine the definitions and steps below: 1. Rational decision model. The rational decision-making model focuses on using logical steps to come to the best solution possible. This often involves analyzing multiple solutions at once to choose the one that ...
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Clemen's four areas of difficulty are the main cause of conflict in decision making. Welford in 1976 (as referred to in Lehto, 2006) defined human decision making as "a stage of information ...
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The chapter introduces principles of rational choice suggested by classical decision theory, followed by a discussion of research on human decision making which has led to the new perspectives of ...
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Decision-making is one of the steps in problem-solving that can be applied in manifold areas from personal situations to the management of organizations. There are functions and processes to lead ...
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7.2 Decision-making Models Decision-making Models. In this section, we are going to discuss different decision-making models designed to understand and evaluate the effectiveness of nonprogrammed decisions. ... All the models include problem identification, which is the step in which the need for problem solving becomes apparent. If you do not ...
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Framing ethical decision making as involving problem solving is advantageous because of the existing empirical literature on how to teach problem-solving skills and recognition of the importance of verbal stimuli and verbal behavior (e.g., Kieta et al., 2019). However, this also might have the drawbacks of adding complexity and less empirical ...
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Decision Making and Problem Solving Strategies will help you to master the process of practical thinking that lies behind effective decision making, problem solving and creative thinking. Using exercises, checklists and case studies it will enable you to: • understand the way your mind works; • develop a framework for decision making; •
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