example of a quantitative article review

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Product review of ticktalk 5, product review of the grid duffle backpack, product review of naturopathica’s active body bundle, the benefits of differentiated instruction: everything you need to know, teaching children inferential thinking: everything you need to know, why choose sharepoint learning management system, good readers and reading strategies: everything you need to know, product review of the hear otc hearing aid, assisting english language learners: everything you need to know, how to write an article review (with sample reviews)  .

An article review is a critical evaluation of a scholarly or scientific piece, which aims to summarize its main ideas, assess its contributions, and provide constructive feedback. A well-written review not only benefits the author of the article under scrutiny but also serves as a valuable resource for fellow researchers and scholars. Follow these steps to create an effective and informative article review:

1. Understand the purpose: Before diving into the article, it is important to understand the intent of writing a review. This helps in focusing your thoughts, directing your analysis, and ensuring your review adds value to the academic community.

2. Read the article thoroughly: Carefully read the article multiple times to get a complete understanding of its content, arguments, and conclusions. As you read, take notes on key points, supporting evidence, and any areas that require further exploration or clarification.

3. Summarize the main ideas: In your review’s introduction, briefly outline the primary themes and arguments presented by the author(s). Keep it concise but sufficiently informative so that readers can quickly grasp the essence of the article.

4. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses: In subsequent paragraphs, assess the strengths and limitations of the article based on factors such as methodology, quality of evidence presented, coherence of arguments, and alignment with existing literature in the field. Be fair and objective while providing your critique.

5. Discuss any implications: Deliberate on how this particular piece contributes to or challenges existing knowledge in its discipline. You may also discuss potential improvements for future research or explore real-world applications stemming from this study.

6. Provide recommendations: Finally, offer suggestions for both the author(s) and readers regarding how they can further build on this work or apply its findings in practice.

7. Proofread and revise: Once your initial draft is complete, go through it carefully for clarity, accuracy, and coherence. Revise as necessary, ensuring your review is both informative and engaging for readers.

Sample Review:

A Critical Review of “The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health”

Introduction:

“The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health” is a timely article which investigates the relationship between social media usage and psychological well-being. The authors present compelling evidence to support their argument that excessive use of social media can result in decreased self-esteem, increased anxiety, and a negative impact on interpersonal relationships.

Strengths and weaknesses:

One of the strengths of this article lies in its well-structured methodology utilizing a variety of sources, including quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. This approach provides a comprehensive view of the topic, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the effects of social media on mental health. However, it would have been beneficial if the authors included a larger sample size to increase the reliability of their conclusions. Additionally, exploring how different platforms may influence mental health differently could have added depth to the analysis.

Implications:

The findings in this article contribute significantly to ongoing debates surrounding the psychological implications of social media use. It highlights the potential dangers that excessive engagement with online platforms may pose to one’s mental well-being and encourages further research into interventions that could mitigate these risks. The study also offers an opportunity for educators and policy-makers to take note and develop strategies to foster healthier online behavior.

Recommendations:

Future researchers should consider investigating how specific social media platforms impact mental health outcomes, as this could lead to more targeted interventions. For practitioners, implementing educational programs aimed at promoting healthy online habits may be beneficial in mitigating the potential negative consequences associated with excessive social media use.

Conclusion:

Overall, “The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health” is an important and informative piece that raises awareness about a pressing issue in today’s digital age. Given its minor limitations, it provides valuable

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• Critical Reviews

How to Write an Article Review (With Examples)

Last Updated: April 24, 2024 Fact Checked

Preparing to Write Your Review

Writing the article review, sample article reviews, expert q&a.

This article was co-authored by Jake Adams . Jake Adams is an academic tutor and the owner of Simplifi EDU, a Santa Monica, California based online tutoring business offering learning resources and online tutors for academic subjects K-College, SAT & ACT prep, and college admissions applications. With over 14 years of professional tutoring experience, Jake is dedicated to providing his clients the very best online tutoring experience and access to a network of excellent undergraduate and graduate-level tutors from top colleges all over the nation. Jake holds a BS in International Business and Marketing from Pepperdine University. There are 12 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 3,117,668 times.

An article review is both a summary and an evaluation of another writer's article. Teachers often assign article reviews to introduce students to the work of experts in the field. Experts also are often asked to review the work of other professionals. Understanding the main points and arguments of the article is essential for an accurate summation. Logical evaluation of the article's main theme, supporting arguments, and implications for further research is an important element of a review . Here are a few guidelines for writing an article review.

Education specialist Alexander Peterman recommends: "In the case of a review, your objective should be to reflect on the effectiveness of what has already been written, rather than writing to inform your audience about a subject."

Article Review 101

• Read the article very closely, and then take time to reflect on your evaluation. Consider whether the article effectively achieves what it set out to.
• Write out a full article review by completing your intro, summary, evaluation, and conclusion. Don't forget to add a title, too!
• Proofread your review for mistakes (like grammar and usage), while also cutting down on needless information.

• Article reviews present more than just an opinion. You will engage with the text to create a response to the scholarly writer's ideas. You will respond to and use ideas, theories, and research from your studies. Your critique of the article will be based on proof and your own thoughtful reasoning.
• An article review only responds to the author's research. It typically does not provide any new research. However, if you are correcting misleading or otherwise incorrect points, some new data may be presented.
• An article review both summarizes and evaluates the article.

• Summarize the article. Focus on the important points, claims, and information.
• Discuss the positive aspects of the article. Think about what the author does well, good points she makes, and insightful observations.
• Identify contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the text. Determine if there is enough data or research included to support the author's claims. Find any unanswered questions left in the article.

• Make note of words or issues you don't understand and questions you have.
• Look up terms or concepts you are unfamiliar with, so you can fully understand the article. Read about concepts in-depth to make sure you understand their full context.

• Pay careful attention to the meaning of the article. Make sure you fully understand the article. The only way to write a good article review is to understand the article.

• With either method, make an outline of the main points made in the article and the supporting research or arguments. It is strictly a restatement of the main points of the article and does not include your opinions.
• After putting the article in your own words, decide which parts of the article you want to discuss in your review. You can focus on the theoretical approach, the content, the presentation or interpretation of evidence, or the style. You will always discuss the main issues of the article, but you can sometimes also focus on certain aspects. This comes in handy if you want to focus the review towards the content of a course.
• Review the summary outline to eliminate unnecessary items. Erase or cross out the less important arguments or supplemental information. Your revised summary can serve as the basis for the summary you provide at the beginning of your review.

• What does the article set out to do?
• What is the theoretical framework or assumptions?
• Are the central concepts clearly defined?
• How adequate is the evidence?
• How does the article fit into the literature and field?
• Does it advance the knowledge of the subject?
• How clear is the author's writing? Don't: include superficial opinions or your personal reaction. Do: pay attention to your biases, so you can overcome them.

• For example, in MLA , a citation may look like: Duvall, John N. "The (Super)Marketplace of Images: Television as Unmediated Mediation in DeLillo's White Noise ." Arizona Quarterly 50.3 (1994): 127-53. Print. [9] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

• For example: The article, "Condom use will increase the spread of AIDS," was written by Anthony Zimmerman, a Catholic priest.

• Your introduction should only be 10-25% of your review.
• End the introduction with your thesis. Your thesis should address the above issues. For example: Although the author has some good points, his article is biased and contains some misinterpretation of data from others’ analysis of the effectiveness of the condom.

• Use direct quotes from the author sparingly.
• Review the summary you have written. Read over your summary many times to ensure that your words are an accurate description of the author's article.

• Support your critique with evidence from the article or other texts.
• The summary portion is very important for your critique. You must make the author's argument clear in the summary section for your evaluation to make sense.
• Remember, this is not where you say if you liked the article or not. You are assessing the significance and relevance of the article.
• Use a topic sentence and supportive arguments for each opinion. For example, you might address a particular strength in the first sentence of the opinion section, followed by several sentences elaborating on the significance of the point.

• This should only be about 10% of your overall essay.
• For example: This critical review has evaluated the article "Condom use will increase the spread of AIDS" by Anthony Zimmerman. The arguments in the article show the presence of bias, prejudice, argumentative writing without supporting details, and misinformation. These points weaken the author’s arguments and reduce his credibility.

• Make sure you have identified and discussed the 3-4 key issues in the article.

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://libguides.cmich.edu/writinghelp/articlereview
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548566/
• ↑ Jake Adams. Academic Tutor & Test Prep Specialist. Expert Interview. 24 July 2020.
• ↑ https://guides.library.queensu.ca/introduction-research/writing/critical
• ↑ https://www.iup.edu/writingcenter/writing-resources/organization-and-structure/creating-an-outline.html
• ↑ https://writing.umn.edu/sws/assets/pdf/quicktips/titles.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_periodicals.html
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548565/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/593/2014/06/How_to_Summarize_a_Research_Article1.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uis.edu/learning-hub/writing-resources/handouts/learning-hub/how-to-review-a-journal-article
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/

About This Article

If you have to write an article review, read through the original article closely, taking notes and highlighting important sections as you read. Next, rewrite the article in your own words, either in a long paragraph or as an outline. Open your article review by citing the article, then write an introduction which states the article’s thesis. Next, summarize the article, followed by your opinion about whether the article was clear, thorough, and useful. Finish with a paragraph that summarizes the main points of the article and your opinions. To learn more about what to include in your personal critique of the article, keep reading the article! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Quantitative Review of an Article

For this assignment, students will select one academic article out of five designated articles which are also assigned readings for the course. Students will read selected article critically and write a review of the article. This review essay should contain two components: (1) the assessment of the author's main argument or thesis statement by reviewing how the author(s) uses both qualitative and quantitative evidences in the articles; and (2) the assessment of the use, misuse, and missed-use of quantitative evidences and the assumptions behind the numbers.

Expand for more detail

Activity Classification and Connections to Related Resources Collapse

Grade level, learning goals.

• to introduce quantitative critical thinking in reading.
• to learn how to write with quantitative evidences by learning by doing (in this case is doing quantitative analytical review of an academic article).
• to prepare for the main assignment of this course which requires understanding and the use of quantitative evidences and critical thinking in writing.

Context for Use

Description and teaching materials, teaching notes and tips, references and resources.

See more Examples »

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

How to Write an Article Review: Tips and Examples

Did you know that article reviews are not just academic exercises but also a valuable skill in today's information age? In a world inundated with content, being able to dissect and evaluate articles critically can help you separate the wheat from the chaff. Whether you're a student aiming to excel in your coursework or a professional looking to stay well-informed, mastering the art of writing article reviews is an invaluable skill.

Short Description

In this article, our research paper writing service experts will start by unraveling the concept of article reviews and discussing the various types. You'll also gain insights into the art of formatting your review effectively. To ensure you're well-prepared, we'll take you through the pre-writing process, offering tips on setting the stage for your review. But it doesn't stop there. You'll find a practical example of an article review to help you grasp the concepts in action. To complete your journey, we'll guide you through the post-writing process, equipping you with essential proofreading techniques to ensure your work shines with clarity and precision!

What Is an Article Review: Grasping the Concept 

A review article is a type of professional paper writing that demands a high level of in-depth analysis and a well-structured presentation of arguments. It is a critical, constructive evaluation of literature in a particular field through summary, classification, analysis, and comparison.

If you write a scientific review, you have to use database searches to portray the research. Your primary goal is to summarize everything and present a clear understanding of the topic you've been working on.

Writing Involves:

• Summarization, classification, analysis, critiques, and comparison.
• The analysis, evaluation, and comparison require the use of theories, ideas, and research relevant to the subject area of the article.
• It is also worth nothing if a review does not introduce new information, but instead presents a response to another writer's work.
• Check out other samples to gain a better understanding of how to review the article.

Types of Review

When it comes to article reviews, there's more than one way to approach the task. Understanding the various types of reviews is like having a versatile toolkit at your disposal. In this section, we'll walk you through the different dimensions of review types, each offering a unique perspective and purpose. Whether you're dissecting a scholarly article, critiquing a piece of literature, or evaluating a product, you'll discover the diverse landscape of article reviews and how to navigate it effectively.

Journal Article Review

Just like other types of reviews, a journal article review assesses the merits and shortcomings of a published work. To illustrate, consider a review of an academic paper on climate change, where the writer meticulously analyzes and interprets the article's significance within the context of environmental science.

Research Article Review

Distinguished by its focus on research methodologies, a research article review scrutinizes the techniques used in a study and evaluates them in light of the subsequent analysis and critique. For instance, when reviewing a research article on the effects of a new drug, the reviewer would delve into the methods employed to gather data and assess their reliability.

Science Article Review

In the realm of scientific literature, a science article review encompasses a wide array of subjects. Scientific publications often provide extensive background information, which can be instrumental in conducting a comprehensive analysis. For example, when reviewing an article about the latest breakthroughs in genetics, the reviewer may draw upon the background knowledge provided to facilitate a more in-depth evaluation of the publication.

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Formatting an Article Review

The format of the article should always adhere to the citation style required by your professor. If you're not sure, seek clarification on the preferred format and ask him to clarify several other pointers to complete the formatting of an article review adequately.

How Many Publications Should You Review?

• In what format should you cite your articles (MLA, APA, ASA, Chicago, etc.)?
• What length should your review be?
• Should you include a summary, critique, or personal opinion in your assignment?
• Do you need to call attention to a theme or central idea within the articles?
• Does your instructor require background information?

When you know the answers to these questions, you may start writing your assignment. Below are examples of MLA and APA formats, as those are the two most common citation styles.

Using the APA Format

Articles appear most commonly in academic journals, newspapers, and websites. If you write an article review in the APA format, you will need to write bibliographical entries for the sources you use:

• Web : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Title. Retrieved from {link}
• Journal : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Publication Year). Publication Title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
• Newspaper : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Publication Title. Magazine Title, pp. xx-xx.

Using MLA Format

• Web : Last, First Middle Initial. “Publication Title.” Website Title. Website Publisher, Date Month Year Published. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.
• Newspaper : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Newspaper Title [City] Date, Month, Year Published: Page(s). Print.
• Journal : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Journal Title Series Volume. Issue (Year Published): Page(s). Database Name. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

Enhance your writing effortlessly with EssayPro.com , where you can order an article review or any other writing task. Our team of expert writers specializes in various fields, ensuring your work is not just summarized, but deeply analyzed and professionally presented. Ideal for students and professionals alike, EssayPro offers top-notch writing assistance tailored to your needs. Elevate your writing today with our skilled team at your article review writing service !

The Pre-Writing Process

Facing this task for the first time can really get confusing and can leave you unsure of where to begin. To create a top-notch article review, start with a few preparatory steps. Here are the two main stages from our dissertation services to get you started:

Step 1: Define the right organization for your review. Knowing the future setup of your paper will help you define how you should read the article. Here are the steps to follow:

• Summarize the article — seek out the main points, ideas, claims, and general information presented in the article.
• Define the positive points — identify the strong aspects, ideas, and insightful observations the author has made.
• Find the gaps —- determine whether or not the author has any contradictions, gaps, or inconsistencies in the article and evaluate whether or not he or she used a sufficient amount of arguments and information to support his or her ideas.
• Identify unanswered questions — finally, identify if there are any questions left unanswered after reading the piece.

Step 2: Move on and review the article. Here is a small and simple guide to help you do it right:

• Start off by looking at and assessing the title of the piece, its abstract, introductory part, headings and subheadings, opening sentences in its paragraphs, and its conclusion.
• First, read only the beginning and the ending of the piece (introduction and conclusion). These are the parts where authors include all of their key arguments and points. Therefore, if you start with reading these parts, it will give you a good sense of the author's main points.
• Finally, read the article fully.

These three steps make up most of the prewriting process. After you are done with them, you can move on to writing your own review—and we are going to guide you through the writing process as well.

Outline and Template

As you progress with reading your article, organize your thoughts into coherent sections in an outline. As you read, jot down important facts, contributions, or contradictions. Identify the shortcomings and strengths of your publication. Begin to map your outline accordingly.

If your professor does not want a summary section or a personal critique section, then you must alleviate those parts from your writing. Much like other assignments, an article review must contain an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Thus, you might consider dividing your outline according to these sections as well as subheadings within the body. If you find yourself troubled with the pre-writing and the brainstorming process for this assignment, seek out a sample outline.

Your custom essay must contain these constituent parts:

• Pre-Title Page - Before diving into your review, start with essential details: article type, publication title, and author names with affiliations (position, department, institution, location, and email). Include corresponding author info if needed.
• Running Head - In APA format, use a concise title (under 40 characters) to ensure consistent formatting.
• Summary Page - Optional but useful. Summarize the article in 800 words, covering background, purpose, results, and methodology, avoiding verbatim text or references.
• Title Page - Include the full title, a 250-word abstract, and 4-6 keywords for discoverability.
• Introduction - Set the stage with an engaging overview of the article.
• Body - Organize your analysis with headings and subheadings.
• Works Cited/References - Properly cite all sources used in your review.
• Optional Suggested Reading Page - If permitted, suggest further readings for in-depth exploration.
• Tables and Figure Legends (if instructed by the professor) - Include visuals when requested by your professor for clarity.

Example of an Article Review

You might wonder why we've dedicated a section of this article to discuss an article review sample. Not everyone may realize it, but examining multiple well-constructed examples of review articles is a crucial step in the writing process. In the following section, our essay writing service experts will explain why.

Looking through relevant article review examples can be beneficial for you in the following ways:

• To get you introduced to the key works of experts in your field.
• To help you identify the key people engaged in a particular field of science.
• To help you define what significant discoveries and advances were made in your field.
• To help you unveil the major gaps within the existing knowledge of your field—which contributes to finding fresh solutions.
• To help you find solid references and arguments for your own review.
• To help you generate some ideas about any further field of research.
• To help you gain a better understanding of the area and become an expert in this specific field.
• To get a clear idea of how to write a good review.

View Our Writer’s Sample Before Crafting Your Own!

Why Have There Been No Great Female Artists?

Steps for Writing an Article Review

Here is a guide with critique paper format on how to write a review paper:

Step 1: Write the Title

First of all, you need to write a title that reflects the main focus of your work. Respectively, the title can be either interrogative, descriptive, or declarative.

Step 2: Cite the Article

Next, create a proper citation for the reviewed article and input it following the title. At this step, the most important thing to keep in mind is the style of citation specified by your instructor in the requirements for the paper. For example, an article citation in the MLA style should look as follows:

Author's last and first name. "The title of the article." Journal's title and issue(publication date): page(s). Print

Abraham John. "The World of Dreams." Virginia Quarterly 60.2(1991): 125-67. Print.

Step 3: Article Identification

After your citation, you need to include the identification of your reviewed article:

• Title of the article
• Title of the journal
• Year of publication

All of this information should be included in the first paragraph of your paper.

The report "Poverty increases school drop-outs" was written by Brian Faith – a Health officer – in 2000.

Step 4: Introduction

Your organization in an assignment like this is of the utmost importance. Before embarking on your writing process, you should outline your assignment or use an article review template to organize your thoughts coherently.

• If you are wondering how to start an article review, begin with an introduction that mentions the article and your thesis for the review.
• Follow up with a summary of the main points of the article.
• Highlight the positive aspects and facts presented in the publication.
• Critique the publication by identifying gaps, contradictions, disparities in the text, and unanswered questions.

Step 5: Summarize the Article

Make a summary of the article by revisiting what the author has written about. Note any relevant facts and findings from the article. Include the author's conclusions in this section.

Step 6: Critique It

Present the strengths and weaknesses you have found in the publication. Highlight the knowledge that the author has contributed to the field. Also, write about any gaps and/or contradictions you have found in the article. Take a standpoint of either supporting or not supporting the author's assertions, but back up your arguments with facts and relevant theories that are pertinent to that area of knowledge. Rubrics and templates can also be used to evaluate and grade the person who wrote the article.

Step 7: Craft a Conclusion

In this section, revisit the critical points of your piece, your findings in the article, and your critique. Also, write about the accuracy, validity, and relevance of the results of the article review. Present a way forward for future research in the field of study. Before submitting your article, keep these pointers in mind:

• As you read the article, highlight the key points. This will help you pinpoint the article's main argument and the evidence that they used to support that argument.
• While you write your review, use evidence from your sources to make a point. This is best done using direct quotations.
• Select quotes and supporting evidence adequately and use direct quotations sparingly. Take time to analyze the article adequately.
• Every time you reference a publication or use a direct quotation, use a parenthetical citation to avoid accidentally plagiarizing your article.
• Re-read your piece a day after you finish writing it. This will help you to spot grammar mistakes and to notice any flaws in your organization.
• Use a spell-checker and get a second opinion on your paper.

The Post-Writing Process: Proofread Your Work

Finally, when all of the parts of your article review are set and ready, you have one last thing to take care of — proofreading. Although students often neglect this step, proofreading is a vital part of the writing process and will help you polish your paper to ensure that there are no mistakes or inconsistencies.

To proofread your paper properly, start by reading it fully and checking the following points:

• Punctuation
• Other mistakes

Afterward, take a moment to check for any unnecessary information in your paper and, if found, consider removing it to streamline your content. Finally, double-check that you've covered at least 3-4 key points in your discussion.

And remember, if you ever need help with proofreading, rewriting your essay, or even want to buy essay , our friendly team is always here to assist you.

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Just send us the requirements to your paper and watch one of our writers crafting an original paper for you.

What Is A Review Article?

How to write an article review, how to write an article review in apa format.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

How to Write an Article Review: Template & Examples

An article review is an academic assignment that invites you to study a piece of academic research closely. Then, you should present its summary and critically evaluate it using the knowledge you’ve gained in class and during your independent study. If you get such a task at college or university, you shouldn’t confuse it with a response paper, which is a distinct assignment with other purposes (we’ll talk about it in detail below).

In this article, prepared by Custom-Writing experts, you’ll find:

• the intricacies of article review writing;
• the difference between an article review and similar assignments;
• a step-by-step algorithm for review composition;
• a couple of samples to guide you throughout the writing process.

So, if you wish to study our article review example and discover helpful writing tips, keep reading.

❓ What Is an Article Review?

• ✍️ Writing Steps

📑 Article Review Format

🔗 references.

An article review is an academic paper that summarizes and critically evaluates the information presented in your selected article.

The first thing you should note when approaching the task of an article review is that not every article is suitable for this assignment. Let’s have a look at the variety of articles to understand what you can choose from.

Popular Vs. Scholarly Articles

In most cases, you’ll be required to review a scholarly, peer-reviewed article – one composed in compliance with rigorous academic standards. Yet, the Web is also full of popular articles that don’t present original scientific value and shouldn’t be selected for a review.

Not sure how to distinguish these two types? Here is a comparative table to help you out.

Article Review vs. Response Paper

Now, let’s consider the difference between an article review and a response paper:

• If you’re assigned to critique a scholarly article , you will need to compose an article review .
• If your subject of analysis is a popular article , you can respond to it with a well-crafted response paper .

The reason for such distinctions is the quality and structure of these two article types. Peer-reviewed, scholarly articles have clear-cut quality criteria, allowing you to conduct and present a structured assessment of the assigned material. Popular magazines have loose or non-existent quality criteria and don’t offer an opportunity for structured evaluation. So, they are only fit for a subjective response, in which you can summarize your reactions and emotions related to the reading material.

All in all, you can structure your response assignments as outlined in the tips below.

✍️ How to Write an Article Review: Step by Step

Here is a tried and tested algorithm for article review writing from our experts. We’ll consider only the critical review variety of this academic assignment. So, let’s get down to the stages you need to cover to get a stellar review.

Read the Article

As with any reviews, reports, and critiques, you must first familiarize yourself with the assigned material. It’s impossible to review something you haven’t read, so set some time for close, careful reading of the article to identify:

• The author’s main points and message.
• The arguments they use to prove their points.
• The methodology they use to approach the subject.

In terms of research type, your article will usually belong to one of three types explained below.

Summarize the Article

Now that you’ve read the text and have a general impression of the content, it’s time to summarize it for your readers. Look into the article’s text closely to determine:

• The thesis statement, or general message of the author.
• Research question, purpose, and context of research.
• Supporting points for the author’s assumptions and claims.
• Major findings and supporting evidence.

As you study the article thoroughly, make notes on the margins or write these elements out on a sheet of paper. You can also apply a different technique: read the text section by section and formulate its gist in one phrase or sentence. Once you’re done, you’ll have a summary skeleton in front of you.

Evaluate the Article

The next step of review is content evaluation. Keep in mind that various research types will require a different set of review questions. Here is a complete list of evaluation points you can include.

Write the Text

After completing the critical review stage, it’s time to compose your article review.

The format of this assignment is standard – you will have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction should present your article and summarize its content. The body will contain a structured review according to all four dimensions covered in the previous section. The concluding part will typically recap all the main points you’ve identified during your assessment.

It is essential to note that an article review is, first of all, an academic assignment. Therefore, it should follow all rules and conventions of academic composition, such as:

• No contractions . Don’t use short forms, such as “don’t,” “can’t,” “I’ll,” etc. in academic writing. You need to spell out all those words.
• Formal language and style . Avoid conversational phrasing and words that you would naturally use in blog posts or informal communication. For example, don’t use words like “pretty,” “kind of,” and “like.”
• Third-person narrative . Academic reviews should be written from the third-person point of view, avoiding statements like “I think,” “in my opinion,” and so on.
• No conversational forms . You shouldn’t turn to your readers directly in the text by addressing them with the pronoun “you.” It’s vital to keep the narrative neutral and impersonal.
• Proper abbreviation use . Consult the list of correct abbreviations, like “e.g.” or “i.e.,” for use in your academic writing. If you use informal abbreviations like “FYA” or “f.i.,” your professor will reduce the grade.
• Complete sentences . Make sure your sentences contain the subject and the predicate; avoid shortened or sketch-form phrases suitable for a draft only.
• No conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence . Remember the FANBOYS rule – don’t start a sentence with words like “and” or “but.” They often seem the right way to build a coherent narrative, but academic writing rules disfavor such usage.
• No abbreviations or figures at the beginning of a sentence . Never start a sentence with a number — spell it out if you need to use it anyway. Besides, sentences should never begin with abbreviations like “e.g.”

Finally, a vital rule for an article review is properly formatting the citations. We’ll discuss the correct use of citation styles in the following section.

When composing an article review, keep these points in mind:

• Start with a full reference to the reviewed article so the reader can locate it quickly.
• Ensure correct formatting of in-text references.
• Provide a complete list of used external sources on the last page of the review – your bibliographical entries.

You’ll need to understand the rules of your chosen citation style to meet all these requirements. Below, we’ll discuss the two most common referencing styles – APA and MLA.

Article Review in APA

When you need to compose an article review in the APA format , here is the general bibliographical entry format you should use for journal articles on your reference page:

• Author’s last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year of Publication). Name of the article. Name of the Journal, volume (number), pp. #-#. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy

Horigian, V. E., Schmidt, R. D., & Feaster, D. J. (2021). Loneliness, mental health, and substance use among US young adults during COVID-19. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 53 (1), pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1836435

Your in-text citations should follow the author-date format like this:

• If you paraphrase the source and mention the author in the text: According to Horigian et al. (2021), young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic.
• If you paraphrase the source and don’t mention the author in the text: Young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (Horigian et al., 2021).
• If you quote the source: As Horigian et al. (2021) point out, there were “elevated levels of loneliness, depression, anxiety, alcohol use, and drug use among young adults during COVID-19” (p. 6).

Note that your in-text citations should include “et al.,” as in the examples above, if your article has 3 or more authors. If you have one or two authors, your in-text citations would look like this:

• One author: “According to Smith (2020), depression is…” or “Depression is … (Smith, 2020).”
• Two authors: “According to Smith and Brown (2020), anxiety means…” or “Anxiety means (Smith & Brown, 2020).”

Finally, in case you have to review a book or a website article, here are the general formats for citing these source types on your APA reference list.

Article Review in MLA

If your assignment requires MLA-format referencing, here’s the general format you should use for citing journal articles on your Works Cited page:

• Author’s last name, First name. “Title of an Article.” Title of the Journal , vol. #, no. #, year, pp. #-#.

Horigian, Viviana E., et al. “Loneliness, Mental Health, and Substance Use Among US Young Adults During COVID-19.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , vol. 53, no. 1, 2021, pp. 1-9.

In-text citations in the MLA format follow the author-page citation format and look like this:

• According to Horigian et al., young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (6).
• Young adults experienced increased levels of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic (Horigian et al. 6).

Like in APA, the abbreviation “et al.” is only needed in MLA if your article has 3 or more authors.

If you need to cite a book or a website page, here are the general MLA formats for these types of sources.

✅ Article Review Template

Here is a handy, universal article review template to help you move on with any review assignment. We’ve tried to make it as generic as possible to guide you in the academic process.

📝 Article Review Examples

The theory is good, but practice is even better. Thus, we’ve created three brief examples to show you how to write an article review. You can study the full-text samples by following the links.

📃 Men, Women, & Money

This article review examines a famous piece, “Men, Women & Money – How the Sexes Differ with Their Finances,” published by Amy Livingston in 2020. The author of this article claims that men generally spend more money than women. She makes this conclusion from a close analysis of gender-specific expenditures across five main categories: food, clothing, cars, entertainment, and general spending patterns. Livingston also looks at men’s approach to saving to argue that counter to the common perception of women’s light-hearted attitude to money, men are those who spend more on average.

📃 When and Why Nationalism Beats Globalism

This is a review of Jonathan Heidt’s 2016 article titled “When and Why Nationalism Beats Globalism,” written as an advocacy of right-wing populism rising in many Western states. The author illustrates the case with the election of Donald Trump as the US President and the rise of right-wing rhetoric in many Western countries. These examples show how nationalist sentiment represents a reaction to global immigration and a failure of globalization.

📃 Sleep Deprivation

This is a review of the American Heart Association’s article titled “The Dangers of Sleep Deprivation.” It discusses how the national organization concerned with the American population’s cardiovascular health links the lack of high-quality sleep to far-reaching health consequences. The organization’s experts reveal how a consistent lack of sleep leads to Alzheimer’s disease development, obesity, type 2 diabetes, etc.

✏️ Article Review FAQ

A high-quality article review should summarize the assigned article’s content and offer data-backed reactions and evaluations of its quality in terms of the article’s purpose, methodology, and data used to argue the main points. It should be detailed, comprehensive, objective, and evidence-based.

The purpose of writing a review is to allow students to reflect on research quality and showcase their critical thinking and evaluation skills. Students should exhibit their mastery of close reading of research publications and their unbiased assessment.

The content of your article review will be the same in any format, with the only difference in the assignment’s formatting before submission. Ensure you have a separate title page made according to APA standards and cite sources using the parenthetical author-date referencing format.

You need to take a closer look at various dimensions of an assigned article to compose a valuable review. Study the author’s object of analysis, the purpose of their research, the chosen method, data, and findings. Evaluate all these dimensions critically to see whether the author has achieved the initial goals. Finally, offer improvement recommendations to add a critique aspect to your paper.

• Scientific Article Review: Duke University
• Book and Article Reviews: William & Mary, Writing Resources Center
• Sample Format for Reviewing a Journal Article: Boonshoft School of Medicine
• Research Paper Review – Structure and Format Guidelines: New Jersey Institute of Technology
• Article Review: University of Waterloo
• Writing Help: The Article Review: Central Michigan University Libraries
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Archer Library

Quantitative research: literature review .

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Exploring the literature review 

Literature review model: 6 steps.

Adapted from The Literature Review , Machi & McEvoy (2009, p. 13).

Your Literature Review

Step 2: search, boolean search strategies, search limiters, ★ ebsco & google drive.

1. Select a Topic

"All research begins with curiosity" (Machi & McEvoy, 2009, p. 14)

Selection of a topic, and fully defined research interest and question, is supervised (and approved) by your professor. Tips for crafting your topic include:

• Be specific. Take time to define your interest.
• Topic Focus. Fully describe and sufficiently narrow the focus for research.
• Academic Discipline. Learn more about your area of research & refine the scope.
• Avoid Bias. Be aware of bias that you (as a researcher) may have.
• Document your research. Use Google Docs to track your research process.
• Research apps. Consider using Evernote or Zotero to track your research.

Consider Purpose

What will your topic and research address?

In The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students , Ridley presents that literature reviews serve several purposes (2008, p. 16-17).  Included are the following points:

• Historical background for the research;
• Overview of current field provided by "contemporary debates, issues, and questions;"
• Theories and concepts related to your research;
• Introduce "relevant terminology" - or academic language - being used it the field;
• Connect to existing research - does your work "extend or challenge [this] or address a gap;" 
• Provide "supporting evidence for a practical problem or issue" that your research addresses.

★ Schedule a research appointment

At this point in your literature review, take time to meet with a librarian. Why? Understanding the subject terminology used in databases can be challenging. Archer Librarians can help you structure a search, preparing you for step two. How? Contact a librarian directly or use the online form to schedule an appointment. Details are provided in the adjacent Schedule an Appointment box.

2. Search the Literature

Collect & Select Data: Preview, select, and organize

Archer Library is your go-to resource for this step in your literature review process. The literature search will include books and ebooks, scholarly and practitioner journals, theses and dissertations, and indexes. You may also choose to include web sites, blogs, open access resources, and newspapers. This library guide provides access to resources needed to complete a literature review.

Books & eBooks: Archer Library & OhioLINK

Databases: Scholarly & Practitioner Journals

Review the Library Databases tab on this library guide, it provides links to recommended databases for Education & Psychology, Business, and General & Social Sciences.

Expand your journal search; a complete listing of available AU Library and OhioLINK databases is available on the Databases  A to Z list . Search the database by subject, type, name, or do use the search box for a general title search. The A to Z list also includes open access resources and select internet sites.

Databases: Theses & Dissertations

Review the Library Databases tab on this guide, it includes Theses & Dissertation resources. AU library also has AU student authored theses and dissertations available in print, search the library catalog for these titles.

Did you know? If you are looking for particular chapters within a dissertation that is not fully available online, it is possible to submit an ILL article request . Do this instead of requesting the entire dissertation.

Newspapers:  Databases & Internet

Consider current literature in your academic field. AU Library's database collection includes The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Wall Street Journal .  The Internet Resources tab in this guide provides links to newspapers and online journals such as Inside Higher Ed , COABE Journal , and Education Week .

The Chronicle of Higher Education has the nation’s largest newsroom dedicated to covering colleges and universities.  Source of news, information, and jobs for college and university faculty members and administrators

The Chronicle features complete contents of the latest print issue; daily news and advice columns; current job listings; archive of previously published content; discussion forums; and career-building tools such as online CV management and salary databases. Dates covered: 1970-present.

Search Strategies & Boolean Operators

There are three basic boolean operators:  AND, OR, and NOT.

Used with your search terms, boolean operators will either expand or limit results. What purpose do they serve? They help to define the relationship between your search terms. For example, using the operator AND will combine the terms expanding the search. When searching some databases, and Google, the operator AND may be implied.

Overview of boolean terms

About the example: Boolean searches were conducted on November 4, 2019; result numbers may vary at a later date. No additional database limiters were set to further narrow search returns.

Database Search Limiters

Database strategies for targeted search results.

Most databases include limiters, or additional parameters, you may use to strategically focus search results.  EBSCO databases, such as Education Research Complete & Academic Search Complete provide options to:

• Limit results to full text;
• Limit results to scholarly journals, and reference available;
• Select results source type to journals, magazines, conference papers, reviews, and newspapers
• Publication date

Keep in mind that these tools are defined as limiters for a reason; adding them to a search will limit the number of results returned.  This can be a double-edged sword.  How? 

• If limiting results to full-text only, you may miss an important piece of research that could change the direction of your research. Interlibrary loan is available to students, free of charge. Request articles that are not available in full-text; they will be sent to you via email.
• If narrowing publication date, you may eliminate significant historical - or recent - research conducted on your topic.
• Limiting resource type to a specific type of material may cause bias in the research results.

Use limiters with care. When starting a search, consider opting out of limiters until the initial literature screening is complete. The second or third time through your research may be the ideal time to focus on specific time periods or material (scholarly vs newspaper).

★ Truncating Search Terms

Expanding your search term at the root.

Truncating is often referred to as 'wildcard' searching. Databases may have their own specific wildcard elements however, the most commonly used are the asterisk (*) or question mark (?).  When used within your search. they will expand returned results.

Asterisk (*) Wildcard

Using the asterisk wildcard will return varied spellings of the truncated word. In the following example, the search term education was truncated after the letter "t."

Explore these database help pages for additional information on crafting search terms.

• EBSCO Connect: Basic Searching with EBSCO
• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Boolean Operators
• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Wildcards and Truncation Symbols
• ProQuest Help: Search Tips
• ERIC: How does ERIC search work?

★ EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

Tips for saving research directly to Google drive.

Researching in an EBSCO database?

It is possible to save articles (PDF and HTML) and abstracts in EBSCOhost databases directly to Google drive. Select the Google Drive icon, authenticate using a Google account, and an EBSCO folder will be created in your account. This is a great option for managing your research. If documenting your research in a Google Doc, consider linking the information to actual articles saved in drive.

EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

EBSCOHost Databases & Google Drive: Managing your Research

This video features an overview of how to use Google Drive with EBSCO databases to help manage your research. It presents information for connecting an active Google account to EBSCO and steps needed to provide permission for EBSCO to manage a folder in Drive.

About the Video:  Closed captioning is available, select CC from the video menu.  If you need to review a specific area on the video, view on YouTube and expand the video description for access to topic time stamps.  A video transcript is provided below.

• EBSCOhost Databases & Google Scholar

Defining Literature Review

What is a literature review.

A definition from the Online Dictionary for Library and Information Sciences .

A literature review is "a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works" (Reitz, 2014). 

A systemic review is "a literature review focused on a specific research question, which uses explicit methods to minimize bias in the identification, appraisal, selection, and synthesis of all the high-quality evidence pertinent to the question" (Reitz, 2014).

Recommended Reading

About this page

EBSCO Connect [Discovery and Search]. (2022). Searching with boolean operators. Retrieved May, 3, 2022 from https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

EBSCO Connect [Discover and Search]. (2022). Searching with wildcards and truncation symbols. Retrieved May 3, 2022; https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

Machi, L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009). The literature review . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press: 

Reitz, J.M. (2014). Online dictionary for library and information science. ABC-CLIO, Libraries Unlimited . Retrieved from https://www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis_A.aspx

Ridley, D. (2008). The literature review: A step-by-step guide for students . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

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This article has a correction. Please see:

• Correction: How to appraise quantitative research - April 01, 2019

• Xabi Cathala 1 ,
• Calvin Moorley 2
• 1 Institute of Vocational Learning , School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Nursing Research and Diversity in Care , School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Mr Xabi Cathala, Institute of Vocational Learning, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University London UK ; cathalax{at}lsbu.ac.uk and Dr Calvin Moorley, Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK; Moorleyc{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102996

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Introduction

Some nurses feel that they lack the necessary skills to read a research paper and to then decide if they should implement the findings into their practice. This is particularly the case when considering the results of quantitative research, which often contains the results of statistical testing. However, nurses have a professional responsibility to critique research to improve their practice, care and patient safety. 1  This article provides a step by step guide on how to critically appraise a quantitative paper.

Title, keywords and the authors

The authors’ names may not mean much, but knowing the following will be helpful:

Their position, for example, academic, researcher or healthcare practitioner.

Their qualification, both professional, for example, a nurse or physiotherapist and academic (eg, degree, masters, doctorate).

This can indicate how the research has been conducted and the authors’ competence on the subject. Basically, do you want to read a paper on quantum physics written by a plumber?

The abstract is a resume of the article and should contain:

Introduction.

Research question/hypothesis.

Methods including sample design, tests used and the statistical analysis (of course! Remember we love numbers).

Main findings.

Conclusion.

The subheadings in the abstract will vary depending on the journal. An abstract should not usually be more than 300 words but this varies depending on specific journal requirements. If the above information is contained in the abstract, it can give you an idea about whether the study is relevant to your area of practice. However, before deciding if the results of a research paper are relevant to your practice, it is important to review the overall quality of the article. This can only be done by reading and critically appraising the entire article.

The introduction

Example: the effect of paracetamol on levels of pain.

My hypothesis is that A has an effect on B, for example, paracetamol has an effect on levels of pain.

My null hypothesis is that A has no effect on B, for example, paracetamol has no effect on pain.

My study will test the null hypothesis and if the null hypothesis is validated then the hypothesis is false (A has no effect on B). This means paracetamol has no effect on the level of pain. If the null hypothesis is rejected then the hypothesis is true (A has an effect on B). This means that paracetamol has an effect on the level of pain.

Background/literature review

The literature review should include reference to recent and relevant research in the area. It should summarise what is already known about the topic and why the research study is needed and state what the study will contribute to new knowledge. 5 The literature review should be up to date, usually 5–8 years, but it will depend on the topic and sometimes it is acceptable to include older (seminal) studies.

Methodology

In quantitative studies, the data analysis varies between studies depending on the type of design used. For example, descriptive, correlative or experimental studies all vary. A descriptive study will describe the pattern of a topic related to one or more variable. 6 A correlational study examines the link (correlation) between two variables 7  and focuses on how a variable will react to a change of another variable. In experimental studies, the researchers manipulate variables looking at outcomes 8  and the sample is commonly assigned into different groups (known as randomisation) to determine the effect (causal) of a condition (independent variable) on a certain outcome. This is a common method used in clinical trials.

There should be sufficient detail provided in the methods section for you to replicate the study (should you want to). To enable you to do this, the following sections are normally included:

Overview and rationale for the methodology.

Participants or sample.

Data collection tools.

Methods of data analysis.

Ethical issues.

Data collection should be clearly explained and the article should discuss how this process was undertaken. Data collection should be systematic, objective, precise, repeatable, valid and reliable. Any tool (eg, a questionnaire) used for data collection should have been piloted (or pretested and/or adjusted) to ensure the quality, validity and reliability of the tool. 9 The participants (the sample) and any randomisation technique used should be identified. The sample size is central in quantitative research, as the findings should be able to be generalised for the wider population. 10 The data analysis can be done manually or more complex analyses performed using computer software sometimes with advice of a statistician. From this analysis, results like mode, mean, median, p value, CI and so on are always presented in a numerical format.

The author(s) should present the results clearly. These may be presented in graphs, charts or tables alongside some text. You should perform your own critique of the data analysis process; just because a paper has been published, it does not mean it is perfect. Your findings may be different from the author’s. Through critical analysis the reader may find an error in the study process that authors have not seen or highlighted. These errors can change the study result or change a study you thought was strong to weak. To help you critique a quantitative research paper, some guidance on understanding statistical terminology is provided in  table 1 .

• View inline

Some basic guidance for understanding statistics

Quantitative studies examine the relationship between variables, and the p value illustrates this objectively.  11  If the p value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected and the hypothesis is accepted and the study will say there is a significant difference. If the p value is more than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted then the hypothesis is rejected. The study will say there is no significant difference. As a general rule, a p value of less than 0.05 means, the hypothesis is accepted and if it is more than 0.05 the hypothesis is rejected.

The CI is a number between 0 and 1 or is written as a per cent, demonstrating the level of confidence the reader can have in the result. 12  The CI is calculated by subtracting the p value to 1 (1–p). If there is a p value of 0.05, the CI will be 1–0.05=0.95=95%. A CI over 95% means, we can be confident the result is statistically significant. A CI below 95% means, the result is not statistically significant. The p values and CI highlight the confidence and robustness of a result.

Discussion, recommendations and conclusion

The final section of the paper is where the authors discuss their results and link them to other literature in the area (some of which may have been included in the literature review at the start of the paper). This reminds the reader of what is already known, what the study has found and what new information it adds. The discussion should demonstrate how the authors interpreted their results and how they contribute to new knowledge in the area. Implications for practice and future research should also be highlighted in this section of the paper.

A few other areas you may find helpful are:

Limitations of the study.

Conflicts of interest.

Table 2 provides a useful tool to help you apply the learning in this paper to the critiquing of quantitative research papers.

Quantitative paper appraisal checklist

• 1. ↵ Nursing and Midwifery Council , 2015 . The code: standard of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/nmc-publications/nmc-code.pdf ( accessed 21.8.18 ).
• Gerrish K ,
• Moorley C ,
• Tunariu A , et al
• Shorten A ,

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent Not required.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Correction notice This article has been updated since its original publication to update p values from 0.5 to 0.05 throughout.

Linked Articles

• Miscellaneous Correction: How to appraise quantitative research BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and RCN Publishing Company Ltd Evidence-Based Nursing 2019; 22 62-62 Published Online First: 31 Jan 2019. doi: 10.1136/eb-2018-102996corr1

Read the full text or download the PDF:

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research | Differences, Examples & Methods

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research | Differences, Examples & Methods

Published on April 12, 2019 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Quantitative research is at risk for research biases including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Qualitative research Qualitative research is expressed in words . It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Table of contents

The differences between quantitative and qualitative research, data collection methods, when to use qualitative vs. quantitative research, how to analyze qualitative and quantitative data, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative and quantitative research.

Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect and analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions.

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observational studies or case studies , your data can be represented as numbers (e.g., using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g., with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.

Quantitative data collection methods

• Surveys :  List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
• Experiments : Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Observations : Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

• Interviews : Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups : Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
• Ethnography : Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
• Literature review : Survey of published works by other authors.

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

• Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis )
• Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach . Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach ; your research question(s) ; whether you’re doing experimental , correlational , or descriptive research ; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Quantitative research approach

You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how satisfied are your with your professors?”

You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on average students rated their professors 4.4”.

Qualitative research approach

You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the study program?”

Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You transcribe all interviews using transcription software and try to find commonalities and patterns.

Mixed methods approach

You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.

It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to better understand the reasons behind the trends.

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

• Average scores ( means )
• The number of times a particular answer was given
• The correlation or causation between two or more variables
• The reliability and validity of the results

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

• Qualitative content analysis : Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
• Thematic analysis : Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying how communication works in social contexts

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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Article Critique

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In the realm of academia and intellectual discourse, the art of critiquing articles holds significant importance. It not only refines one’s skills but also contributes to the growth of knowledge. A well-executed article critique showcases your ability to analyze, evaluate, and engage with scholarly work. This article delves into the concept of article critiques, offering insights into their purpose and benefits, along with a step-by-step guide on how to craft one effectively.

What is an Article Critique?

An article critique is a detailed evaluation and analysis of a scholarly article or research paper . It involves an objective assessment of the author’s arguments, evidence, methodology, and conclusions. An effective critique goes beyond summarizing the content; it delves into the strengths, weaknesses, and implications of the article. Developing this skill allows you to identify the characteristics that contribute to a compelling scholarly work, while also honing your ability to engage critically with academic literature.

Article Critique Format

1. introduction.

• Article Information : Mention the title of the article, the author’s name, the source ( journal , magazine , etc.), and the publication date.
• Thesis Statement : Summarize the main argument or purpose of the article.
• Scope of the Critique : Briefly outline the main points you will discuss in your critique.

2. Summary of the Article

• Main Points : Summarize the key points and arguments presented by the author.
• Purpose and Scope : Explain the purpose of the article and the main topics covered.
• Findings and Conclusions : Highlight the primary findings and conclusions drawn by the author.

3. Critical Analysis

A. structure and organization.

• Introduction : Evaluate the effectiveness of the introduction. Does it set the stage for the article?
• Body : Assess the organization of the main sections. Are the arguments and evidence presented logically?
• Conclusion : Examine the conclusion. Does it effectively summarize the article and provide closure?

b. Content and Arguments

• Clarity : Determine if the article is clear and easy to understand.
• Evidence : Analyze the evidence used to support the arguments. Is it relevant and convincing?
• Consistency : Check for logical consistency in the arguments.

c. Research Methodology

• Approach : Evaluate the research methods used in the article. Are they appropriate for the research question ?
• Data Collection : Assess the reliability and validity of the data collection methods.
• Analysis : Examine the thoroughness and accuracy of the data analysis .

d. Writing Style

• Tone : Assess the appropriateness of the tone for the target audience.
• Language : Evaluate the use of language. Is it precise and concise?
• Grammar and Syntax : Check for grammatical correctness and syntactical clarity.

e. Contribution to the Field

• Originality : Determine the originality of the article. Does it offer new insights?
• Impact : Assess the potential impact of the article on the field. Does it advance knowledge or understanding?

4. Personal Response

• Strengths : Identify the strengths of the article. What did the author do well?
• Weaknesses : Point out the weaknesses or areas for improvement.
• Overall Impression : Provide your overall impression of the article.

5. Conclusion

• Summary : Summarize your main points of critique.
• Recommendation : Offer any recommendations for future research or improvements to the article.

6. References

• Citation : Provide a full citation of the article in the appropriate format (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
• Additional Sources : Include citations for any additional sources referenced in your critique.

Examples of Article Critique For Students

Psychology article critique.

Reference: Smith, J. A., & Brown, R. L. (2022). The impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. Journal of Psychological Research , 34(2), 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1001/jpsychres.2022.01.001 Introduction In their article “The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance,” Smith and Brown (2022) examine the effects of sleep deprivation on various cognitive functions. The authors aim to highlight the importance of adequate sleep for maintaining cognitive health and performance. Summary Smith and Brown (2022) conducted a series of cognitive tests on participants who were sleep-deprived for 24 hours. The results indicated significant declines in memory retention, attention span, and problem-solving skills among the sleep-deprived group. The article also discusses potential long-term consequences of chronic sleep deprivation on brain health. Critique Smith and Brown (2022) provide compelling evidence linking sleep deprivation to cognitive decline. Their methodology is robust, featuring a well-defined participant group and controlled variables. However, the study’s sample size is relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the article does not sufficiently explore potential confounding factors, such as stress and caffeine intake, which could influence cognitive performance. Conclusion Overall, Smith and Brown (2022) effectively underscore the critical role of sleep in cognitive health. Despite some methodological limitations, their findings contribute valuable insights to the field of sleep research. Future studies should aim to address the identified limitations to strengthen the generalizability and applicability of the results.

Education Article Critique

Reference: Johnson, L. M., & White, P. D. (2023). The impact of technology integration on student learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Technology , 29(1), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeduc.2023.01.002 Introduction In the article “The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes,” Johnson and White (2023) explore how incorporating digital tools and resources in the classroom affects students’ academic performance. The authors aim to identify both the benefits and challenges of technology integration in education. Summary Johnson and White (2023) evaluate various forms of technology integration, including interactive whiteboards, educational software, and online resources. They analyze the effects of these tools on student engagement, motivation, and achievement across different subjects and grade levels. The study presents data from several schools that have implemented these technologies, showing improvements in test scores and classroom participation. Critique The article by Johnson and White (2023) provides a comprehensive analysis of the positive impacts of technology on student learning. The use of multiple case studies strengthens the validity of their conclusions. However, the study’s focus on urban schools may not reflect the experiences of students in rural or underfunded schools, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the reliance on short-term data does not capture the long-term effects of technology integration on student learning. Conclusion Johnson and White (2023) make a compelling case for the positive impact of technology on student learning outcomes. While the article effectively demonstrates the benefits of digital tools, addressing the identified limitations would provide a more comprehensive understanding of technology integration in education. Future research should focus on long-term effects, diverse educational settings, and the challenges of teacher training and equitable access to technology.

Business Article Critique

Reference: Davis, K. L., & Roberts, J. H. (2021). Corporate social responsibility and business success: A review of recent research. Journal of Business Ethics , 38(4), 220-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbuseth.2021.02.003 Introduction In their article “Corporate Social Responsibility and Business Success: A Review of Recent Research,” Davis and Roberts (2021) explore how corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives impact business performance. The authors aim to demonstrate the benefits of CSR in enhancing corporate reputation and customer loyalty. Summary Davis and Roberts (2021) review several studies that analyze the outcomes of CSR initiatives across different industries. The article highlights positive correlations between CSR activities and financial performance, as well as improvements in brand reputation and customer satisfaction. The authors also discuss the potential challenges businesses face when implementing CSR programs. Critique Davis and Roberts (2021) provide a thorough review of the literature on CSR and its impact on business success. The article effectively synthesizes findings from various studies, supporting their argument that CSR can be beneficial for companies. However, the article could be improved by including more critical perspectives on CSR, such as potential drawbacks or instances where CSR initiatives have failed. Additionally, the authors do not provide detailed guidelines on how companies can measure the effectiveness of their CSR efforts. Conclusion Overall, Davis and Roberts (2021) make a strong case for the positive impact of CSR on business success. Their review underscores the importance of socially responsible practices in building a positive corporate image and achieving long-term profitability. Future research should address the limitations noted, particularly by exploring the challenges and failures of CSR initiatives and providing actionable metrics for evaluating their success.

Health Sciences Article Critique

Reference: Nguyen, M. T., & Kim, H. S. (2020). The effects of a plant-based diet on cardiovascular health: A systematic review. Journal of Nutritional Science , 17(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutrsci.2020.03.005 Introduction In the article “The Effects of a Plant-Based Diet on Cardiovascular Health: A Systematic Review,” Nguyen and Kim (2020) investigate the impact of plant-based diets on heart disease prevention and management. The authors aim to provide evidence supporting dietary recommendations for cardiovascular health. Summary Nguyen and Kim (2020) review multiple studies comparing the cardiovascular outcomes of individuals on plant-based diets versus those on omnivorous diets. Their findings suggest that plant-based diets are associated with lower cholesterol levels, reduced blood pressure, and decreased incidence of heart disease. The authors discuss potential mechanisms, such as reduced intake of saturated fats and increased consumption of fiber and antioxidants. Critique Nguyen and Kim (2020) present a comprehensive review of the cardiovascular benefits of plant-based diets. The inclusion of various studies strengthens the validity of their conclusions. However, the review would benefit from a more balanced discussion of potential challenges, such as the risk of nutrient deficiencies and the social and cultural barriers to adopting a plant-based diet. Additionally, the article focuses primarily on short-term studies, and more research on the long-term sustainability of these diets is needed. Conclusion Overall, Nguyen and Kim (2020) provide strong evidence supporting the cardiovascular benefits of plant-based diets. Their systematic review contributes valuable insights to the field of nutritional science. Future research should address the limitations identified, particularly regarding long-term sustainability and potential challenges in adhering to plant-based diets.

Social Sciences Article Critique

Reference: Lopez, G. R., & Thompson, S. L. (2021). Urban poverty and social policy: Examining the effectiveness of welfare programs. Journal of Social Policy , 43(2), 180-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.04.007 Introduction In the article “Urban Poverty and Social Policy: Examining the Effectiveness of Welfare Programs,” Lopez and Thompson (2021) analyze the impact of various welfare programs on reducing urban poverty. The authors aim to assess the effectiveness of these programs in improving the socioeconomic conditions of urban populations. Summary Lopez and Thompson (2021) evaluate several welfare programs, including food assistance, housing subsidies, and employment training initiatives. Their analysis reveals mixed outcomes, with some programs showing significant positive effects on poverty reduction, while others have minimal impact. The authors discuss factors contributing to these varied results, such as program design, implementation quality, and participant engagement. Critique Lopez and Thompson (2021) provide a detailed analysis of the effectiveness of welfare programs in addressing urban poverty. The article’s strength lies in its comprehensive evaluation of multiple programs and consideration of various influencing factors. However, the study relies on data from a limited number of cities, which may not be representative of broader urban contexts. Additionally, the authors could have included more qualitative data to provide deeper insights into the lived experiences of program participants. Conclusion Overall, Lopez and Thompson (2021) offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of welfare programs in reducing urban poverty. Their findings highlight the need for well-designed and effectively implemented programs to achieve meaningful poverty reduction. Future research should aim to include a more diverse range of urban settings and incorporate qualitative data to enrich the understanding of program impacts.

Examples of Thesis Statements for Article Critiques

Psychology article critique thesis statements.

• “The article successfully links mindfulness practices to reduced anxiety levels, yet it overlooks the potential variability in individual responses, which could affect the generalizability of the results.”
• “While the study provides significant insights into the effects of social media on adolescent self-esteem, its cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality.”

Literature Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article provides a nuanced analysis of the themes of isolation in ‘Frankenstein,’ but its limited engagement with contemporary critical perspectives reduces its impact.”
• “Although the article offers a compelling interpretation of symbolism in ‘Moby Dick,’ its narrow focus on literary devices neglects the broader socio-political context of the novel.”

Business Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article effectively highlights the benefits of agile project management in tech startups, but it fails to consider the potential downsides, such as the risk of scope creep and resource strain.”
• “Despite presenting a well-researched argument for the advantages of remote work, the article’s lack of empirical data on long-term productivity effects weakens its conclusions.”

Health Sciences Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article convincingly argues for the role of gut microbiota in mental health, though it would benefit from a more thorough exploration of the mechanisms underlying this relationship.”
• “While the study provides strong evidence for the benefits of intermittent fasting on metabolic health, its reliance on short-term studies limits the understanding of long-term effects.”

Education Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article makes a strong case for the use of gamification in education to enhance student motivation, yet it neglects to address potential challenges related to accessibility and equity.”
• “Despite effectively demonstrating the positive impacts of project-based learning on student engagement, the article lacks consideration of the additional resources and training required for successful implementation.”

Environmental Science Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article offers a comprehensive review of the impacts of deforestation on climate change, but it would be strengthened by incorporating more case studies from diverse geographic regions.”
• “While the article effectively discusses the potential of urban green spaces to mitigate air pollution, it underestimates the complexities of urban planning and maintenance costs.”

Social Sciences Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article provides valuable insights into the influence of cultural norms on gender roles, but its limited geographic focus restricts the applicability of its findings to a global context.”
• “Although the study sheds light on the relationship between economic inequality and crime rates, its reliance on correlational data makes it difficult to draw definitive causal conclusions.”

Example of Article Critique About Education

Article Title : The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes Introduction The article “The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes” investigates how the use of digital tools and resources in the classroom influences students’ academic performance. The research aims to identify the benefits and potential drawbacks of incorporating technology into educational settings. Summary The study evaluates various forms of technology integration, including interactive whiteboards, educational software, and online resources. It examines their effects on student engagement, motivation, and achievement across different subjects and grade levels. The article presents data from several schools that have implemented these technologies, showcasing improvements in test scores and classroom participation. Critique The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the positive impacts of technology on student learning. The use of multiple case studies strengthens the validity of its conclusions. However, the article could improve by addressing some critical aspects: Sample Size and Diversity : The study primarily focuses on schools in urban areas, which may not reflect the experiences of students in rural or underfunded schools. Expanding the sample size to include a more diverse range of schools would enhance the generalizability of the findings. Longitudinal Data : The research relies heavily on short-term data, which may not capture the long-term effects of technology integration on student learning. Longitudinal studies are necessary to understand the sustained impact of these tools. Teacher Training and Support : While the article highlights the benefits of technology, it overlooks the challenges teachers face in integrating these tools effectively. Providing adequate training and ongoing support is crucial for the successful implementation of technology in the classroom. Equity and Access : The article briefly mentions the digital divide but does not delve into how disparities in access to technology can affect educational outcomes. A more thorough examination of equity issues would provide a balanced perspective on the advantages and limitations of technology integration. Conclusion Overall, the article makes a compelling case for the positive impact of technology on student learning outcomes. It effectively demonstrates how digital tools can enhance engagement and academic performance. However, to provide a more comprehensive understanding, future research should address the limitations identified, particularly regarding sample diversity, long-term effects, teacher support, and equity issues. By doing so, the research could offer more actionable insights for policymakers and educators striving to harness the full potential of technology in education.

More Examples & Samples Article Critique in PDF

1. quantitative article critique.

2. Article Critique Guidelines

4. Critiquing Research Articles

4. Article Review & Critiques

5. Instructions for Article Critiques

6. Critique of an Academic Article

7. Critique and Review of Research Articles

8. Article Critique Assignment

9. Book Review or Article Critique

10. Press Article Critique

Purpose of Article Critique

An article critique serves multiple essential purposes in both academic and professional contexts. Below, we delve into the primary objectives of conducting an article critique, which are vital for developing critical thinking, analytical skills, and subject-specific knowledge.

1. Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Critical Evaluation:

• Encourages students and professionals to go beyond surface-level reading.
• Promotes a deeper understanding of the material by questioning the validity and reliability of the arguments presented.

Analytical Reasoning:

• Helps in identifying logical fallacies, biases, and unsupported claims.
• Facilitates the assessment of evidence and methodologies used in the article.

2. Enhancing Understanding of Subject Matter

In-Depth Analysis:

• Requires a thorough examination of the article’s content, including the main arguments, evidence, and conclusions.
• Enhances comprehension of complex concepts and theories within a specific field.

Contextual Awareness:

• Places the article within the broader context of existing literature.
• Identifies gaps in the research and suggests areas for further investigation.

3. Improving Academic Writing Skills

Structured Writing:

• Teaches students how to organize their thoughts coherently.
• Develops skills in writing clear, concise, and structured critiques.

Evidence-Based Arguments:

• Encourages the use of evidence to support evaluations and opinions.
• Helps in the practice of citing sources correctly and ethically.

4. Facilitating Peer Review and Feedback

Constructive Criticism:

• Provides a framework for giving and receiving constructive feedback.
• Enhances collaborative learning by engaging in discussions about the strengths and weaknesses of an article.

Quality Assurance:

• Plays a crucial role in academic publishing and professional fields by ensuring the quality and credibility of published work.
• Helps maintain high standards in research and scholarship.

5. Encouraging Lifelong Learning

Continual Improvement:

• Fosters a habit of continuous learning and improvement.
• Keeps individuals updated with the latest research, trends, and advancements in their field.

Adaptability:

• Prepares students and professionals to adapt to new information and changing paradigms.
• Cultivates a mindset that is open to questioning and re-evaluating established knowledge.

Components of an Article Critique

An effective article critique includes several key components to ensure a thorough evaluation and analysis. Below are the main components:

• Provide an overview of the article.
• Introduce the main thesis and key points.

Components:

• Title and Author: State the article’s title and author.
• Publication Details: Include publication name, date, etc.
• Thesis Statement: Summarize the article’s main argument.
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The mediating role of health literacy in the relationship between self-care and planned behavior against Covid-19

• Sirous Panahi 1 &
• Hossein Ghalavand 2  

BMC Infectious Diseases volume  24 , Article number:  608 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Planned behaviors and self-care against the coronavirus are two important factor in controlling its spread and self-care behaviors depend on the level of health literacy. This research was conducted to determine the mediating role of health literacy in the relationship between elements of planned behavior and self-care in dealing with the Covid-19.

In this descriptive-analytical quantitative study, the sample size was calculated using Cochrane’s formula and considering a p-value of 0.51, α = 0.05, and d = 0.05, and 313 students were selected based on stratified and random method. To gather data and assess various aspects of variables, a questionnaires were utilized, focusing on health literacy, self-car and planned behavior. The relationship between the variables was examined by SPSS version 26 and via descriptive statistics, including the mean and standard deviation, and inferential statistics such as Pearson’s correlation coefficient ( P  = 0.05), path analysis, and determining the standard coefficients between self-care and planned behavior, mediated by the indicators of the health literacy.

A significant difference was found between the level of health literacy of women and men. The comparison of the mean health literacy and self-care behavior in terms of other variables did not show any significant difference. Meanwhile, the comparison of health status control behaviors, hand washing, and mask use did not show any significant difference between the two groups. A positive and significant correlation was found between self-care behaviors, attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention. The relationship of health literacy and psychological variables of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control with self-care against COVID-19 was significant.

The direct and significant impact of health literacy on individuals’ self-care behaviors against the coronavirus was not observed. However, health literacy did have a significant effect on subjective norms. This finding is important because subjective norms significantly influenced individuals’ behavioral intention, which in turn had a significant effect on self-care behaviors against the coronavirus. Thus, health literacy played a mediating role in this relationship. Furthermore, attitude emerged as the strongest predictor of behavioral intention, exerting a direct effect. Conversely, perceived behavioral control did not directly and significantly affect students’ self-care behaviors.

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Self-care is a key control approach and a cognitive activity whereby people play a major role in maintaining their health. People’s ability to take care of themselves and adhere to the recommended protocols is the main method of preventing infection with the coronavirus [ 1 , 2 ]. Self-care against the coronavirus includes actions such as observing social distancing and wearing a mask. Awareness and adherence have played a significant role in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic. Self-care involves acquired, conscious, and purposeful actions that people undertake for the health of themselves, their children, and their families [ 3 , 4 ].

There is a direct link between self-care, adherence to medical and health recommendations, and health literacy [ 5 ]. Health literacy refers to people’s ability to receive, process, and comprehend health information, which can lead to better decision-making at different times [ 6 , 7 ]. It is a factor influencing people’s self-care for disease control and prevention. People’s low health literacy level and their inability to understand the information provided by health professionals can negatively impact their health and increase their medical expenses [ 4 ]. Accordingly, measuring health literacy can contribute to detecting people’s abilities and designing necessary educational interventions to improve their health literacy [ 8 ]. Therefore, paying attention to the link between health literacy and self-care against the coronavirus can prove a proper strategy to support preventive activities during the outbreak of such infectious diseases.

Given people’s health-related and behavioral problems in dealing with health challenges, theories and behavioral patterns can be employed to determine and identify the factors affecting health-related behaviors [ 9 ]. In fact, the use of theories to describe people’s behavior during health crises can enhance the efficiency, effectiveness, and chance of success in obtaining the desired outcomes [ 10 ]. Various guidelines and recommendations were emphasized during the COVID-19 outbreak, and people were expected to play a key role in self-care and control the spread of the virus by adhering to these guidelines; in practice, however, some communities did not succeed in this regard. There are various theories about health-related behaviors whose core deals with doing or not doing predetermined behaviors [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. In the sphere of health, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a theory of behavior change whose efficiency and effectiveness have been proven in previous studies [ 14 , 15 ]. TPB asserts that individual beliefs regarding a specific behavior influence their attitude towards it, the prevailing subjective norms, and the perceived behavioral control, ultimately leading to the intention to engage in that behavior. TPB incorporated the concept of behavioral control as a crucial determinant of health behavior, alongside attitude and subjective norms. TPB establishes a causal chain linking beliefs (behavioral, normative, and control beliefs) to intentions and behaviors through attitudes, norms, and perceived control, providing a structured approach to identify key factors influencing an individual’s decision-making process. Given the changeability of beliefs and attitudes, they serve as prime targets for interventions aimed at modifying behavior [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ].

In TPB, the main construct that determines behavior is the person’s intention, and the three constructs of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control affect this intention [ 18 ]. Based on the TPB, the more favorable one’s attitude towards a behavior, the more likely the intention to perform the behavior. In this theory, subjective norms include a person’s subjective perception of others’ approval or disapproval of performing a behavior, and membership in support groups and increasing social support can lead to performing or not performing a certain behavior. Perceived behavioral control is the degree of control one feels to perform or not perform a behavior, which has a significant association with personal will [ 19 , 20 ]. The TPB has been employed in the domain of health, especially in patients’ self-care, and its efficacy has been confirmed in predicting and comprehending healthy and unhealthy behaviors and their related outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 5 , 15 , 19 ].

Overall, paying attention to planned behaviors and self-care against the coronavirus is a major factor in controlling its spread, and self-care behaviors depend on the level of health literacy. Although some studies have been conducted on health literacy and self-care behavior for different diseases [ 4 , 11 , 13 , 21 ]. This study was planned to determine the relationship between health literacy and self-care behavior, mediated by the constructs of planned behavior, was examined among students of Abadan University of Medical Sciences (Iran).

Population and samples

This descriptive-analytical quantitative study was conducted to determine the relationship between health information literacy, elements of planned behavior, and self-care in dealing with the coronavirus. The research population included all students studying at Abadan University of Medical Sciences (AbadanUMS) in the academic year 2022–2023 ( n  = 1698). The sample size was calculated using Cochrane’s formula and considering a p-value of 0.51, α = 0.05, and d = 0.05, and 313 students were selected, divided by their fields of study. Sampling was stratified and random.

Measurement

A four-part questionnaire was used to collect data. The first part include demographic characteristics such as sex, age, and a history of contracting the coronavirus. In the second part, to measure health literacy, the short form of the standard Health Literacy Questionnaire was used as the most common and comprehensive standard instrument for measuring health literacy [ 22 ]. This questionnaire has 33 items based on a Likert scale (from 1 = never to 5 = always); its validity is 0.83 (Cronbach’s coefficient), and its reliability has been confirmed (coefficient of 0.93) in previous studies [ 19 , 20 ]. In the third part, to measure the constituents of the TPB, 17 questions in four groups were considered to measure the scales of attitudes (Q1-Q3), subjective norms (Q4-Q6), perceived behavioral control (Q7-Q9), and behavioral intention (Q10-Q17), based on a five-point Likert scale (1 = completely agree to 5 = completely disagree). The content validity index (CVI = 0.83) and content validity ratio (CVR = 0.86) confirmed the face and content validity of this part of the questionnaire [ 23 , 24 ]. In the fourth part, a literature review was conducted, the accepted international protocols for self-care and preventing the spread of the coronavirus were extracted, and experts were consulted. This questionnaire include social distancing (Q1, Q7), vaccine injection (Q8), check health status (Q5, Q6), washing hands (Q3, Q4) and Use a disposable mask (Q2). The electronic form of this questionnaire was designed, and a link to it was sent to the participants.

Statistical analysis

SPSS (v. 26) was used for data analysis. The association between the variables was examined via descriptive statistics, including the mean and standard deviation (SD), and inferential statistics such as Pearson’s correlation coefficient ( P  = 0.05), path analysis, and determining the standard coefficients between self-care behaviors and health literacy, mediated by the indicators of the TPB.

A total of nine student from the selected samples did not participate in this study. Table  1 shows the level of health literacy and self-care behavior based on different demographic characteristics of the 305 participants. Most of the participants were women, aged 18–20 years, and were seniors. A significant difference was found between the level of health literacy of women and men, where women had a higher mean health literacy. Besides, there was a significant difference in the mean health literacy of the students based on the academic semester, and the level of health literacy increased with the semesters. The comparison of the mean health literacy and self-care behavior in terms of other variables did not show any significant difference.

In this research, the mean comparison test was used for two independent groups of men and women. Based on Table  2 , the mean of attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral intentions differed between men and women based on the levels of health literacy. The subscales related to students’ self-care showed a significant difference between men and women based on their compliance with social distancing and vaccination. Meanwhile, the comparison of health status control behaviors, hand washing, and mask use did not show any significant difference between the two groups.

Based on Table  3 , a positive and significant correlation was found between self-care behaviors, attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention.

Figure  1 displays the results of path analysis and standard coefficients. Health literacy did not have a direct and significant effect on self-care behaviors against the coronavirus. Still, its effect on subjective norms was significant, and due to the significant effect of subjective norms on behavioral intention and the significant effect of behavioral intention on self-care against the coronavirus, health literacy was a mediator variable. Moreover, attitude was the greatest predictor of behavioral intention directly; perceived behavioral control did not directly and significantly affect the students’ self-care, but its effect was mediated by behavioral intention. The fit indices of the model (Fig.  1 ) indicate the fit of the data to the model. In general, the model predicted 0.346 of the variance of the final variable, i.e., self-care against COVID-19.

Path analysis and standardized coefficients between constructs of TBP, self-care behaviors and health literacy

The findings revealed that there is a significant difference between the mean health literacy of male and female students. Women are more literate in understanding medical forms, medication usage instructions, and written information, and the level of health literacy between women and men may be different in various social strata and cultures [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Men make less effort to obtain information due to subjective beliefs, lower perceived sensitivity to illness, and less understanding of health threats. This difference can possibly make women more willing to report diseases compared to men [ 5 , 27 , 28 ]. Not having enough time to search for health information, especially when the disease is not quite threatening or serious, could be another reason for the low level of health literacy in men [ 29 ].

The findings of the present study demonstrated a significant difference in health literacy between the participants based on academic semesters. In general, the power of recognition and understanding to comprehend health literacy increases with the level of education. People’s problems with using different media, along with their little familiarity with medical terms, can have a negative impact on their ability to interact successfully with healthcare systems [ 25 , 30 ]. The ability to access simplified health information is another factor in improving health literacy. The use of simple images and proper examples can facilitate people’s understanding of health-related topics [ 31 , 32 ]. It is necessary for healthcare systems to modify their information services according to people’s health literacy level and provide training through simple strategies such as face-to-face counseling, group discussions, and educational pamphlets [ 23 , 33 ].

The results of this research showed a significant difference in the mean attitude score between the two groups with a low and adequate health literacy level. Positive attitudes towards self-care and adherence to correct health-related behaviors are crucial, and there is a direct relationship between health literacy and attitudes [ 34 ]. Positive attitudes and a high level of health literacy encourage patients to make appropriate decisions. When people feel that a behavior leads to a positive outcome, they adopt and maintain that behavior [ 35 ].

The difference in subjective norms scores between students with the health literacy level was another finding of this study. In diseases such as diabetes, the patient’s family can play a central role in the administration of self-care training methods. Patients whose families have adequate information about the disease and recommend correct health-related behaviors have more effective control and better compliance with treatment [ 35 , 36 ]. As a result, the formation of support groups and the participation of important people, such as the family, in self-care programs can help promote the health level of patients by strengthening the mentality of support and confirming the continuation of correct health-related behavior [ 37 , 38 , 39 ].

The findings of this research revealed a significant relationship between perceived behavioral control, health literacy level, and self-care against the coronavirus. Perceived behavioral control refers to a person’s judgment about being under control and their intentional ability to perform a specific action, which is an important factor in their performance. Perceived behavioral control is a key predictive factor in people’s intention to perform health-related behaviors and can be increased by creating a suitable environment to acquire the skills and knowledge required for behavioral control and personal empowerment [ 21 , 36 ]. People with a low level of behavioral control make less effort to perform the right health-related behaviors or change wrong behaviors [ 7 , 31 , 38 ]. Modeling, repeating in practice, simplifying, and dividing a behavior into smaller steps, as well as strategies such as goal-setting, planning action, and planning to overcome obstacles, will ultimately have a positive effect on self-care [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].

Results of the present study, like previous studies, demonstrated a significant difference between the two groups of participants with poor and adequate health literacy in terms of self-care behaviors, including social distancing and vaccination [ 26 , 43 , 44 ]. Those with low health literacy are less likely to understand written and spoken information provided by healthcare professionals and follow their instructions. These people have a worse health status, a higher rate of hospitalization, more visits to the doctor, and weaker self-care skills [ 30 , 40 , 41 ]. In general, people with a low level of health literacy often use passive communication methods, do not participate in decision-making, and face numerous problems in interacting with their physicians [ 5 , 13 , 45 ]. Therefore, healthcare professionals should empower people and patients through various trainings to improve their self-confidence, increase their participation, and help them establish effective communication with healthcare providers. In fact, self-care is based on knowledge and is influenced by people’s health-related knowledge. The higher people’s health-related knowledge, the better their ability to identify self-care needs, plan how to meet these needs, and make judgments and decisions about prioritizing their needs [ 35 , 46 ].

In the present study, the TBP theory constructs predicted 0.346 of self-care behaviors. Regression analysis in previous studies showed that 41.5% of the variance of intention and 26.2% of the variance of behavior was predicted by the constructs of TBP theory [ 47 ]. Furthermore, similar to the findings of other studies, attitude was the most important predictor of self-care behavior in students during the COVID-19 outbreak [ 8 , 26 , 35 , 46 ]. The severity and sensitivity of complications, costs, and benefits of following self-care can be a major part of the behavior variance [ 48 , 49 ].

This study investigated the mediating role of health literacy in the relationship between the TPB, and self-care behaviors against the coronavirus among the students of Abadan University of Medical Sciences. The results revealed that the health literacy of female students was higher than that of male students. The relationship of health literacy and psychological variables of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control with self-care against COVID-19 was significant.

The present study was not possible to obtain and analyze causal relationships due to budget and time constraints. The students filled out the instruments as self-reports, and there is a possibility of bias in completing the questionnaires. The researcher’s lack of complete control over the participants and their follow-up of, especially regarding the observance of health recommendations related to the coronavirus, was the other limitation of this research. The students of a single university participated in this study, and the generalization of the results is very difficult and limited. As such, it is recommended that similar studies be conducted in other regions and for other diseases. Although the effectiveness of the TBP theory was proven in predicting and determining the factors affecting self-care behaviors during the COVID-19 outbreak, it should be noted that behavior is a multidimensional and multifactorial issue. Therefore, it is suggested that other psychological variables in the form of behavior change models and theories be used in future studies to explore and predict the relationship between self-care and health literacy.

Data availability

The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Theory of Planned Behavior

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Acknowledgements

Many thanks to the students who participate in this research. The authors are grateful for the support of the AbadanUMS vice-chancellor for conducting this research.

This study was supported by Abadan University of medical sciences, Research code: 1526.

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Hossein Ghalavand and Sirous Panahi developed the theoretical formalism, performed the analytic calculations and performed the numerical simulations. Both authors contributed to the final version of the manuscript.

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This research study was approved by Ethics Committee in Biomedical Research at Abadan University of Medical Sciences (Ethical code: IR.ABADANUMS.REC.1401.113). Every participant gave informed consent prior to taking part in the research after they were briefed on the study’s goals and advantages. Voluntary participation was encouraged. In order to protect subjects’ privacy, data collection method was conducted anonymously.

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Panahi, S., Ghalavand, H. The mediating role of health literacy in the relationship between self-care and planned behavior against Covid-19. BMC Infect Dis 24 , 608 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-09513-8

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Galdas P, Darwin Z, Fell J, et al. A systematic review and metaethnography to identify how effective, cost-effective, accessible and acceptable self-management support interventions are for men with long-term conditions (SELF-MAN). Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2015 Aug. (Health Services and Delivery Research, No. 3.34.)

A systematic review and metaethnography to identify how effective, cost-effective, accessible and acceptable self-management support interventions are for men with long-term conditions (SELF-MAN).

Chapter 2 quantitative review methods.

A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted based upon a protocol published on the PROSPERO database (registration number CRD42013005394, URL: www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.asp?ID=CRD42013005394 ).

Deviations from the original protocol are presented in Box 1 .

Deviations from original PROSPERO protocol The target population are male adults (aged 18 years or over) living with one or more long-term conditions.

• Search strategy

We searched the following databases using a search strategy developed in conjunction with an information specialist from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York (see Appendix 1 ): Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR); Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) (up to July 2013); PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) (up to July 2013); and Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE) (January 2012 to July 2013). The breadth of the literature identified meant we took a pragmatic approach and limited our search to CDSR; see Box 1 .

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) investigating self-management support interventions in men with LTCs (identified via Cochrane systematic reviews of self-management support interventions) were included. Studies which analysed the effects of self-management support interventions in sex groups within a RCT were also identified and synthesised separately.

The following population, intervention, comparison and outcome criteria were used:

• Population and setting : adults, 18 years of age or older, diagnosed with a LTC. We limited the review to studies of patients with 14 ‘exemplar’ LTCs (informed by disease areas prioritised in the PRISMS study and team discussions): asthma, diabetes, depression, hypertension, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), arthritis, chronic kidney disease, chronic pain, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), testicular cancer, prostate cancer, prostate hyperplasia and chronic skin conditions in any setting. Studies including inpatients with depression were excluded. Studies including patients with multimorbidity involving at least one ‘exemplar’ condition were considered.

An intervention primarily designed to develop the abilities of patients to undertake management of health conditions through education, training and support to develop patient knowledge, skills or psychological and social resources.

• Comparison : any comparison group. We considered studies using ‘care as usual’ or any other intervention.
• Outcomes : effectiveness, cost-effectiveness. We extracted data on the effect of interventions on health status, clinical measures, health behaviour, health-care use, self-efficacy, knowledge and understanding, communication with health-care professionals (HCPs) and effects on members/carers.
• Study design : RCTs identified via eligible Cochrane systematic reviews. Only papers published in the English language were included, as translation was not feasible in the time frame of the project. In instances where records were unobtainable, attempts were made to contact authors to request the information.

Criteria for defining a self-management support intervention The intervention should, through some means of education, training or support, help people with a LTC by:

• Identification of studies

We piloted the screening criteria on a sample of papers before undertaking the main screening, in order to identify and resolve any inconsistencies. Screening was conducted in two phases:

• identification of relevant Cochrane systematic reviews
• identification of relevant RCTs within included Cochrane systematic reviews.

For phase 1, an initial screen by title and abstract was conducted by one researcher. Two researchers then screened each article independently according to the screening criteria to identify relevant systematic reviews. Disagreements were resolved by a third researcher (principal investigator) as required.

For phase 2, each Cochrane review was screened independently for eligible RCTs by two researchers. The eligibility of each RCT was checked using the study information presented within Cochrane reviews before full papers were sourced. Full texts of each RCT were independently screened by two researchers and disagreements were resolved by a third researcher (principal investigator) as required.

For this review we focused on identifying male-only RCTs and trials which analysed the effects of interventions by sex groups. Agreement on Cochrane review eligibility was 89% and agreement on male-only RCT inclusion/exclusion and identification of RCTs containing sex group analyses was > 90%.

• Data extraction

We designed a data extraction sheet and piloted this on a sample of papers prior to the main data extraction. Relevant data from each included article were extracted by a member of the review team and checked for completeness and accuracy by a second member of the team. Disagreements were discussed and resolved by a third person (principal investigator) as required. In instances where key information for meta-analysis was missing, efforts were made to contact authors. We extracted data on study and population characteristics, intervention details (setting, duration, frequency, individual/group, delivered by), outcome measures of health status, clinical measures, health behaviour, health-care use, self-efficacy, knowledge and understanding, communication with HCPs and items for quality assessment (Cochrane risk of bias tool 35 ). Items for economic evaluations [hospital admission, service use, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), incremental cost-effectiveness ratios] were also extracted.

Where studies were reported in multiple publications, each publication was included and relevant data were extracted.

• Quality assessment strategy

We extracted data on the methodological quality of all included male-only RCTs and appraised this using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Quality appraisal was undertaken by two researchers independently and disagreements were resolved through discussion. Sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective outcome reporting and other sources of bias were assessed, assigning low, high or unclear risk of bias, as appropriate. The purpose of the quality appraisal was to describe the quality of the evidence base, not to give an inclusion/exclusion criterion.

Randomised controlled trials containing sex group analyses were assessed for quality using assessment criteria adapted from Pincus et al. 36 and Sun et al. 37 ‘Yes’, ‘No’ and ‘Unclear’ were recorded as responses to the following quality appraisal questions:

• Was the group hypothesis considered a priori?
• Was gender included as a stratification factor at randomisation?
• Was gender one of a small number of planned group hypotheses tested (≤ 5)?
• Was the study free of other bias (randomisation, allocation concealment, outcome reporting)?
• Data analysis

Meta-analysis was conducted using Review Manager version 5.2 (The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, Copenhagen, Denmark).

Data were extracted, analysed and presented as standardised mean difference (SMD) to account for the different instruments used, unless otherwise stated. As a guide to the magnitude of effect, we categorised an effect size of 0.2 as representing a ‘small’ effect, 0.5 a ‘moderate’ effect and 0.8 a ‘large’ effect. 38

A random-effects model was used to combine study data. Statistical heterogeneity was assessed with the I 2 value, with ‘low’ heterogeneity set at ≤ 25%, ‘moderate’ 50% and ‘high’ 75%.

In instances where studies contained multiple intervention groups, each group was extracted and analysed independently, dividing the control group sample size to avoid double counting in the analysis.

The following outcome measures were used in the analysis where possible: HRQoL, depression, anxiety, fatigue, stress, distress, pain and self-efficacy. Where a study contained more than one measure of a particular outcome (e.g. depression measured by the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale 39 and Beck Depression Inventory 40 ), the tool most established in the wider literature was chosen for meta-analysis. If the tool had multiple subscales, a judgement was made about the most relevant subscale. Where studies reported at multiple time periods, outcome measures reported at or closest to 6 months were used, as measures around this time were by far the most frequently reported.

Unless otherwise specified in the results section, positive effect sizes indicate beneficial outcomes for HRQoL and self-efficacy outcomes, while negative effect sizes indicate beneficial outcomes for depression, anxiety, fatigue, stress, distress and pain outcomes.

We conducted four types of analysis, described below.

Analysis 1: ‘within-Cochrane review analysis’

Analysis 1 sought to determine whether studies in males show larger, similar or smaller effects than studies in females and mixed-sex groups within interventions included within the ‘parent’ Cochrane review. We screened all included Cochrane reviews of self-management support interventions to identify those that contained analysis on outcomes of interest and at least two relevant male-only RCTs. Where an eligible review was identified that met these criteria, the studies were categorised as male only, mixed sex and female only ( Figure 1 ).

Analysis 1: ‘within-Cochrane review analysis’.

Such comparisons across trials do not have the protection of randomisation, and there may be differences between the studies included in each sex group which account for differences in effects between groups. We presented data on the comparability of these trials within these three categories, including the age of the included patient populations, and on the quality of the studies (using allocation concealment as an indicator of quality).

We report the effect size [together with significance and 95% confidence interval (CI)] of self-management support in each sex group (male only, mixed sex, female only). We conducted analyses to test whether or not interventions showed significantly different effects in sex groups. It should be noted that the power to detect significant differences in such analyses can be limited.

Analysis 2: ‘across-Cochrane review analysis’

Analysis 2 sought to determine whether studies in males show larger, similar or smaller effects than studies in females and mixed-sex groups within types of self-management support pooled across reviews.

In analysis 2, data were pooled according to broad intervention type across reviews, rather than within individual reviews as in analysis 1 ( Figure 2 ). This allowed us to determine whether broad types/components of self-management support interventions show larger, similar or smaller effects in males than in females and mixed populations. Limitations in the data meant that we were able to conduct analyses on only physical activity, education, peer support, and HCP monitoring and feedback interventions.

Analysis 2: ‘across-Cochrane review analysis’.

We report the effect size (together with significance and 95% CI) of self-management support in each sex group (male only, mixed sex, female only). We conducted analyses to test whether or not interventions showed significantly different effects in sex groups. It should be noted that the power to detect significant differences in such analyses can be limited.

Analysis 3: ‘male-only intervention type analyses’

We conducted a meta-analysis on trials including males only, according to broad intervention type – physical activity, education, peer support, and HCP monitoring and feedback – and compared effects between intervention types ( Figure 3 ). This allowed us to determine whether or not certain broad categories of self-management support intervention were effective in men.

Analysis 3: ‘male-only intervention type analyses’.

Analysis 4: ‘within-trial sex group analysis’

We identified RCTs which analysed the effects of self-management support interventions in sex groups. We sought to extract relevant data on the direction and size of moderating effects in secondary analysis (i.e. whether males show larger, similar or smaller effects than females), and assess these effects in the context of relevant design data, such as sample size, and the quality of the secondary analysis ( Figure 4 ).

Analysis 4: ‘within-trial sex group analysis’.

Sex group analyses within trials do in theory provide greater comparability in terms of patient and intervention characteristics than analyses 1–3.

A mixture of LTCs was included within each analysis, constituting the main analysis. Although this was not in the original protocol, we attempted to conduct an analysis by each disease area. We found there were sufficient data to conduct a sex-comparative analysis in only cancer studies; the results are presented in Appendix 2 .

• Coding interventions for analysis

The plan to use the behavioural change techniques (BCT) taxonomy was dropped (see Box 1 on protocol deviations). Post hoc, we took a pragmatic approach to coding interventions. Development of the intervention categories was informed by the published literature identified in this project and previous work conducted by the PRISMS and RECURSIVE project teams. 7 , 33 Table 1 provides a list of the categories and their associated description. Categories were designed to be broadly representative of the interventions identified and facilitate comparison of intervention types in the analysis. Two members of the review team independently assessed the ‘type’ of self-management support intervention in each study in order to categorise it, and disagreements were identified and resolved by discussion with a team member.

Self-management support intervention categories and description

• Economic evaluation

The review of cost-effectiveness studies was initially planned as a two-stage review. First, we would review economic evaluations of self-management interventions on males only. Subsequently, we would review all economic evaluations with group analyses in which the costs and effects for males and females could be separated.

Study quality was assessed using a modified version of the Drummond checklist where appropriate. 45

• Study characteristics

Setting and sample

We identified a total of 40 RCTs on self-management support interventions conducted in male-only samples (some trials have more than one reference) ( Figure 5 ). The majority of the studies were conducted in the USA ( n  = 23), 46 – 70 with the remainder conducted in the UK ( n  = 6), 71 – 78 Canada ( n  = 5), 79 – 83 Spain ( n  = 3), 84 – 88 Sweden ( n  = 1), 89 Poland ( n  = 1) 90 and Greece ( n  = 1). 91 Males with prostate cancer were the most frequently studied male-only population ( n  = 15) included in this review. 48 , 49 , 52 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 64 – 66 , 68 , 69 , 72 , 78 , 80 , 89 Other disease areas included hypertension ( n  = 6), 47 , 71 , 79 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 86 COPD ( n  = 6), 54 , 55 , 73 – 76 , 81 , 84 , 87 , 88 heart failure ( n  = 4), 62 , 67 , 90 , 91 type 2 diabetes ( n  = 3), 46 , 50 , 51 , 70 diabetes of unspecified type ( n  = 1), 56 arthritis ( n  = 1) 63 and testicular cancer ( n  = 1). 77 One multimorbidity study recruited obese men with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. 57 The age of participants ranged from 25 to 89 years and, where reported, ethnicity was predominantly white. Only one study reported socioeconomic status using a validated tool; 63 the majority of other publications included a description of education or annual income.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses flow diagram for the quantitative review.

Self-management support interventions

A total of 51 distinct self-management support interventions were reported across the 40 included male-only studies. Physical activity ( n  = 16), 49 , 57 , 62 , 72 – 76 , 78 , 80 , 81 , 84 , 87 – 91 education ( n  = 36), 46 – 55 , 58 – 61 , 63 – 67 , 70 – 72 , 77 , 79 – 81 , 83 – 88 peer support ( n  = 17) 47 , 49 , 53 , 56 , 68 – 72 , 80 and HCP monitoring and feedback ( n  = 25) 46 , 47 , 50 – 52 , 56 , 57 , 60 , 61 , 66 – 68 , 70 , 71 , 75 , 76 , 78 – 80 , 82 – 89 were the most frequently reported components of these interventions. Three interventions with a psychological component, 64 , 77 two interventions containing a financial incentive component 82 , 83 and one study containing an action plan component 19 were also identified.

Twenty-three of the interventions were aimed at individuals, 46 , 48 , 50 – 52 , 54 , 55 , 60 , 61 , 64 , 65 , 67 – 69 , 75 – 78 , 82 – 86 20 were aimed at groups 47 , 53 , 58 , 59 , 62 , 66 , 70 , 71 , 79 , 89 – 91 and the remainder used a mixed individual and group approach ( n  = 6). 49 , 56 , 72 – 74 , 80 , 81 , 87 , 88 It was unclear what approach was used in two studies. 57 , 63 Over half of the interventions lasted 0–5 months ( n  = 28), 47 , 53 , 58 – 64 , 67 – 69 , 71 – 80 , 85 , 86 12 interventions ranged between 6 and 11 months, 46 , 52 , 54 – 57 , 66 , 70 , 84 , 90 , 91 six interventions were 12 months or longer 49 , 65 , 81 , 82 , 84 , 87 , 88 and in five cases the total programme duration was unclear. 48 , 83 , 89

The mode of administration of the interventions varied. They included telephone-based support ( n  = 6), 60 , 61 , 65 , 67 face-to-face delivery ( n  = 21), 47 , 53 – 55 , 58 , 59 , 62 – 64 , 66 , 68 – 70 , 77 , 83 , 89 – 91 remote unsupervised activities ( n  = 2), 75 , 76 , 78 a combination of face-to-face delivery and remote unsupervised activities ( n  = 20), 46 – 51 , 57 , 71 – 74 , 79 – 82 , 84 – 89 and a combination of face-to-face delivery and telephone support ( n  = 2). 52 , 56

In terms of setting, interventions were reported to be home-based ( n  = 11), 46 , 52 , 60 , 61 , 65 , 67 , 75 , 76 , 78 at a non-home location such as a dedicated gym, pharmacy, hospital clinic, work, university laboratory, coffee shop or other community-based venue ( n  = 12), 53 – 55 , 62 – 64 , 68 – 70 , 77 , 85 , 86 , 90 a combination of home and non-home-based venue ( n  = 14) 48 – 51 , 56 , 57 , 72 – 74 , 79 – 84 , 87 , 88 or not clearly reported in the publication ( n  = 14). 47 , 58 , 59 , 66 , 71 , 89 , 91

Half of the studies 79 – 82 , 46 , 48 – 51 , 53 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 66 , 70 , 72 , 78 , 84 , 87 , 88 reported on some aspect of compliance with the self-management intervention and most participants were followed up for 6 months or less ( n  = 24) following participation in the intervention.

Table 2 provides an overview of study details and Table 3 includes detailed descriptions of the self-management support intervention.

Male-only study characteristics

Male-only studies: self-management support intervention characteristics

• Quality assessment: risk of bias

Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, 92 which covers six key domains: sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding performance, incomplete outcome data, selective outcome reporting and other sources of bias.

Studies were often poorly reported, making judgements of quality difficult. With the exception of selective outcome reporting, the most frequent rating for all domains was an unclear risk of bias. For the selective outcome-reporting domain, a low risk of bias was most frequently reported assignment. Table 4 describes the risk of bias allocation for each study by each domain. Figure 6 presents a summary of the male-only study quality assessment findings.

Male-only study Cochrane risk of bias findings

Summary of male-only study Cochrane risk of bias findings.

Included under terms of UK Non-commercial Government License .

• Cite this Page Galdas P, Darwin Z, Fell J, et al. A systematic review and metaethnography to identify how effective, cost-effective, accessible and acceptable self-management support interventions are for men with long-term conditions (SELF-MAN). Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2015 Aug. (Health Services and Delivery Research, No. 3.34.) Chapter 2, Quantitative review methods.
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Ariza Flores, V.A.; de Sousa, F.O.; Oda, S. Enhancing Risk Management in Road Infrastructure Facing Flash Floods through Epistemological Approaches. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 1931. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071931

Ariza Flores VA, de Sousa FO, Oda S. Enhancing Risk Management in Road Infrastructure Facing Flash Floods through Epistemological Approaches. Buildings . 2024; 14(7):1931. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071931

Ariza Flores, Victor Andre, Fernanda Oliveira de Sousa, and Sandra Oda. 2024. "Enhancing Risk Management in Road Infrastructure Facing Flash Floods through Epistemological Approaches" Buildings 14, no. 7: 1931. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071931

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• Published: 24 June 2024

Placebo effects in randomized trials of pharmacological and neurostimulation interventions for mental disorders: An umbrella review

• Nathan T. M. Huneke   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5981-6707 1 , 2 ,
• Jay Amin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3792-0428 1 , 2 ,
• David S. Baldwin 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Alessio Bellato 4 , 5 ,
• Valerie Brandt   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3208-2659 5 , 6 ,
• Samuel R. Chamberlain 1 , 2 ,
• Christoph U. Correll   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7254-5646 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ,
• Luis Eudave 11 ,
• Matthew Garner 1 , 5 , 12 ,
• Corentin J. Gosling 5 , 13 , 14 ,
• Catherine M. Hill 1 , 15 ,
• Ruihua Hou 1 ,
• Oliver D. Howes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2928-1972 16 , 17 , 18 ,
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• Julia M. A. Sinclair 1 ,
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• Drug discovery
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• Psychiatric disorders

There is a growing literature exploring the placebo response within specific mental disorders, but no overarching quantitative synthesis of this research has analyzed evidence across mental disorders. We carried out an umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of biological treatments (pharmacotherapy or neurostimulation) for mental disorders. We explored whether placebo effect size differs across distinct disorders, and the correlates of increased placebo effects. Based on a pre-registered protocol, we searched Medline, PsycInfo, EMBASE, and Web of Knowledge up to 23.10.2022 for systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses reporting placebo effect sizes in psychopharmacological or neurostimulation RCTs. Twenty meta-analyses, summarising 1,691 RCTs involving 261,730 patients, were included. Placebo effect size varied, and was large in alcohol use disorder ( g  = 0.90, 95% CI [0.70, 1.09]), depression ( g  = 1.10, 95% CI [1.06, 1.15]), restless legs syndrome ( g  = 1.41, 95% CI [1.25, 1.56]), and generalized anxiety disorder ( d  = 1.85, 95% CI [1.61, 2.09]). Placebo effect size was small-to-medium in obsessive-compulsive disorder ( d  = 0.32, 95% CI [0.22, 0.41]), primary insomnia ( g  = 0.35, 95% CI [0.28, 0.42]), and schizophrenia spectrum disorders (standardized mean change = 0.33, 95% CI [0.22, 0.44]). Correlates of larger placebo response in multiple mental disorders included later publication year (opposite finding for ADHD), younger age, more trial sites, larger sample size, increased baseline severity, and larger active treatment effect size. Most (18 of 20) meta-analyses were judged ‘low’ quality as per AMSTAR-2. Placebo effect sizes varied substantially across mental disorders. Future research should explore the sources of this variation. We identified important gaps in the literature, with no eligible systematic reviews/meta-analyses of placebo response in stress-related disorders, eating disorders, behavioural addictions, or bipolar mania.

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Introduction.

A placebo is an ‘inactive’ substance or ‘sham’ technique that is used as a control for assessing the efficacy of an active treatment [ 1 ]. However, study participants in a placebo control group may experience considerable symptom improvements - a ‘placebo response’ [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Statistical artifacts or non-specific effects account for some of the placebo response. For example, many individuals seek treatment and are enrolled in clinical trials while their symptoms are at their worst. Their symptoms will gradually return to their usual severity (‘regression to the mean’), giving the appearance of a placebo response [ 4 ]. Further, it has been suggested that the placebo response is exacerbated due to unreliable ratings as well as baseline symptom severity inflation if raters are aware of severity criteria for entry to a trial [ 5 , 6 ]. Other potential sources of apparent placebo responses include sampling biases caused by the withdrawal of the least improved patients in the placebo arm, non-specific beneficial effects resulting from interactions with staff delivering the trial, environmental effects due to inpatient care during placebo-controlled trials, or other unaccounted for factors, such as dietary or exercise changes during the trial [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Nonetheless, there is evidence that placebo administration results in ‘true’ - or non-artefactual - placebo effects, that is, identifiable changes in biological systems [ 1 , 10 , 11 ]. For example, placebo administration is capable of causing immunosuppression [ 12 , 13 ], placebo effects in Parkinson’s disease are driven by striatal dopamine release [ 10 , 14 ], and placebo analgesia is mediated by endogenous opioid release [ 15 , 16 ]. Furthermore, there is evidence that placebo effects in depressive and anxiety disorders are correlated with altered activity in the ventral striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, rostral anterior cingulate cortex, and the default mode network [ 17 ]. The placebo effect size can be increased through the use of verbal suggestions and conditioning procedures, thus suggesting the underlying role of psychological mechanisms including learning and expectations [ 11 , 18 ].

Across age groups, treatment modalities, and diverse mental disorders, biological treatments (pharmacotherapy or neurostimulation) do reduce symptoms [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], but only a subgroup of patients experience a clinically significant symptom response or enter remission [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Furthermore, current medications may also have unfavourable side effects [ 23 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Given the high prevalence of mental disorders and their significant socioeconomic burden [ 32 , 33 , 34 ], there is a need to develop more effective and safer psychopharmacologic and neurostimulation treatments. However, in randomized-controlled trials (RCTs), the magnitude of the placebo response may be considerable, which can affect the interpretation of their results [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. For example, in antipsychotic trials over the past 40 years, placebo response has increased while medication response has remained consistent [ 38 , 39 ]. Consequently, the trial’s ability to statistically differentiate between an active medication and a placebo is diminished [ 40 ]. Indeed, large placebo response rates have been implicated in hindering psychotropic drug development [ 41 , 42 ]. The increased placebo response can also affect larger data synthesis approaches, such as network meta-analysis, in which assumptions about placebo responses (e.g. stability over time) might affect the validity of results [ 43 ].

Improved understanding of participant, trial, and mental disorder-related factors that contribute to placebo response might allow better clinical trial design to separate active treatment from placebo effects. There is a growing body of research, including individual studies and systematic reviews/meta-analyses, examining the placebo response within specific mental disorders [ 35 ]. However, to date, no overarching synthesis of this literature, to detect any similarities or differences across mental disorders, has been published. We therefore carried out an umbrella review of meta-analyses to address this need. We aimed to assess the placebo effect size in RCTs for a range of mental disorders, whether the effect size differs across distinct mental disorders, and identify any correlates of increased placebo effect size or response rate.

The protocol for this systematic umbrella review was pre-registered on the open science framework ( https://osf.io/fxvn4/ ) and published [ 44 ]. Deviations from this protocol, and additions to it, were: eight authors were involved in record screening rather than two; we reported effect sizes pooled across age groups and analyses comparing placebo effect sizes between age groups; and we included a meta-analysis that incorporated trials of dietary supplements as well as medications in autism. For the rationale behind these decisions, see eMethods.

Eight authors (NH, AB, VB, LE, OKF, LM, CR, SS) carried out the systematic review and data extraction independently in pairs. Discrepancies were resolved through consensus or through arbitration by a third reviewer (NH or SCo). We searched, without date or language restrictions, up to 23.10.2022, Medline, PsycInfo, EMBASE + EMBASE Classic, and Web of Knowledge for systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses of RCTs of biological treatments (psychopharmacotherapy or neurostimulation) compared with a placebo or sham treatment in individuals with mental disorders diagnosed according to standardized criteria. The full search strategy is included in eMethods. We also sought systematic reviews of RCTs conducted in patients with sleep-wake disorders, since these disorders are included in the DSM-5 and their core symptoms overlap with those of mental disorders [ 45 ]. We retained systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses that reported within-group changes in symptoms in the placebo arm.

Next, to prevent duplication of data, a matrix containing all eligible systematic reviews/meta-analyses for each category of mental disorder was created. Where there were multiple eligible systematic reviews/meta-analyses for the same disorder and treatment, we preferentially included meta-analyses, and if multiple eligible meta-analyses remained, then we included the one containing the largest number of studies for the same disorder and treatment, in line with recent umbrella reviews [ 46 , 47 ].

Data were extracted by at least two among six reviewers (AB, VB, LE, OKF, CR, SS) independently in pairs via a piloted form. All extracted data were further checked by a third reviewer (NH). See eMethods for a list of extracted data.

Our primary outcome was the pre-post effect size of the placebo/sham related to the condition-specific primary symptom change for each mental disorder. Secondary outcomes included any other reported clinical outcomes in eligible reviews. We report effect sizes calculated within-group from baseline and post-treatment means by meta-analysis authors, including Cohen’s d and Hedges’ g for repeated measures, which account for both mean difference and correlation between paired observations; and standardized mean change, where the average change score is divided by standard deviation of the change scores. We interpreted the effect size in line with the suggestion by Cohen [ 48 ], i.e. small (~0.2), medium (~0.5), or large (~0.8).

In addition, we extracted data regarding potential correlates of increased placebo effect size or response rate (as defined and assessed by the authors of each meta-analysis) in each mental disorder identified through correlation analyses or meta-regression. Where available, results from multivariate analyses were preferred.

The methodological quality of included reviews was assessed by at least two among six reviewers (AB, VB, LE, OKF, NH, CR) independently and in pairs using the AMSTAR-2 tool, a critical appraisal tool that enables reproducible assessments of the conduct of systematic reviews [ 49 ]. The methodological quality of each included review was rated as high, moderate, low, or critically low.

Our initial search identified 6,108 records. After screening titles and abstracts, we obtained and assessed 115 full-text reports (see eResults for a list of articles excluded following full-text assessment, with reasons). Of these, 20 were deemed eligible, and all were systematic reviews with meta-analysis (Fig.  1 ). In total, the 20 included meta-analyses synthesized data from 1,691 RCTs (median 55) involving 261,730 patients (median 5,365). These meta-analyses were published between 2007 and 2022 and involved individuals with the following mental disorders: major depressive disorder (MDD; n  = 6) [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ], anxiety disorders ( n  = 4) [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ], schizophrenia spectrum disorders ( n  = 3) [ 38 , 59 , 60 ], alcohol use disorder (AUD; n  = 1) [ 61 ], attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n  = 1) [ 62 ], autism spectrum disorders ( n  = 1) [ 63 ], bipolar depression ( n  = 1) [ 64 ], intellectual disability ( n  = 1) [ 65 ], obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD; n  = 1) [ 66 ], primary insomnia ( n  = 1) [ 67 ], and restless legs syndrome (RLS; n  = 1) [ 68 ].

Twenty meta-analyses were included.

The methodological quality of the included meta-analyses according to AMSTAR-2 ratings was high in two meta-analyses (ADHD and autism), low in four meta-analyses, and critically low in the remaining 14 meta-analyses (Table  1 ). The most common sources of bias that led to downgrading on the AMSTAR-2 were: no list of excluded full-text articles with reasons ( k  = 14), no explicit statement that the protocol was pre-registered ( k  = 14), and no assessment of the potential impact of risk of bias in individual studies on the results ( k  = 13). The full reasoning behind our AMSTAR-2 ratings is included in eResults.

Our first objective was to determine placebo effect sizes across mental conditions. Data regarding within-group placebo efficacy were reported in sixteen of the included meta-analyses [ 38 , 50 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Placebo effect sizes for the primary outcomes ranged from 0.23 to 1.85, with a median of 0.64 (Fig.  2 ). Median heterogeneity across meta-analyses was I 2  = 72%, suggesting a generally high percentage of heterogeneity due to true variation across studies.

Dots represent placebo group effect size while triangles represent active effect size. CI confidence interval, MDD major depressive disorder, GAD generalized anxiety disorder, SAD social anxiety disorder, OCD obsessive-compulsive disorder, g Hedges’ g, d Cohen’s d, SMC standardized mean change, NR not reported.

A detailed description of each meta-analysis included for this objective is included in eResults. Here, we report a summary of these results in order of the greatest number of RCT’s and meta-analyses included per disorder. In MDD, a large within-group placebo effect was observed ( g  = 1.10, 95% CI [1.06, 1.15]), although active medication had an even larger effect size ( g  = 1.49, 95% CI [1.44, 1.53]) [ 50 ]. Similarly, in children and adolescents with MDD, placebo effect size was large ( g  = 1.57, 95% CI [1.36, 1.78]), as was serotonergic medication effect size ( g  = 1.85, 95% CI [1.70, 2.00]) [ 55 ]. In treatment-resistant MDD, the within-group placebo effect size was smaller than in non-treatment-resistant MDD ( g  = 0.89, 95% CI [0.81, 0.98]) [ 52 ]. In neuromodulation trials for MDD, the effect size of sham was g  = 0.80 (95% CI [0.65, 0.95]) [ 53 ]. In this meta-analysis, the effect size was larger for non-treatment-resistant ( g  = 1.28, 95% CI [0.47, 2.97]) compared to treatment-resistant participants (g = 0.50 95% CI [0.03, 0.99]) [ 53 ]. In adults with anxiety disorders, placebo effect sizes varied across disorders, with a medium effect size in panic disorder ( d  = 0.57, 95% CI [0.50, 0.64]) [ 56 ] and large effect sizes in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) ( d  = 1.85, 95% CI [1.61, 2.09]) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) ( d  = 0.94, 95% CI [0.77, 1.12]) [ 57 ]. Other meta-analyses in children and adolescents and older adults pooled RCTs across anxiety disorders, and found large placebo effect sizes ( g  = 1.03, 95% CI [0.84, 1.21] and d  = 1.06, 95% CI [0.71, 1.42], respectively) [ 55 , 58 ]. In ADHD, placebo effect size was medium-to-large for clinician-rated outcomes (SMC = 0.75, 95% CI [0.67, 0.83]) [ 62 ]. There was additionally a significant negative relationship between placebo effect size and drug-placebo difference (−0.56, p  < 0.01) for self-rated outcomes [ 62 ]. In schizophrenia spectrum disorders, placebo effect size was small-to-medium in antipsychotic RCTs (SMC = 0.33, 95% CI [0.22, 0.44]) [ 38 ] and medium in RCTs focusing specifically on negative symptoms ( d  = 0.64, 95% CI [0.46, 0.83]) [ 60 ]. Placebo effect size in RLS was large when measured via rating scales ( g  = 1.41, 95% CI [1.25, 1.56]), but small ( g  = 0.02 to 0.24) in RCTs using objective outcomes [ 68 ]. In autism, placebo effect sizes were small (SMC ranged 0.23 to 0.36) [ 63 ]. Similarly, placebo effect size was small in OCD ( d  = 0.32, 95% CI [0.22, 0.41]), although larger in children and adolescents ( d  = 0.45, 95% CI [0.35, 0.56]) compared with adults ( d  = 0.27, 95% CI [0.15, 0.38]) [ 66 ]. Placebo effect size was large in AUD ( g  = 0.90, 95% CI [0.70, 1.09]) [ 61 ], small in primary insomnia ( g ranged 0.25 to 0.43) [ 67 ], and medium in intellectual disability related to genetic causes ( g  = 0.47, 95% CI [0.18, 0.76]) [ 65 ].

Our second objective was to examine the correlates of increased placebo response. We included 14 meta-analyses that reported correlates of placebo effect size or response rate through correlation analysis or meta-regression [ 38 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 68 ]. The key correlates extracted from these studies are summarized in Table  2 .

Several variables were consistently identified across meta-analyses. Increased number of trial sites was a positive correlate of increased placebo response in MDD [ 51 , 54 ], schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 59 ], and autism spectrum disorders [ 63 ]. Similarly, increased sample size was positively associated with placebo effect size in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 59 ], OCD [ 66 ], and panic disorder [ 56 ]. Later publication or study year was associated with greater placebo response in anxiety disorders [ 56 , 57 ], schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 38 ], AUD [ 61 ], and OCD [ 66 ] but not in MDD [ 51 ], and with reduced placebo response in ADHD [ 62 ]. Younger age was associated with increased placebo responses in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 38 , 59 ] and OCD [ 66 ]. Increased baseline illness severity was associated with increased placebo response in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 38 ], ADHD [ 62 ], and AUD [ 61 ]. Increased trial or follow-up duration was positively associated with increased placebo response in MDD [ 51 ], but negatively associated with placebo response in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 38 , 60 ] and OCD [ 66 ]. Finally, the effect size of active treatment was positively associated with increased placebo response in neurostimulation trials for MDD [ 53 ], bipolar depression [ 64 ], autistic spectrum disorders [ 63 ], and ADHD [ 62 ].

There were also some variables associated with increased placebo response in single disorders only. Flexible dosing, rather than fixed dosing, was associated with increased placebo response in MDD [ 51 ]. Increased illness duration was associated with reduced placebo response in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 38 ]. In RCTs for negative symptoms of schizophrenia, a higher number of active treatment arms was associated with increased placebo response [ 60 ]. A number of treatment administrations was a positive correlate of increased placebo response in patients with AUD [ 61 ]. A low risk of bias in selective reporting was associated with increased placebo response in ADHD [ 62 ]. Finally, a low risk of bias in allocation concealment was associated with increased placebo response in autism [ 63 ].

To our knowledge, this is the first overarching synthesis of the literature exploring the placebo response in RCTs of biological treatments across a broad range of mental disorders. We found that placebo responses were present and detectable across mental disorders. Further, the placebo effect size across these disorders varied between small and large (see Fig.  3 ). Additionally, several variables appeared to be associated with increased placebo effect size or response rate across a number of disorders, while others were reported for individual disorders only.

CI confidence interval, MDD major depressive disorder, GAD generalized anxiety disorder, SAD social anxiety disorder, OCD obsessive-compulsive disorder, g Hedges’ g, d Cohen’s d, SMC standardized mean change.

Our umbrella review distinguishes itself from a recent publication on placebo mechanisms across medical conditions [ 69 ]. Only four systematic reviews of research in mental disorders were included in that recent review [ 69 ], none of which were eligible for inclusion in our umbrella review, as we focus specifically on RCTs in mental disorders. Thus, our current umbrella review synthesizes different literature and is complementary [ 69 ].

We found substantial variation in placebo effect sizes across mental disorders. In GAD, SAD, MDD, AUD, and RLS (for subjective outcomes), placebo effects were large (>0.9), while they were small (approximately 0.3) in OCD, primary insomnia, autism, RLS (for objective outcomes), and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. It is noteworthy that placebo effect size/response rate correlated with active treatment effect size/response rate in many disorders (MDD, bipolar depression, ADHD, and autism). Nonetheless, where reported, active treatment was always superior. This possibly suggests an underlying ‘treatment responsiveness’ of these disorders that can vary in size. Perhaps, the natural history of a disorder is an important factor in ‘responsiveness’, i.e., disorders in which there is greater natural fluctuation in severity will show larger placebo (and active treatment) effect sizes. Supporting this hypothesis, increased trial duration predicted a larger placebo effect size in MDD, a disorder in which the natural course includes improvement [ 31 , 51 , 70 ]. Conversely, in schizophrenia spectrum disorders where improvement (particularly of negative symptoms) is less likely [ 71 ], increased trial and illness duration predicted a smaller placebo effect size [ 38 , 60 ]. However, previous meta-analyses suggest that natural improvement, for example, measured via waiting list control, does not fully account for the placebo effect in depression and anxiety disorders [ 72 , 73 ]. Statistical artifact, therefore, does not seem to fully explain the variation in effect size.

Non-specific treatment mechanisms are likely an additional source of the observed placebo effect. For example, those with treatment-resistant illness might have reduced expectations regarding treatment. This assumption is supported by the subgroup analysis reported by Razza and colleagues showing sham neuromodulation efficacy reduced as the number of previous failed antidepressant trials increased [ 53 ]. Another factor to consider is the outcome measure chosen. For example, the placebo effect size in panic disorder was smaller when calculated with objective or self-report measures compared with clinician-rated measures [ 56 ]. A similar finding was reported in ADHD trials [ 62 ]. Why placebo effect sizes would differ with clinician-rated versus self-rated scales is unclear. This might result from ‘demand characteristics’ (i.e., cues that suggest to a patient how they ‘should’ respond), or unblinding of the rater, or a combination of the two [ 74 , 75 ].

Several correlates of increased placebo response were reported in included meta-analyses. These included a larger sample size, more study sites, a later publication year (but with an opposite finding for ADHD), younger age, and increased baseline illness severity. This might reflect changes in clinical trial methods over time, the potential for increased ‘noise’ in the data with larger samples or more study sites, and, more speculatively, variables associated with increased volatility in symptoms [ 39 , 51 , 76 ]. A more extensive discussion regarding the potential reasons these variables might correlate with, or predict, placebo response is included in the eDiscussion. Although some correlates of increased placebo response were identified, perhaps more pertinently, it is unknown whether these also predict the separation between active treatment and placebo in most mental disorders. Three included meta-analyses did show that as placebo response increases, the likelihood of drug-placebo separation decreases [ 38 , 62 , 64 ]. This suggests correlates of placebo effect size are also correlates of trial success or failure, but this hypothesis needs explicit testing. In addition, few of the meta-analyses we included explored whether correlates of placebo response differed from correlates of active treatment response. For example, in clinical trials for gambling disorder, response to active treatment was predicted by weeks spent in the trial and by baseline severity, while response to placebo was predicted by baseline depressive and anxiety symptoms [ 77 ]. Furthermore, there is evidence that industry sponsorship is a specific correlate of reduced drug-placebo separation in schizophrenia spectrum disorders [ 78 ]. The largest meta-analysis that we included (conducted by Scott et al. [ 50 ]) did not explore correlates of increased placebo response through meta-regression analysis; rather, it was designed specifically to assess the impact of the use of placebo run-in periods in antidepressant trials. The authors found that use of a placebo run-in was associated with reduced placebo response. However, this effect did not enhance sensitivity to detect medication efficacy versus control groups, as trials with placebo run-in periods were also associated with a reduced medication response. Similar effects of placebo run-in were seen in univariate (but not multivariable) models in ADHD, where placebo run-in reduced placebo effect size in youth, but did not affect drug vs placebo difference [ 62 ]. Further work should be undertaken to ascertain whether trial-level correlates (including the use of placebo run-in) differentially explain active treatment or placebo response and whether controlling for these can improve drug-placebo separation.

Our results should be considered in the light of several possible limitations. First, as in any umbrella review, we were limited by the quality of the meta-analyses we included. Our AMSTAR-2 ratings suggest that confidence in the conclusions of most included meta-analyses should be critically low or low. Indeed, several meta-analyses did not assess for publication bias or for bias in included RCTs. This is relevant, as the risk of bias in selective reporting was highlighted as potentially being associated with placebo effect size in ADHD [ 62 ], and might therefore be relevant in other mental disorders. Second, our results are potentially vulnerable to biases or unmeasured confounders present in the included meta-analyses. Third, we attempted to prevent overlap and duplication of information by including only the meta-analyses with the most information. This might, however, have resulted in some data not being included in our synthesis. Fourth, an exploration of the potential clinical relevance of the placebo effect sizes reported here was outside the scope of the current review but should be considered an important question for future research. Finally, the meta-analyses we included encompassed RCTs with different levels of blinding (double-blind, single-blind). Although the majority of trials were likely double-blind, it is possible that different levels of blinding could have influenced placebo effect sizes through effects on expectations. Future analyses of placebo effects and their correlates should either focus on double-blind trials or compare results across levels of blinding. Related to this, the included meta-analyses pooled phase 2 and phase 3 trials (the latter of which will usually follow positive phase 2 trials), which might result in different expectation biases. Therefore, placebo effects should be compared between phase 2 and phase 3 trials in the future.

In this umbrella review, we found placebo effect sizes varied substantially across mental disorders. The sources of this variation remain unknown and require further study. Some variables were correlates of increased placebo response across mental disorders, including larger sample size, higher number of study sites, later publication year (opposite for ADHD), younger age, and increased baseline illness severity. There was also evidence that clinician-rated outcomes were associated with larger placebo effect sizes than self-rated or objective outcomes. We additionally identified important gaps in the literature, with no eligible systematic reviews identified in stress-related disorders, eating disorders, behavioural addictions, or bipolar mania. In relation to these disorders, some analyses have been published but they have not been included in systematic reviews/meta-analyses (e.g. analyses of individual patient data pooled across RCTs in acute mania [ 79 ] or gambling disorder [ 77 , 80 ]) and therefore were not eligible for inclusion here. We also focused on placebo response in RCTs of pharmacotherapies and neurostimulation interventions for mental disorders. We did not include placebo effects in psychosocial interventions, but such an analysis would also be valuable. Future studies should address these gaps in the literature and furthermore should compare findings in placebo arms with active treatment arms, both regarding treatment effect size and its correlates. Gaining additional insights into the placebo response may improve our ability to separate active treatment effects from placebo effects, thus paving the way for potentially effective new treatments for mental disorders.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework repository, https://osf.io/fxvn4/ .

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Acknowledgements

Dr Nathan TM Huneke is an NIHR Academic Clinical Lecturer. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR, NHS, or the UK Department of Health and Social Care. For the purpose of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

Author contributors

NTMH, JA, DSB, SRC, CUC, MG, CMH, RH, ODH, JMAS, MS, and SCo conceptualized the study. NTMH, AB, VB, LE, CJG, OKF, LM, CR, SS, and SCo contributed to data collection, data curation, or data analysis. NTMH, MS, and SCo wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors had access to the raw data. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript and had final responsibility for the decision to submit it for publication.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Marco Solmi, Samuele Cortese.

Authors and Affiliations

Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Nathan T. M. Huneke, Jay Amin, David S. Baldwin, Samuel R. Chamberlain, Matthew Garner, Catherine M. Hill, Ruihua Hou, Konstantinos Ioannidis, Julia M. A. Sinclair & Samuele Cortese

Southern Health NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK

Nathan T. M. Huneke, Jay Amin, David S. Baldwin, Samuel R. Chamberlain, Konstantinos Ioannidis & Satneet Singh

University Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

David S. Baldwin

School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia

Alessio Bellato

Centre for Innovation in Mental Health, School of Psychology, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Alessio Bellato, Valerie Brandt, Matthew Garner, Corentin J. Gosling, Claire Reed, Marco Solmi & Samuele Cortese

Clinic of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany

Valerie Brandt

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Christoph U. Correll

Department of Psychiatry, Zucker Hillside Hospital, Northwell Health, Glen Oaks, NY, USA

Department of Psychiatry and Molecular Medicine, Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, USA

Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA

Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain

Luis Eudave

School of Psychology, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Matthew Garner

Université Paris Nanterre, DysCo Lab, F-92000, Nanterre, France

Corentin J. Gosling

Université de Paris, Laboratoire de Psychopathologie et Processus de Santé, F-92100, Boulogne-Billancourt, France

Department of Sleep Medicine, Southampton Children’s Hospital, Southampton, UK

Catherine M. Hill

Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK

Oliver D. Howes

H Lundbeck A/s, Iveco House, Watford, UK

Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK

Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Ole Köhler-Forsberg

Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital–Psychiatry, Aarhus, Denmark

Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience (DIBRAIN), University of Studies of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy

Lucia Marzulli

Department of Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Marco Solmi

Department of Mental Health, Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Ottawa Hospital Research Institute (OHRI) Clinical Epidemiology Program, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Solent NHS Trust, Southampton, UK

Samuele Cortese

DiMePRe-J-Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine-Jonic Area, University “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy

Hassenfeld Children’s Hospital at NYU Langone, New York University Child Study Center, New York, NY, USA

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DSB is President of the British Association for Psychopharmacology, Editor of the Human Psychopharmacology journal (for which he receives an editor’s honorarium), and has received royalties from UpToDate. CMH has acted on an expert advisory board for Neurim Pharmaceuticals. ODH is a part-time employee and stockholder of Lundbeck A/s. He has received investigator-initiated research funding from and/or participated in advisory/speaker meetings organized by Angellini, Autifony, Biogen, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Eli Lilly, Heptares, Global Medical Education, Invicro, Jansenn, Lundbeck, Neurocrine, Otsuka, Sunovion, Recordati, Roche and Viatris/Mylan. ODH has a patent for the use of dopaminergic imaging. All other authors declare no competing interests. MS has received honoraria/has been a consultant for Angelini, Lundbeck, and Otsuka. SCo has received honoraria from non-profit associations (BAP, ACAMH, CADDRA) for educational activities and an honorarium from Medice. KI has received honoraria from Elsevier for editorial work. SRC receives honoraria from Elsevier for associate editor roles at comprehensive psychiatry and NBR journals. CUC has been a consultant and/or advisor to or has received honoraria from: AbbVie, Acadia, Adock Ingram, Alkermes, Allergan, Angelini, Aristo, Biogen, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Bristol-Meyers Squibb, Cardio Diagnostics, Cerevel, CNX Therapeutics, Compass Pathways, Darnitsa, Denovo, Gedeon Richter, Hikma, Holmusk, IntraCellular Therapies, Jamjoom Pharma, Janssen/J&J, Karuna, LB Pharma, Lundbeck, MedAvante-ProPhase, MedInCell, Merck, Mindpax, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Mylan, Neurocrine, Neurelis, Newron, Noven, Novo Nordisk, Otsuka, Pharmabrain, PPD Biotech, Recordati, Relmada, Reviva, Rovi, Sage, Seqirus, SK Life Science, Sumitomo Pharma America, Sunovion, Sun Pharma, Supernus, Takeda, Teva, Tolmar, Vertex, and Viatris. He provided expert testimony for Janssen and Otsuka. He served on a Data Safety Monitoring Board for Compass Pathways, Denovo, Lundbeck, Relmada, Reviva, Rovi, Supernus, and Teva. He has received grant support from Janssen and Takeda. He received royalties from UpToDate and is also a stock option holder of Cardio Diagnostics, Kuleon Biosciences, LB Pharma, Mindpax, and Quantic.

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41380_2024_2638_moesm1_esm.docx.

PLACEBO EFFECTS IN RANDOMIZED TRIALS OF PHARMACOLOGICAL AND NEUROSTIMULATION INTERVENTIONS FOR MENTAL DISORDERS: AN UMBRELLA REVIEW SUPPLEMENTARY APPENDIX

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Huneke, N.T.M., Amin, J., Baldwin, D.S. et al. Placebo effects in randomized trials of pharmacological and neurostimulation interventions for mental disorders: An umbrella review. Mol Psychiatry (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02638-x

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Received : 01 February 2024

Revised : 17 June 2024

Accepted : 19 June 2024

Published : 24 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02638-x

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New directions for Indigenous and local knowledge research and application in fisheries science: Lessons from a systematic review

• Jones, Benjamin L. H.
• Santos, Rolando O.
• James, W. Ryan
• Costa, Sophia V.
• Adams, Aaron J.
• Boucek, Ross E.
• Coals, Lucy
• Cullen-Unsworth, Leanne C.
• Shephard, Samuel
• Rehage, Jennifer S.

Social‑ecological systems like fisheries provide food, livelihoods and recreation. However, lack of data and its integration into governance hinders their conservation and management. Stakeholders possess site‑specific knowledge crucial for confronting these challenges. There is increasing recognition that Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) is valuable, but structural differences between ILK and quantitative archetypes have stalled the assimilation of ILK into fisheries management, despite acknowledged bias and uncertainty in scientific methods. Conducting a systematic review of fisheries‑associated ILK research (n = 397 articles), we examined how ILK is accessed, applied, distributed across space and species, and has evolved. We show that ILK has generated qualitative, semi‑quantitative and quantitative information for diverse taxa across 98 countries. Fisheries‑associated ILK research mostly targets small‑scale and artisanal fishers (70% of studies) and typically uses semi‑structured interviews (60%). We revealed large variability in sample size (n = 4–7638), predicted by the approach employed and the data generated (i.e. qualitative studies target smaller groups). Using thematic categorisation, we show that scientists are still exploring techniques, or 'validating' ILK through comparisons with quantitative scientific data (20%), and recording qualitative information of what fishers understand (40%). A few researchers are applying quantitative social science methods to derive trends in abundance, catch and effort. Such approaches facilitate recognition of local insight in fisheries management but fall short of accepting ILK as a valid complementary way of knowing about fisheries systems. This synthesis reveals that development and increased opportunities are needed to bridge ILK and quantitative scientific data.