examples of abstract in research paper for students

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

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How to Write an Abstract APA Format

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report.

It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences. 

An APA abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of between 150–250 words, the major aspects of a research paper or dissertation in a prescribed sequence that includes:

• The rationale: the overall purpose of the study, providing a clear context for the research undertaken.
• Information regarding the method and participants: including materials/instruments, design, procedure, and data analysis.
• Main findings or trends: effectively highlighting the key outcomes of the hypotheses.
• Interpretations and conclusion(s): solidify the implications of the research.
• Keywords related to the study: assist the paper’s discoverability in academic databases.

The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article.

The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article. The abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper.

Although the abstract will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s good practice to write your abstract after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

Note : This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), released in October 2019.

Structure of the Abstract

[NOTE: DO NOT separate the components of the abstract – it should be written as a single paragraph. This section is separated to illustrate the abstract’s structure.]

1) The Rationale

One or two sentences describing the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated. You are basically justifying why this study was conducted.

• What is the importance of the research?
• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• For example, are you filling a gap in previous research or applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data?
• Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer can experience an array of psychosocial difficulties; however, social support, particularly from a spouse, has been shown to have a protective function during this time. This study examined the ways in which a woman’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue, and her spouse’s marital satisfaction predict the woman’s report of partner support in the context of breast cancer.
• The current nursing shortage, high hospital nurse job dissatisfaction, and reports of uneven quality of hospital care are not uniquely American phenomena.
• Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties than their typically developing peers. The aim of this study was to identify specific risk factors that influence variability in behavior difficulties among individuals with SEND.

2) The Method

Information regarding the participants (number, and population). One or two sentences outlining the method, explaining what was done and how. The method is described in the present tense.

• Pretest data from a larger intervention study and multilevel modeling were used to examine the effects of women’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue and average levels of mood, pain, and fatigue on women’s report of social support received from her partner, as well as how the effects of mood interacted with partners’ marital satisfaction.
• This paper presents reports from 43,000 nurses from more than 700 hospitals in the United States, Canada, England, Scotland, and Germany in 1998–1999.
• The study sample comprised 4,228 students with SEND, aged 5–15, drawn from 305 primary and secondary schools across England. Explanatory variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher-reported measure of behavior difficulties (assessed at baseline and the 18-month follow-up).

3) The Results

One or two sentences indicating the main findings or trends found as a result of your analysis. The results are described in the present or past tense.

• Results show that on days in which women reported higher levels of negative or positive mood, as well as on days they reported more pain and fatigue, they reported receiving more support. Women who, on average, reported higher levels of positive mood tended to report receiving more support than those who, on average, reported lower positive mood. However, average levels of negative mood were not associated with support. Higher average levels of fatigue but not pain were associated with higher support. Finally, women whose husbands reported higher levels of marital satisfaction reported receiving more partner support, but husbands’ marital satisfaction did not moderate the effect of women’s mood on support.
• Nurses in countries with distinctly different healthcare systems report similar shortcomings in their work environments and the quality of hospital care. While the competence of and relation between nurses and physicians appear satisfactory, core problems in work design and workforce management threaten the provision of care.
• Hierarchical linear modeling of data revealed that differences between schools accounted for between 13% (secondary) and 15.4% (primary) of the total variance in the development of students’ behavior difficulties, with the remainder attributable to individual differences. Statistically significant risk markers for these problems across both phases of education were being male, eligibility for free school meals, being identified as a bully, and lower academic achievement. Additional risk markers specific to each phase of education at the individual and school levels are also acknowledged.

4) The Conclusion / Implications

A brief summary of your conclusions and implications of the results, described in the present tense. Explain the results and why the study is important to the reader.

• For example, what changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

Implications of these findings are discussed relative to assisting couples during this difficult time in their lives.

• Resolving these issues, which are amenable to managerial intervention, is essential to preserving patient safety and care of consistently high quality.
• Behavior difficulties are affected by risks across multiple ecological levels. Addressing any one of these potential influences is therefore likely to contribute to the reduction in the problems displayed.

The above examples of abstracts are from the following papers:

Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J. A., Busse, R., Clarke, H., … & Shamian, J. (2001). Nurses’ reports on hospital care in five countries . Health affairs, 20(3) , 43-53.

Boeding, S. E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Baucom, D. H., Porter, L. S., Kirby, J. S., Gremore, T. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Couples and breast cancer: Women’s mood and partners’ marital satisfaction predicting support perception . Journal of Family Psychology, 28(5) , 675.

Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2017). Risk factors in the development of behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities: A multilevel analysis . British journal of educational psychology, 87(2) , 146-169.

5) Keywords

APA style suggests including a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. This is particularly common in academic articles and helps other researchers find your work in databases.

Keywords in an abstract should be selected to help other researchers find your work when searching an online database. These keywords should effectively represent the main topics of your study. Here are some tips for choosing keywords:

Core Concepts: Identify the most important ideas or concepts in your paper. These often include your main research topic, the methods you’ve used, or the theories you’re discussing.

Specificity: Your keywords should be specific to your research. For example, suppose your paper is about the effects of climate change on bird migration patterns in a specific region. In that case, your keywords might include “climate change,” “bird migration,” and the region’s name.

Consistency with Paper: Make sure your keywords are consistent with the terms you’ve used in your paper. For example, if you use the term “adolescent” rather than “teen” in your paper, choose “adolescent” as your keyword, not “teen.”

Jargon and Acronyms: Avoid using too much-specialized jargon or acronyms in your keywords, as these might not be understood or used by all researchers in your field.

Synonyms: Consider including synonyms of your keywords to capture as many relevant searches as possible. For example, if your paper discusses “post-traumatic stress disorder,” you might include “PTSD” as a keyword.

Remember, keywords are a tool for others to find your work, so think about what terms other researchers might use when searching for papers on your topic.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

Lengthy background or contextual information: The abstract should focus on your research and findings, not general topic background.

Undefined jargon, abbreviations,  or acronyms: The abstract should be accessible to a wide audience, so avoid highly specialized terms without defining them.

Citations: Abstracts typically do not include citations, as they summarize original research.

Incomplete sentences or bulleted lists: The abstract should be a single, coherent paragraph written in complete sentences.

New information not covered in the paper: The abstract should only summarize the paper’s content.

Subjective comments or value judgments: Stick to objective descriptions of your research.

Excessive details on methods or procedures: Keep descriptions of methods brief and focused on main steps.

Speculative or inconclusive statements: The abstract should state the research’s clear findings, not hypotheses or possible interpretations.

• Any illustration, figure, table, or references to them . All visual aids, data, or extensive details should be included in the main body of your paper, not in the abstract. 
• Elliptical or incomplete sentences should be avoided in an abstract . The use of ellipses (…), which could indicate incomplete thoughts or omitted text, is not appropriate in an abstract.

APA Style for Abstracts

An APA abstract must be formatted as follows:

Include the running head aligned to the left at the top of the page (professional papers only) and page number. Note, student papers do not require a running head. On the first line, center the heading “Abstract” and bold (do not underlined or italicize). Do not indent the single abstract paragraph (which begins one line below the section title). Double-space the text. Use Times New Roman font in 12 pt. Set one-inch (or 2.54 cm) margins. If you include a “keywords” section at the end of the abstract, indent the first line and italicize the word “Keywords” while leaving the keywords themselves without any formatting.

Example APA Abstract Page

Download this example as a PDF

Further Information

• APA 7th Edition Abstract and Keywords Guide
• Example APA Abstract
• How to Write a Good Abstract for a Scientific Paper or Conference Presentation
• How to Write a Lab Report
• Writing an APA paper

How long should an APA abstract be?

An APA abstract should typically be between 150 to 250 words long. However, the exact length may vary depending on specific publication or assignment guidelines. It is crucial that it succinctly summarizes the essential elements of the work, including purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Where does the abstract go in an APA paper?

In an APA formatted paper, the abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper. It’s typically the second page of the document. It starts with the word “Abstract” (centered and not in bold) at the top of the page, followed by the text of the abstract itself.

What are the 4 C’s of abstract writing?

The 4 C’s of abstract writing are an approach to help you create a well-structured and informative abstract. They are:

Conciseness: An abstract should briefly summarize the key points of your study. Stick to the word limit (typically between 150-250 words for an APA abstract) and avoid unnecessary details.

Clarity: Your abstract should be easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complex sentences. Clearly explain the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of your study.

Completeness: Even though it’s brief, the abstract should provide a complete overview of your study, including the purpose, methods, key findings, and your interpretation of the results.

Cohesion: The abstract should flow logically from one point to the next, maintaining a coherent narrative about your study. It’s not just a list of disjointed elements; it’s a brief story of your research from start to finish.

What is the abstract of a psychology paper?

An abstract in a psychology paper serves as a snapshot of the paper, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology, results, and implications of the research without reading the entire paper. It is generally between 150-250 words long.

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Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 3. The Abstract
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

How to Write an Abstract

An abstract of a work, usually of an essay, is a concise summary of its main points. It is meant to concentrate the argument of a work, presenting it as clearly as possible.

The abstract often appears after the title and before the main body of an essay. If you are writing an abstract as part of an assignment, you should check with your instructor about where to place it.

Here are a few guidelines to follow when composing an abstract:

• In general, avoid too much copying and pasting directly from your essay, especially from the first paragraph. An abstract is often presented directly before an essay, and it will often be the first thing readers consult after your title. You wouldn’t repeat your ideas verbatim in the body of your essay, so why would you do that in an abstract? Consider the abstract part of the work itself. 
• Start off strong. An abstract should be a mini essay, so it should begin with a clear statement of your argument. This should be the first sentence or two.
• Abstracts vary in length. But a good rule is to aim for five to seven sentences. The bulk of the abstract will review the evidence for your claim and summarize your findings.
• Avoid complicated syntax. Long sentences and intricate phrasing have their place in essays, but the abstract should be concise. It is not the place for ambitious grammar.
• The last sentence or two should point to any conclusions reached and the direction future research might take. Like the first sentence, the last should be provocative and direct. Leave your readers wanting to read your essay.

In what follows, the authors have written an effective abstract that adheres to the basic principles above:

Literary critics have long imagined that T. S. Eliot’s The Sacred Wood (1920) shaped the canon and methods of countless twentieth-century classrooms. This essay turns instead to the classroom that made The Sacred Wood : the Modern English Literature extension school tutorial that Eliot taught to working-class adults between 1916 and 1919. Contextualizing Eliot’s tutorial within the extension school movement shows how the ethos and practices of the Workers’ Educational Association shaped his teaching. Over the course of three years, Eliot and his students reimagined canonical literature as writing by working poets for working people—a model of literary history that fully informed his canon reformation in The Sacred Wood . This example demonstrates how attention to teaching changes the history of English literary study. It further reveals how all kinds of institutions, not just elite universities, have shaped the discipline’s methods and canons. (Buurma and Heffernan)

This abstract uses the first two sentences to establish the essay’s place in its field of study and to suggest how it intervenes in existing scholarship. The syntax is direct and simple. The third sentence begins to outline how the authors will support their argument. They aim to demonstrate the relevance of Eliot’s teaching to his ideas about literature, and so they move next to discuss some of the details of that teaching. Finally, the abstract concludes by telling us about the consequences of this argument. The conclusion both points to new directions for research and tells us why we should read the essay. 

Buurma, Rachel Sagner, and Laura Heffernan. Abstract of “The Classroom in the Canon: T. S. Eliot’s Modern English Literature Extension Course for Working People and  The Sacred Wood. ”  PMLA , vol. 133, no. 2, Mar. 2018, p. 463.

Estate Best 18 July 2021 AT 05:07 AM

Please how will I write an abstract for my own poem collections?

Your e-mail address will not be published

Marc Simoes 01 April 2022 AT 04:04 PM

I am teaching students how to format and write an abstract, but I find no precise guidelines in the MLA Handbook. Should the first word of the abstract body text begin with the word "Abstract" followed by a period or colon and then the abstract content? Should the word "Abstract" be underlined? Over the years, I was taught both of these ways by different instructors, but I haven't found any definitive instructions, and now my students are asking me the correct format. Please help! Thank you!

Joseph Wallace 12 April 2022 AT 01:04 PM

Although publishers like the MLA will use their own house style guidelines for abstracts in published material, there is no one correct way for students to format their abstracts. Instructors should decide what works best for their classes and assignments.

Lorraine Belo 17 April 2022 AT 10:04 PM

Can you write a brief abstract about your MLA writing

Subrata Biswas 13 July 2023 AT 10:07 AM

Generally, the abstract is written in Italics. Is there any rule as such?

Joseph Wallace 31 July 2023 AT 10:07 AM

Thanks for your question. There is no rule saying that abstracts need to be written in italics. Some publications use italics for abstracts and some do not.

Dhan 07 January 2024 AT 12:01 PM

Should I write key words at the end of the abstract of Phd dissertation?

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How To Write an Abstract for Any Subject and Publication (With Examples)

Table of contents

Christian Rigg

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work, such as a study or research paper. The goal is to provide readers with an overview of the purpose, methodology, results, conclusion, and importance of this text.

As a writing coach and part-time academic editor and translator, I’ve read hundreds of abstracts and helped authors draft and refine dozens more. I’ve found that, when writing an abstract, the greatest difficulty lies in balancing brevity, detail, and accessibility.

Fortunately, there’s a simple formula you can use to write a solid abstract for publication, regardless of the subject. What’s more, you can leverage AI to help you write a clear, concise abstract — without losing your voice or sounding unprofessional.

Below you’ll find step-by-step instructions, best practices, examples, and a helpful checklist. 

Key Takeaways

• An abstract offers a succinct overview of the aims, results, and importance of your research.
• Check submission guidelines, write clearly and concisely, and use language to “guide” readers through your abstract. 
• The IMRaD (Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion) approach is simple and effective. 
• More and more authors are using AI to do the heavy lifting. With the right prompts, AI can save you time and create a cohesive abstract.

Writing an abstract: First steps and best practices

Keep the following in mind as you write your abstract:

• If you’re submitting to a publication , check for specific guidelines regarding overall length, format, keywords, and the presence or absence of section headings (e.g. “Purpose”). Follow these guidelines exactly.
• Write concisely and clearly . If you struggle to write concisely, consider using an AI-writing assistant like Wordtune . Simply select text to receive suggestions on how to write a sentence or paragraph more concisely without losing any value.
• Make your abstract self-contained . Don’t refer to passages in your article or research. If you must include terms that your audience may not be familiar with, such as highly technical jargon or concepts borrowed from another field, offer a brief definition.
• Use connecting phrases like “for this reason,” “as a result,” and “this led us” to “guide” the reader through your abstract and help them see the connections between your research goal, methodology, results, and conclusions. ‍
• Read abstracts on similar studies . This gives you a good benchmark and can help you get started. If you’re submitting your abstract to a particular publication, it also gives you a good idea of the type of language and structure they prefer.

Get Wordtune for free > Get Wordtune for free >

How to write an abstract: The IMRaD Structure

IMRaD stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion (or Conclusion). 

It’s the most common way to structure a research paper and a very simple way to approach your abstract. In some cases, authors even include these section headings in their abstracts. 

Step One: Introduction

Length : About 25% of your abstract

Purpose : Provide context for your research and describe your research objectives. 

Start by introducing your topic. There are two main parts to this:

• Your research question stated simply and straightforwardly (what missing knowledge does your study aim to answer?). You can use words like “investigate,” “review,” “test,” “analyze,” “study,” and “evaluate” to make it clear how your work relates to the context.
• A brief overview of the academic, historical, social, or scientific context. This helps the reader understand the importance and relevance of your work. In many cases, starting with context before your research question makes more sense, so feel free to write in that order. 

Regarding context, consider the following: 

For example:

Psychologists and neuroscientists have long studied the role of sleep in the formation of new memories. Previous research into how sleep affects memory has often struggled because it’s difficult to measure the quality, stages, and overall impact of sleep accurately. As a result, there’s ongoing debate in the scientific community , and recent research suggests sleep may not be as important as researchers once thought. In this study, we review the evidence and offer a novel conclusion : the same mechanisms thought to mediate sleep-related memory formation also operate during waking hours, particularly quiet wakefulness.  In this example, several contextual cues are offered: it’s a long-standing topic in the literature; previous research is limited due to a specific issue , and there is active scientific debate . The section closes with the research aims: to review the evidence and offer a new conclusion. 

Step Two: Methodology

Purpose : Clearly describe what you did and highlight novelty. 

In this section, provide a clear description of your research methodology. While it’s important to be concise, make sure you’re not being vague. Mention specific frameworks and tools. 

‍ To explore the impact of social media on political engagement, we conducted a study with 200 participants, divided into two groups. The first was exposed to curated political content on social media, while the control group received a neutral feed. Our mixed-method approach combined quantitative engagement metrics analysis and qualitative interviews to assess changes in political participation.

There’s no need to provide an in-depth justification of your approach, although if it’s a novel one, it’s worth highlighting this and explaining what makes it appropriate. For example, " We chose this approach because it offers a clearer image of the structure of proteins involved in the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration ."

Finally, you can omit methodological limitations; we’ll cover these later. 

Step Three: Results

Length : About 35% of your abstract

Purpose : Provide a clear, specific account of your results. 

This section is arguably the most important (and interesting) part of your abstract.

Explain the results of your analysis in a specific and detailed fashion. This isn’t the time to be vague or bury the lead. For example:

“Our survey indicates a marked shift in sedimentary rock composition. In three locations, we observed significant erosion, and mineralogical analysis revealed a high concentration of quartz. Further analysis suggests two major events in the past 200 years, correlating with disturbances in the region.”

"Our survey of the Redstone Canyon region identified a marked shift in sedimentary rock composition from predominantly sandstone to shale, particularly evident in the lower strata. Quantitative analysis showed a 40% increase in shale content compared to previous surveys. In three distinct locations, we observed significant erosion, with up to two meters of topsoil displacement, primarily due to water runoff. Mineralogical analysis revealed an unexpectedly high concentration of quartz (up to 22%) in these eroded areas. Additionally, our seismic retrogression analysis suggests two major seismic events in the past 200 years, correlating with the observed stratification disturbances."

Incidentally, you don’t need to include all of your findings here, only those that will help the reader to understand the next section: your discussion and conclusion (i.e., what the results mean). This will help you keep the results section concise and relevant. 

Step Four: Discussion/Conclusion

Length : About 15%

Purpose : Present what new knowledge you’ve found and why it matters.

Bearing in mind your research question, give a clear account of your conclusions. What new knowledge has been gained? 

The simplest way to do this is in the present tense: “We conclude that…”

You should also briefly explain why this matters. What are the implications of your findings? Be specific and avoid making claims that aren’t directly supported by your research. 

If there are any important limitations (such as population or control group size), you can mention them now. This helps readers assess the credibility and generalizability of your findings. 

You can use these samples for inspiration.

They are divided into introduction , methodology , results , and conclusion.

The rising urbanization rate poses challenges to mental health, an issue garnering increasing attention in recent years. This study aims to analyze the impact of urban green spaces on the mental health of city dwellers. The focus is on how access to parks and natural environments within urban settings contributes to psychological well-being . For this purpose, we employed a cross-sectional survey methodology, targeting residents in three major cities with varying levels of green space availability. We used a combination of GIS mapping to determine green space distribution and structured questionnaires to assess mental health indicators among 1,000 participants . Our results show a clear correlation between access to green spaces and improved mental health outcomes. Residents with frequent access to parks reported 30% lower stress levels and a 25% reduction in symptoms related to anxiety and depression, compared to those with limited access. Additionally, our analysis revealed that green spaces in dense urban areas had a more significant impact than those in less populated districts . We conclude that urban green spaces play a crucial role in enhancing mental health. This underscores the importance of urban planning policies that prioritize green space development as a public health strategy. These findings have significant implications for city planning and public health policy, advocating for the integration of green spaces in urban development to foster mental well-being .

The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance is a growing concern in medical science. This study investigates the effectiveness of novel synthetic peptides as potential antibiotics against multi-drug resistant bacteria. The research specifically examines the impact of these peptides on the cellular integrity and replication processes of resistant bacterial strains . Our methodology involved in vitro testing of three newly synthesized peptides against a panel of bacteria known for high resistance to conventional antibiotics. The bacterial strains included methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE). We used a combination of microbiological assays and electron microscopy to evaluate the antibacterial activity and the cellular changes induced by the peptides . The results were promising, showing that two of the three peptides effectively inhibited the growth of MRSA and VRE at low concentrations. Electron microscopy revealed significant disruption of bacterial cell walls and membranes, leading to cell lysis. These peptides also demonstrated low toxicity in preliminary mammalian cell culture tests, suggesting a high therapeutic index . Our study provides promising evidence for the use of synthetic peptides in combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These findings open new avenues for developing effective treatments against infections caused by drug-resistant pathogens and highlight the potential of peptide-based therapies in future pharmaceutical applications .

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education is a rapidly evolving area of study. This research explores the effectiveness of AI-driven personalized learning systems in enhancing student performance in high school mathematics. The study focuses on understanding how AI customization impacts learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching methods . We conducted a randomized controlled trial involving 500 high school students from five schools, divided into two groups. The experimental group used an AI-based learning platform that adapted to each student's learning pace and style, while the control group continued with standard classroom instruction. The study measured improvements in mathematical understanding and problem-solving skills over a six-month period . The results indicated a significant improvement in the AI group, with a 40% increase in test scores and a 35% rise in problem-solving abilities compared to the control group. Additionally, students using the AI system reported higher levels of engagement and satisfaction with the learning process . In conclusion, the use of AI-driven personalized learning systems shows considerable promise in enhancing educational outcomes in mathematics. This study suggests that AI personalization can be a valuable tool in modern educational strategies, potentially revolutionizing how subjects are taught and learned in schools .

What is the main objective of an abstract?

The goal of an abstract is to provide readers with a concise overview of the purpose, methodology, results, conclusion, and importance of a longer work, such as a research paper or study. 

How long should an abstract be?

Depending on the publication, an abstract should be anywhere from 150 to 250 words. 

What should an abstract include?

An abstract should include an introduction (context + research question), the methodology, the results, and a conclusion (what you found and why it matters).

IMRaD is a simple formula you can follow to write a great abstract for any topic and publication type. Simply follow the instructions above to write each section: Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion.

Be careful to balance detail with brevity, as abstracts are meant to be a short overview of your study. If you struggle with writing concisely and clearly, consider using a writing aid like Wordtune to handle some of the heavy lifting. 

Want to learn more key writing tips? Check out these articles:

• How to Write Concisely and Effectively (+Examples)
• Transition Word Examples and How to Use Them Effectively
• How to Write a Research Paper (+Free AI Research Paper Writer)

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How to Write an Abstract

How to write an abstract for a conference, what is an abstract and why is it important, an abstract is a brief summary of your research or creative project, usually about a paragraph long (250-350 words), and is written when you are ready to present your research or included in a thesis or research publication..

For additional support in writing your abstract, you can contact the Office of URSA at [email protected]  or schedule a time to meet with a Writing and Research Consultant at the OSU Writing Center 

Main Components of an Abstract: 

The opening sentences should summarize your topic and describe what researchers already know, with reference to the literature. 

A brief discussion that clearly states the purpose of your research or creative project. This should give general background information on your work and allow people from different fields to understand what you are talking about. Use verbs like investigate, analyze, test, etc. to describe how you began your work. 

In this section you will be discussing the ways in which your research was performed and the type of tools or methodological techniques you used to conduct your research. 

This is where you describe the main findings of your research study and what you have learned. Try to include only the most important findings of your research that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions. If you have not completed the project, talk about your anticipated results and what you expect the outcomes of the study to be. 

Significance

This is the final section of your abstract where you summarize the work performed. This is where you also discuss the relevance of your work and how it advances your field and the scientific field in general.

• Your word count for a conference may be limited, so make your abstract as clear and concise as possible.
• Organize it by using good transition words found on the lef so the information flows well.
• Have your abstract proofread and receive feedback from your supervisor, advisor, peers, writing center, or other professors from different disciplines. 
• Double-check on the guidelines for your abstract and adhere to any formatting or word count requirements.
• Do not include bibliographic references or footnotes. 
• Avoid the overuse of technical terms or jargon. 

Feeling stuck? Visit the OSU ScholarsArchive for more abstract examples related to your field

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• How to Write An Abstract

Think of your abstract or artist statement like a movie trailer: it should leave the reader eager to learn more but knowledgeable enough to grasp the scope of your work. Although abstracts and artist statements need to contain key information on your project, your title and summary should be understandable to a lay audience.

Please remember that you can seek assistance with any of your writing needs at the MU Writing Center . Their tutors work with students from all disciplines on a wide variety of documents. And they are specially trained to use the Abstract Review Rubric that will be used on the abstracts reviewed at the Spring Forum.

Types of Research Summaries

Students should submit artist statements as their abstracts.  Artist statements should introduce to the art, performance, or creative work and include information on media and methods in creating the pieces.  The statements should also include a description of the inspiration for the work, the meaning the work signifies to the artist, the artistic influences, and any unique methods used to create the pieces.  Students are encouraged to explain the connections of the work with their inspirations or themes.  The statements should be specific to the work presented and not a general statements about the students’ artistic philosophies and approaches.  Effective artist statements should provide the viewer with information to better understand the work of the artists.  If presentations are based on previous performances, then students may include reflections on the performance experiences and audience reactions.

Abstracts should describe the nature of the project or piece (ex:  architectural images used for a charrette, fashion plates, advertising campaign story boards) and its intended purpose.  Students should describe the project or problem that they addressed and limitations and challenges that impact the design process.  Students may wish to include research conducted to provide context for the project and inform the design process. A description of the clients/end users may be included.  Information on inspirations, motivations, and influences may also be included as appropriate to the discipline and project.  A description of the project outcome should be included.

Abstracts should include a short introduction or background to put the research into context; purpose of the research project; a problem statement or thesis; a brief description of materials, methods, or subjects (as appropriate for the discipline); results and analysis; conclusions and implications; and recommendations.  For research projects still in progress at the time of abstract submission, students may opt to indicate that results and conclusions will be presented [at the Forum].

Tips for writing a clear and concise abstract

The title of your abstract/statement/poster should include some language that the lay person can understand.   When someone reads your title they should have SOME idea of the nature of your work and your discipline.

Ask a peer unfamiliar with your research to read your abstract. If they’re confused by it, others will be too.

Keep it short and sweet.

• Interesting eye-catching title
• Introduction: 1-3 sentences
• What you did: 1 sentence
• Why you did it: 1 sentence
• How you did it: 1 sentence
• Results or when they are expected: 2 sentences
• Conclusion: 1-3 sentences

Ideas to Address:

• The big picture your project helps tackle
• The problem motivating your work on this particular project
• General methods you used
• Results and/or conclusions
• The next steps for the project

Things to Avoid:

• A long and confusing title
• Jargon or complicated industry terms
• Long description of methods/procedures
• Exaggerating your results
• Exceeding the allowable word limit
• Forgetting to tell people why to care
• References that keep the abstract from being a “stand alone” document
• Being boring, confusing, or unintelligible!

Artist Statement

The artist statement should be an introduction to the art and include information on media and methods in creating the piece(s).  It should include a description of the inspiration for the work, what the work signifies to the artist, the artistic influences, and any unique methods used to create the work.  Students are encouraged to explain the connections of the work with their inspiration or theme.  The artist statement (up to 300 words) should be written in plain language to invite viewers to learn more about the artist’s work and make their own interpretations.  The statement should be specific to the piece(s) that will be on display, and not a general statement about the student’s artistic philosophy and approach.  An effective artist statement should provide the viewer with information to better understand and experience viewing the work on display.

Research/Applied Design Abstract

The project abstract (up to 300 words) should describe the nature of the project or piece (ex:  architectural images used for a charrette, fashion plates, small scale model of a theater set) and its intended purpose.  Students should describe the project or problem that was addressed and limitations and challenges that impact the design process.  Students may wish to include research conducted to provide context for the project and inform the design process. A description of the clients/end users may be included.  Information on inspirations, motivations, and influences may also be included as appropriate to the discipline and project.

Key Considerations

• What is the problem/ big picture that your project helps to address?
• What is the appropriate background to put your project into context? What do we know? What don’t we know? (informed rationale)
• What is YOUR project? What are you seeking to answer?
• How do you DO your research? What kind of data do you collect?  How do you collect it?
• What is the experimental design? Number of subjects or tests run? (quantify if you can!)
• Provide some data (not raw, but analyzed)
• What have you found? What are your results? How do you KNOW this – how did you analyze this?
• What does this mean?
• What are the next steps? What don’t we know still?
• How does this relate (again) to the bigger picture. Who should care and why?  (what is your audience?)

More Resources

• Abstract Writing Presentation from University of Illinois – Chicago
• Sample Abstracts
• A 10-Step Guide to Make Your Research Paper More Effective
• Your Artist Statement: Explaining the Unexplainable
• How to Write an Artist Statement

Here is the Forum Abstract Review Rubric for you and your mentor to use when writing your abstract to submit to the Spring Research & Creative Achievements Forum.

Role of an Abstract in Research Paper With Examples

Why does one write an abstract? What is so intriguing about writing an abstract in research paper after writing a full length research paper? How do research paper abstracts or summaries help a researcher during research publishing? These are the most common and frequently pondered upon questions that early career researchers search answers for over the internet!

Table of Contents

What does Abstract mean in Research?

In Research, abstract is “a well-developed single paragraph which is approximately 250 words in length”. Furthermore, it is single-spaced single spaced. Abstract outlines all the parts of the paper briefly. Although the abstract is placed in the beginning of the research paper immediately after research title , the abstract is the last thing a researcher writes.

Why Is an Abstract Necessary in Research Paper?

Abstract is a concise academic text that –

• Helps the potential reader get the relevance of your research study for their own research
• Communicates your key findings for those who have time constraints in reading your paper
• And helps rank the article on search engines based on the keywords on academic databases.

Purpose of Writing an Abstract in Research

Abstracts are required for –

• Submission of articles to journals
• Application for research grants
• Completion and submission of thesis
• Submission of proposals for conference papers.

Aspects Included in an Abstract

The format of your abstract depends on the field of research, in which you are working. However, all abstracts broadly cover the following sections:

Reason for Writing

One can start with the importance of conducting their research study. Furthermore, you could start with a broader research question and address why would the reader be interested in that particular research question.

Research Problem

You could mention what problem the research study chooses to address. Moreover, you could elaborate about the scope of the project, the main argument, brief about thesis objective or what the study claims.

• Methodology

Furthermore, you could mention a line or two about what approach and specific models the research study uses in the scientific work. Some research studies may discuss the evidences in throughout the paper, so instead of writing about methodologies you could mention the types of evidence used in the research.

The scientific research aims to get the specific data that indicates the results of the project. Therefore, you could mention the results and discuss the findings in a broader and general way.

Finally, you could discuss how the research work contributes to the scientific society and adds knowledge on the topic. Also, you could specify if your findings or inferences could help future research and researchers.

Types of Abstracts

Based on the abstract content —, 1. descriptive.

This abstract in research paper is usually short (50-100 words). These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Focus of research
• Overview of the study.

This type of research does not include detailed presentation of results and only mention results through a phrase without contributing numerical or statistical data . Descriptive abstracts guide readers on the nature of contents of the article.

2. Informative

This abstract gives the essence of what the report is about and it is usually about 200 words. These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Aim or purpose

This abstract provides an accurate data on the contents of the work, especially on the results section.

Based on the writing format —

1. structured.

This type of abstract has a paragraph for each section: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Conclusion. Also, structured abstracts are often required for informative abstracts.

2. Semi-structured

A semi-structured abstract is written in only one paragraph, wherein each sentence corresponds to a section. Furthermore, all the sections mentioned in the structured abstract are present in the semi-structured abstract.

3. Non-structured

In a non-structured abstract there are no divisions between each section. The sentences are included in a single paragraph. This type of presentation is ideal for descriptive abstracts.

Examples of Abstracts

Abstract example 1: clinical research.

Neutralization of Omicron BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3 SARS-CoV-2 by 3 doses of BNT162b2 vaccine

Abstract: The newly emerged Omicron SARS-CoV-2 has several distinct sublineages including BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3. BA.1 accounts for the initial surge and is being replaced by BA.2, whereas BA.3 is at a low prevalence at this time. Here we report the neutralization of BNT162b2-vaccinated sera (collected 1 month after dose 3) against the three Omicron sublineages. To facilitate the neutralization testing, we have engineered the complete BA.1, BA.2, or BA.3 spike into an mNeonGreen USA-WA1/2020 SARS-CoV-2. All BNT162b2-vaccinated sera neutralize USA-WA1/2020, BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s with titers of >20; the neutralization geometric mean titers (GMTs) against the four viruses are 1211, 336, 300, and 190, respectively. Thus, the BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s are 3.6-, 4.0-, and 6.4-fold less efficiently neutralized than the USA-WA1/2020, respectively. Our data have implications in vaccine strategy and understanding the biology of Omicron sublineages.

Type of Abstract: Informative and non-structured

Abstract Example 2: Material Science and Chemistry

Breaking the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via rotatable surface ligands

Abstract: Achieving versatile dispersion of nanoparticles in a broad range of solvents (e.g., water, oil, and biofluids) without repeatedly recourse to chemical modifications are desirable in optoelectronic devices, self-assembly, sensing, and biomedical fields. However, such a target is limited by the strategies used to decorate nanoparticle’s surface properties, leading to a narrow range of solvents for existing nanoparticles. Here we report a concept to break the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via electrochemically anchoring surface ligands capable of sensing the surrounding liquid medium and rotating to adapt to it, immediately forming stable dispersions in a wide range of solvents (polar and nonpolar, biofluids, etc.). Moreover, the smart nanoparticles can be continuously electrodeposited in the electrolyte, overcoming the electrode surface-confined low throughput limitation of conventional electrodeposition methods. The anomalous dispersive property of the smart Ag nanoparticles enables them to resist bacteria secreted species-induced aggregation and the structural similarity of the surface ligands to that of the bacterial membrane assists them to enter the bacteria, leading to high antibacterial activity. The simple but massive fabrication process and the enhanced dispersion properties offer great application opportunities to the smart nanoparticles in diverse fields.

Type of Abstract: Descriptive and non-structured

Abstract Example 3: Clinical Toxicology

Evaluation of dexmedetomidine therapy for sedation in patients with toxicological events at an academic medical center

Introduction: Although clinical use of dexmedetomidine (DEX), an alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist, has increased, its role in patients admitted to intensive care units secondary to toxicological sequelae has not been well established.

Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to describe clinical and adverse effects observed in poisoned patients receiving DEX for sedation.

Methods: This was an observational case series with retrospective chart review of poisoned patients who received DEX for sedation at an academic medical center. The primary endpoint was incidence of adverse effects of DEX therapy including bradycardia, hypotension, seizures, and arrhythmias. For comparison, vital signs were collected hourly for the 5 h preceding the DEX therapy and every hour during DEX therapy until the therapy ended. Additional endpoints included therapy duration; time within target Richmond Agitation Sedation Score (RASS); and concomitant sedation, analgesia, and vasopressor requirements.

Results: Twenty-two patients were included. Median initial and median DEX infusion rates were similar to the commonly used rates for sedation. Median heart rate was lower during the therapy (82 vs. 93 beats/minute, p < 0.05). Median systolic blood pressure before and during therapy was similar (111 vs. 109 mmHg, p = 0.745). Five patients experienced an adverse effect per study definitions during therapy. No additional adverse effects were noted. Median time within target RASS and duration of therapy was 6.5 and 44.5 h, respectively. Seventeen patients (77%) had concomitant use of other sedation and/or analgesia with four (23%) of these patients requiring additional agents after DEX initiation. Seven patients (32%) had concomitant vasopressor support with four (57%) of these patients requiring vasopressor support after DEX initiation.

Conclusion: Common adverse effects of DEX were noted in this study. The requirement for vasopressor support during therapy warrants further investigation into the safety of DEX in poisoned patients. Larger, comparative studies need to be performed before the use of DEX can be routinely recommended in poisoned patients.

Keywords: Adverse effects; Alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist; Overdose; Safety.

Type of Abstract: Informative and structured .

How was your experience  writing an abstract? What type of abstracts have you written? Do write to us or leave a comment below.

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Tips for Writing an Abstract

The abstract is a succinct description of your paper, and the first thing after your title that people read when they see your paper. Try to make it capture the reader's interest.

Outline of Abstract:

Paragraph 1

• Sentence 1: One short sentence, that uses active verbs and states the current state of things on your topic.
• Sentence 2: Describe the problem with the situation described in sentence one, possibly including a worst-case-scenario for what will happen if things continue in their current state.
• Sentence 3: In one sentence, describe your entire paper--what needs to be done to correct the problem from Sentence 1 and avoid the disaster from Sentence 2?
• Sentence 4: What has been written about this? If there is a common consensus among legal scholars, what is it? (Note any major scholars who espouse this vision).
• Sentence 5: What are those arguments missing?

Paragraph 2 :

• Sentence 1-3: How would you do it differently? Do you have a theoretical lens that you are applying in a new way? 
• Sentence 4: In one sentence, state the intellectual contribution that your paper makes, identifying the importance of your paper.

(from " How to Write a Good Abstract for a Law Review Article ," The Faculty Lounge, 2012).

Sample Student Abstracts

The following abstracts are from student-written articles published in Law Reviews and Journals. These abstracts are from articles that were awarded a Law-Review Award by Scribes: The American Society of Legal Writers . You can find more examples of student-written articles by searching the Law Journal Library in HeinOnline for the phrase "J.D. Candidate."

Mary E. Marshall, Miller v. Alabama and the Problem of Prediction, 119 Colum. L. Rev. 1633 (2019) .

Joseph DeMott, Rethinking Ashe v. Swenson from an Originalist Perspective, 71 Stan. L. Rev. 411 (2019)

Julie Lynn Rooney, Going Postal: Analyzing the Abuse of Mail Covers Under the Fourth Amendment, 70 Vand. L. Rev. 1627 (2017).

Michael Vincent, Computer-Managed Perpetual Trusts, 51 Jurimetrics J. 399 (2011).

Other research guides.

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Home — Blog — AI Hacks and Tips — 165 AI Prompt Examples for Students to Use in 2024

165 AI Prompt Examples for Students to Use in 2024

In recent years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become increasingly significant in various fields, including education. One of the key applications of AI in education is through the use of AI prompts. These prompts can help students generate ideas, write essays, create art, and solve problems more efficiently. This article provides 100 AI prompt examples that students can use in 2024 to enhance their learning and creativity.

What is an AI Prompt?

An AI prompt is a set of instructions or a question designed to elicit a response from an AI system. In essence, it is a way to communicate with AI, guiding it to generate specific types of content. AI prompts are crucial in applications such as AI writing assistants, AI art generators, and more. For instance, an AI prompt writer can craft precise and effective prompts that help students and professionals achieve their desired outcomes with AI tools.

AI prompts examples can vary widely, from simple queries like "Write a summary of this article" to more complex instructions such as "Generate a creative story about a futuristic world where AI governs society." The versatility of AI prompts makes them an invaluable resource across various fields, including education, art, and research.

Importance of AI Prompts in AI Applications

AI prompts are essential because they shape the output of the AI. Well-crafted prompts can lead to insightful essays, creative art pieces, and accurate problem-solving, making them invaluable tools for students. For example, a prompt AI system can use specific instructions to produce high-quality academic content, aiding students in their studies. By understanding how to create effective AI prompts, users can maximize the potential of AI technologies, ensuring that the responses generated are relevant, accurate, and useful. Whether for academic, creative, or practical applications, the right AI prompts can significantly enhance the capabilities of AI systems.

How to Write AI Prompts?

Crafting effective AI prompts is an essential skill for leveraging the full potential of AI technologies. Knowing how to write AI prompts correctly can significantly enhance the quality of the output generated by AI systems, making them invaluable for educational, creative, and professional applications. Below are detailed tips, common pitfalls to avoid, and useful tools for writing effective AI prompts.

Tips and Techniques for Writing Effective AI Prompts

To ensure that AI systems generate the desired content, it is crucial to follow some key techniques. Here are several practical tips for crafting effective AI prompts:

• Be Specific: Clearly state what you want the AI to generate. Specificity helps the AI understand and deliver precise responses, improving the overall quality of the output.
• Provide Context: Give the AI enough background information to understand the task. Contextual information can guide the AI to produce more accurate and relevant content.
• Use Clear Language: Avoid ambiguity to ensure accurate results. Clear and straightforward language prevents misinterpretation and ensures the AI comprehends the instructions fully.
• Experiment and Iterate: Test different prompts to see what works best. Iteration allows you to refine your prompts for optimal results.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

While writing AI prompts, certain common mistakes can hinder the effectiveness of the AI's output. Being aware of these pitfalls can help in crafting better prompts:

• Vagueness: Unclear prompts can lead to irrelevant or incomplete responses. Ensure your instructions are detailed and specific.
• Overloading: Too much information can confuse the AI. Simplify and focus your prompts to keep them effective.
• Lack of Structure: Disorganized prompts can result in disjointed outputs. Maintain a clear structure in your prompts for cohesive responses.

Tools and Resources for AI Prompt Writing

Several tools and resources can assist in writing high-quality AI prompts. These tools provide templates, suggestions, and platforms to experiment with prompts:

• GPT-3 Playground: Experiment with different prompts and see instant results. This tool allows you to interact with AI directly and refine your prompts.
• AI Writing Assistants: Tools like Essay Writer , Jasper, and Copy.ai offer templates and suggestions for prompt writing. These assistants can help you create effective prompts with ease.

Explanation of Terms

Understanding key terms related to AI prompts can enhance your ability to write them effectively:

• AI Writing Prompt: A prompt designed to generate written content. These prompts guide AI systems to produce text-based responses.
• AI Prompt Writer: A tool or person specializing in crafting AI prompts. Skilled AI prompt writers can create precise and effective prompts for various applications.
• Prompt AI: The practice of creating prompts for AI systems. This involves understanding how to design prompts that elicit specific and useful outputs from AI technologies.

🏫 30 Good AI Prompts Examples for Education

Using AI prompts can significantly aid in various educational tasks. Below are detailed examples of AI prompts that students can use for different types of assignments, from essays to research papers, and more.

Best AI Prompt Examples for an Essay

AI prompts can be incredibly helpful in generating well-structured essays on a variety of topics. Here are some examples:

• Argumentative Essay: "Discuss the impact of climate change on global agriculture and propose potential solutions."
• Descriptive Essay: "Describe a day in the life of a medieval blacksmith."
• Narrative Essay: "Write a story about a young explorer discovering a hidden island."
• Expository Essay: "Explain the process of photosynthesis and its importance to plant life."
• Compare and Contrast Essay: "Compare the educational systems of the United States and Finland."
• Cause and Effect Essay: "Analyze the causes and effects of urbanization in developing countries."
• Persuasive Essay: "Argue whether or not college education should be free for all students."
• Reflective Essay: "Reflect on a personal experience that significantly changed your perspective on life."
• Definition Essay: "Define the concept of 'freedom' and discuss its implications in modern society."
• Process Essay: "Describe the steps involved in preparing for a marathon."

Best AI Prompt Examples for a Research Paper

When it comes to research papers, AI prompts can guide students in structuring their work and ensuring comprehensive coverage of their topics:

• Literature Review: "Summarize recent research on renewable energy sources and their effectiveness."
• Methodology: "Outline a research methodology for studying the effects of social media on mental health."
• Introduction: "Introduce the topic of cyber security and its importance in the digital age."
• Abstract: "Write an abstract for a study on the impact of remote learning on student performance."
• Discussion: "Discuss the implications of genetic engineering in modern medicine."
• Conclusion: "Conclude a research paper on the benefits and risks of artificial intelligence."
• Data Analysis: "Analyze data from a survey on consumer preferences for electric vehicles."
• Case Study: "Write a case study on the economic impact of tourism in small island nations."
• Research Questions: "Formulate three research questions for a study on climate change adaptation strategies."
• Hypothesis: "Develop a hypothesis for a research project on the relationship between diet and mental health."

Additional Education-Related AI Prompts Examples

AI prompts can also assist in other educational activities, such as summarizing articles, solving math problems, learning languages, and conducting science projects:

• AI Prompt for Summarizing Articles: "Summarize the main points of the article on quantum computing advancements in 300 words."
• AI Prompt for Solving Math Problems: "Solve the quadratic equation x^2 - 4x + 4 = 0 step-by-step."
• AI Prompt for Language Learning: "Create a list of 10 sentences using the past perfect tense in Spanish."
• AI Prompt for Science Projects: "Generate a hypothesis for an experiment on plant growth under different light conditions."
• AI Prompt for History Assignments: "Outline the key events leading up to the American Revolution."
• AI Prompt for Geography Projects: "Describe the climatic conditions of the Sahara Desert and their impact on local wildlife."
• AI Prompt for Economics Studies: "Analyze the effects of inflation on household savings and spending."
• AI Prompt for Literature Analysis: "Discuss the themes of love and revenge in Shakespeare's 'Hamlet'."
• AI Prompt for Computer Science Projects: "Propose a simple algorithm for sorting a list of numbers."
• AI Prompt for Social Studies: "Examine the social and cultural impacts of globalization on indigenous communities."

These AI prompt examples demonstrate how versatile and useful AI can be in enhancing educational outcomes, guiding students through various types of assignments, and promoting deeper understanding and creativity.

🖼️ AI Prompt Examples for Art & Images

Ai art prompt tips.

Creating effective AI art prompts requires a blend of creativity and clarity. To inspire captivating art, it’s essential to use descriptive language and vivid imagery. Be specific about the elements you want to include, such as colors, themes, and styles. Incorporating emotions and moods can also guide the AI to produce more expressive and unique pieces. For instance, describing the scene as "a serene sunset over a tranquil lake" provides clear visual guidance. Remember, the more detailed and imaginative your prompts, the better the AI will capture your artistic vision. Utilize these ai art prompt tips to enhance your AI-generated art.

AI Art Prompt Ideas and Examples

AI art prompts can spark incredible creativity. Here are 20 prompt ideas and examples to help you generate stunning AI art pieces:

• Fantasy Landscape: "A misty forest with ancient, towering trees and glowing mushrooms."
• Abstract Art: "A vibrant composition of swirling colors representing chaos and order."
• Historical Scene: "A bustling medieval marketplace at dawn."
• Futuristic City: "A high-tech metropolis with flying cars and neon lights."
• Surreal Portrait: "A person with a galaxy swirling inside their eyes."
• Nature's Beauty: "A serene beach at sunset with gentle waves and a distant island."
• Animal Kingdom: "A majestic lion resting on a rock under a starry night sky."
• Dreamscape: "A floating island with cascading waterfalls and floating lanterns."
• Mythical Creature: "A dragon soaring above a mountain range with fire blazing from its mouth."
• Sci-Fi Setting: "An alien planet with bioluminescent plants and strange rock formations."
• Mystical Forest: "A hidden grove illuminated by bioluminescent plants and mythical creatures."
• Urban Jungle: "A city overtaken by nature, with vines and trees growing through skyscrapers."
• Seasonal Scene: "A cozy cabin in the woods during a snowy winter night."
• Art Nouveau Style: "An elegant woman in a flowing dress surrounded by intricate floral patterns."
• Cosmic Art: "A breathtaking view of a nebula with vibrant colors and swirling gases."
• Underwater World: "A coral reef teeming with colorful fish and marine life."
• Historical Figure: "A regal portrait of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh."
• Fantasy Character: "A warrior elf with intricate armor standing in an enchanted forest."
• Epic Battle: "A clash between knights and dragons in a mystical realm."
• Peaceful Scene: "A tranquil Japanese garden with cherry blossoms in full bloom."

AI Image Prompts

AI image prompts guide the AI to generate specific types of images. Here are 20 AI image prompts to inspire your creativity:

• Portraits: "A detailed portrait of a Renaissance artist in their workshop."
• Landscapes: "A snowy mountain peak under a starry night sky."
• Abstract Patterns: "Geometric shapes in contrasting colors forming a dynamic composition."
• Historical Events: "The signing of the Declaration of Independence."
• Sci-Fi Elements: "A spacecraft landing on a distant planet with alien flora."
• Fantasy Worlds: "A castle floating in the clouds with a rainbow arcing overhead."
• Modern Art: "An urban graffiti wall with vibrant, expressive colors."
• Botanical Illustrations: "Detailed drawings of exotic plants and flowers."
• Ocean Scenes: "Waves crashing against a rocky shore at sunset."
• Nightscapes: "A city skyline illuminated by the lights of skyscrapers."
• Animal Portraits: "A regal eagle soaring high above the mountains."
• Cultural Festivals: "A lively street parade during a cultural festival."
• Architectural Marvels: "A futuristic building with sleek, curved lines."
• Mythological Beasts: "A phoenix rising from its ashes in a burst of flames."
• Vintage Aesthetics: "A sepia-toned photograph of a 1920s jazz band."
• Weather Phenomena: "A dramatic thunderstorm with lightning striking across the sky."
• Urban Vibes: "A bustling city street filled with people and vibrant shops."
• Peaceful Villages: "A quaint village nestled in the rolling hills of the countryside."
• Festive Celebrations: "A colorful carnival with balloons, confetti, and smiling faces."
• Artistic Collages: "A collage of vintage postcards and modern graphic elements."

These ai prompts examples demonstrate the breadth of possibilities when using AI to generate images and art. By experimenting with these prompts, you can discover new ways to enhance your creativity and produce stunning visual content.

✏️ Best AI Prompt Examples for Writing

Writing prompts are a fantastic way to spark creativity and guide your writing process. Here are some of the best AI prompt examples for various writing tasks, along with tips for generating creative and engaging writing prompts.

Examples for Various Writing Tasks

• "Write a short story about a time traveler who discovers a hidden civilization."
• "Describe a mystery adventure set in an abandoned amusement park."
• "Craft a tale about a young detective solving their first big case."
• "Narrate a story about an astronaut's journey to a newly discovered planet."
• "Write about a family secret that changes everything for the protagonist."
• "Compose a poem about the changing seasons and the passage of time."
• "Write a haiku reflecting on the beauty of a rainy day."
• "Create a sonnet that explores the theme of unrequited love."
• "Generate a free-verse poem inspired by the ocean's waves."
• "Craft a limerick about a whimsical character from a fairy tale."
• "Create a dialogue between two characters debating the ethics of artificial intelligence."
• "Write a script for a short film about a day in the life of a superhero."
• "Generate a conversation between an inventor and their skeptical friend."
• "Script a scene where two old friends reunite after many years apart."
• "Compose a dialogue set in a futuristic world where humans and robots coexist."

Tips for Generating Creative and Engaging Writing Prompts

To make the most of AI writing prompts, here are five essential tips to ensure they are creative and engaging:

• Incorporate Conflict: Conflict drives narratives and keeps readers engaged. Introducing a challenging situation or problem for the characters to resolve can add depth and interest to your writing.
• Use Unique Settings: Unique settings provide a fresh backdrop for your story, allowing for imaginative scenarios and new perspectives. Consider places and times that aren't typical for your genre.
• Develop Complex Characters: Multi-dimensional characters with detailed backgrounds and motivations enrich your story. Think about their fears, desires, and secrets to add layers to your narrative.
• Explore Different Perspectives: Writing from unique perspectives can offer new insights and create intriguing narratives. Experiment with perspectives that challenge conventional viewpoints.
• Incorporate Themes and Symbols: Themes and symbols add depth to your writing, providing readers with a richer experience. Consider what larger ideas you want your story or poem to convey and weave these elements throughout your work.

These examples and tips are designed to help you harness the power of AI to enhance your writing process. By using specific, imaginative, and detailed prompts, you can unlock new levels of creativity and productivity in your writing endeavors.

😄 Best AI Prompt Examples for Fun

Introducing fun and creative AI prompts can enhance leisure activities, making them more engaging and stimulating. Here are some of the best AI prompt examples for various fun and entertaining tasks.

• "Generate a list of riddles that challenge logical thinking."
• "Create a riddle involving a mythical creature and its magical powers."
• "Compose a series of holiday-themed riddles."
• "Write a riddle that uses wordplay and puns."
• "Develop a riddle based on a famous historical figure."
• "Generate a riddle involving a common household item."
• "Create a riddle that requires lateral thinking to solve."
• "Write a riddle set in an enchanted forest."
• "Develop a riddle about a mysterious object found in space."
• "Compose a riddle that features a famous landmark."

Creative Activities:

• "Create prompts for a drawing challenge inspired by mythical creatures."
• "Design a weekly art challenge focusing on different themes each day."
• "Generate prompts for a creative writing marathon."
• "Suggest a theme for a DIY craft project using recyclable materials."
• "Create a list of photography prompts capturing different emotions."
• "Design a scavenger hunt with clues based on literary references."
• "Generate prompts for a storytelling game involving random words."
• "Develop ideas for a themed costume party."
• "Compose a set of prompts for a collaborative mural project."
• "Suggest themes for a poetry slam event."

Story Starters:

• "Once upon a time in a land where dragons ruled the skies..."
• "In a small village nestled in the mountains, a secret portal to another world was discovered..."
• "On a dark and stormy night, a knock at the door changed everything..."
• "In the year 3025, humanity discovered they were not alone in the universe..."
• "Deep in the enchanted forest, a hidden kingdom thrived..."
• "In a bustling city, a young detective stumbled upon a case that defied logic..."
• "In a world where magic is real, one young apprentice must prove their worth..."
• "The old library held more secrets than anyone could have imagined..."
• "On the edge of the galaxy, a lone spaceship encountered an ancient alien civilization..."
• "In the quiet town of Willow Creek, a series of mysterious events unfolded..."

Character Creation:

• "Describe a superhero with unconventional powers."
• "Create a character who is a time-traveling historian."
• "Develop a character who can communicate with animals."
• "Invent a villain who uses music to control minds."
• "Design a character who is a master of disguise."
• "Create a character who is the last of their kind in a post-apocalyptic world."
• "Develop a character who can manipulate dreams."
• "Invent a character who has the ability to transform into different elements."
• "Design a character who is a skilled hacker in a futuristic society."
• "Create a character who is an undercover agent with a hidden agenda."

🌿 Best AI Prompt Examples for Healthcare & Wellbeing

AI prompts can also be beneficial for improving health and wellbeing. Here are 10 examples of AI prompts tailored to support mental and physical health:

Mindfulness Prompts:

• "Generate a guided meditation script for stress relief."
• "Create a prompt for a mindfulness exercise focusing on deep breathing."
• "Develop a script for a body scan meditation to enhance relaxation."
• "Write a gratitude meditation to start or end the day positively."
• "Compose a visualization exercise to help manage anxiety."
• "Generate a mindfulness prompt for focusing on the present moment."
• "Create a meditation script for improving sleep quality."
• "Develop a series of prompts for a walking meditation."
• "Write a mindful eating exercise to promote healthier eating habits."
• "Compose a meditation to cultivate self-compassion and kindness."

Fitness Planning:

• "Create a weekly workout plan for beginners focusing on strength training."
• "Design a 30-day fitness challenge for improving cardiovascular health."
• "Generate a workout routine tailored for busy professionals."
• "Develop a fitness plan for improving flexibility and balance."
• "Create a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) program for weight loss."
• "Design a fitness plan for building muscle mass."
• "Generate a workout schedule for preparing for a marathon."
• "Create a fitness routine for seniors to improve mobility."
• "Develop a workout plan that incorporates yoga and Pilates."
• "Generate a family-friendly exercise routine for all ages."

Meal Plans:

• "Suggest a balanced diet plan for vegetarians aiming to increase protein intake."
• "Create a weekly meal plan for individuals with gluten intolerance."
• "Generate a diet plan for boosting immune system health."
• "Develop a meal plan for athletes focusing on high-energy foods."
• "Create a balanced diet plan for weight management."
• "Generate a meal plan for maintaining heart health."
• "Design a meal plan for improving digestive health."
• "Create a vegan meal plan rich in essential nutrients."
• "Generate a meal plan for supporting healthy skin."
• "Develop a meal plan for individuals with diabetes to manage blood sugar levels."

Exercise Routines:

• "Design a 30-minute daily workout for improving cardiovascular health."
• "Create a morning exercise routine to boost energy levels."
• "Generate an evening workout plan to promote better sleep."
• "Develop a strength training routine that can be done at home."
• "Create a low-impact exercise plan for individuals with joint pain."
• "Generate a flexibility routine to improve range of motion."
• "Design a high-intensity workout for experienced fitness enthusiasts."
• "Create a quick 15-minute workout for busy days."
• "Develop an exercise plan incorporating both cardio and strength training."
• "Generate a workout routine for enhancing core stability and strength."

These AI prompts for fun and health are designed to inspire creativity, promote wellbeing, and enhance overall quality of life. By utilizing these prompts, you can explore new activities, stay engaged, and maintain a balanced and healthy lifestyle.

How to Use These AI Prompt Examples

To effectively utilize these AI prompt examples, follow these steps. First, choose the right tool : select an AI platform that suits your needs, such as GPT-3 for text generation or DALL-E for image creation. Next, customize the prompt : tailor the provided prompts to fit your specific task or creative goal. Finally, evaluate the output : review and refine the AI-generated content to ensure it meets your quality standards.

Main tips for customizing and optimizing prompts:

• Iterate and Improve: Continuously refine your prompts based on the results.
• Seek Feedback: Use input from peers or educators to enhance the prompts' effectiveness.
• Experiment and Adapt: Try different approaches and variations to find what works best for your needs.

Research involvement of medical students in a medical school of India: exploring knowledge, attitude, practices, and perceived barriers

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Introduction Research in the medical discipline significantly impacts society by improving the general well-being of the population, through improvements in diagnostic and treatment modalities. However, of 579 Indian medical colleges, 332 (57.3%) did not publish a single paper from the year 2005 to 2014," indicating a limited contribution from medical fraternity In order to probe in to the cause of this a study was conducted to assess the knowledge, attitude, practices (KAP) and perceived barriers to research among students of a medical school in Delhi, India.

Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among medical students and the data on academic-cum-demographic information, assessment of knowledge, attitude, practices and barriers to research was collected using a pre-tested, semi-structured questionnaire. Chi-square test was used to check the association of various factors with the KAP of research. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant.

Results A total of 402 (N) subjects were enrolled in the study. Majority were male (79.6%) and from clinical professional years (57%). Majority (266, 66.2%) of the subjects had adequate knowledge. Of the study subjects (61,15%) having inadequate knowledge of research, sixty percent were from pre- and para-clinical years, while around 70 % of those having good knowledge were from clinical professional years. However, only 16.9% of the participants had participated in a research project, and only 4.72% had authored a publication. Sixty one percent of study subjects having a positive attitude towards research, were from pre- and para-clinical years. Among the study subjects having a positive attitude towards research, over 60% were from pre- and para-clinical years. The barriers for conducting research were mostly; lack of funds/laboratory equipment/infrastructure (85.1%), lack of exposure to opportunities for research in the medical (MBBS) curriculum (83.8%), and lack of time (83.3%). There was a statistically significant association between knowledge and attitude towards research with a professional year of study.

Conclusions The study revealed that while most of the students had a positive attitude towards research as well as an adequate knowledge of research, there was a poor level of participation in research. These challenges can be overcome by incorporating research as a part of the medical school curriculum from early years on, setting aside separate time for research, and establishing student research societies that can actively promote research.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This study did not receive any funding.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

The ethics committee of Dr Baba Saheb Ambedkar Medical College and Hospital, New Delhi gave ethical approval for this work.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5048-2939 Ebiambu Agwara 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2920-9847 Kathy Martyn 1 ,
• Elaine Macaninch 1 ,
• Wanja Nyaga 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6589-4880 Luke Buckner 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0154-1960 Breanna Lepre 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4555-1407 Celia Laur 1 and
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3295-168X Sumantra Ray 1 , 2 , 3
• 1 NNEdPro Global Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health , Cambridge , UK
• 2 School of Biomedical Sciences , Ulster University , Coleraine , UK
• 3 Fitzwilliam College , University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
• Correspondence to Professor Sumantra Ray; s.ray{at}nnedpro.org.uk

Background Malnutrition continues to impact healthcare outcomes, quality of life and costs to healthcare systems. The implementation of nutrition care in healthcare practice may improve health outcomes for patients and the community. This paper describes the iterative development and implementation of nutrition medical education resources for doctors and healthcare professionals in England. These resources are part of the Nutrition Education Policy for Healthcare Practice initiative.

Method Action research methodology was employed to develop and implement nutrition education workshops for medical students and doctors. The workshop was developed iteratively by an interdisciplinary project team, and the content was initially based on the General Medical Council outcomes for graduates. It was evaluated using quantitative evaluation tools and informal qualitative feedback captured from attendees using tools provided by the host organisations and developed by the roadshow team.

Results A total of 6 nutrition education workshops were delivered to 169 participants. This simple educational package demonstrated potential for delivery in different healthcare settings; however, formal feedback was difficult to obtain. Evaluation results indicate that workshops were better received when delivered by doctors known to the participants and included local context and examples. Reported barriers to the workshops included difficulty for participants in finding the time to attend, beliefs that peers gave a low priority to nutrition and uncertainty about professional roles in the delivery of nutrition care.

Conclusion A key outcome of this project was the development of resources for nutrition training of doctors, adapted to local needs. However, relatively low attendance and multiple barriers faced in the delivery of these workshops highlight that there is no ideal ‘place’ for nutrition training in current healthcare teaching. Interprofessional education, through relevant clinical scenarios may increase awareness of the importance of nutrition in healthcare, support the alignment of health professional roles and improve subsequent knowledge and skills.

• nutrition assessment

Data availability statement

Data are available upon reasonable request.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See:  https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2023-000692

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

There is a great need for more nutrition within medical education, as well as a need for greater clarity of a doctor’s role in nutritional care and when to refer for specialist advice.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

The development and implementation of resources for nutrition training of doctors adapted to local needs.

This paper shows that there is no one ‘place’ for nutrition; hence, the Nutrition Implementation Coalition provides a ‘hub’ of material and expertise adapted to the needs of the providers and settings.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

The need for multiprofessional ‘hub’ of material and expertise that can support medical schools and healthcare professionals who may lack faculty to develop and implement nutrition education in practice.

Introduction

Malnutrition comprises the double burden of undernutrition and overnutrition including micronutrient deficiencies, which together continue to impact the healthcare outcomes and quality of life of individuals, as well as costs to the healthcare systems. 1 For example, in hospitals, rates of malnutrition remain high, averaging 35% internationally, and in 2015, it was estimated that malnutrition in England cost the National Health Service (NHS) almost £20 billion. 2

Implementing nutritional care in practice requires the application of nutrition knowledge and skills, and ideally this care is individualised to health priorities, patients’ goals, preferences and sociocultural context. 3 Dietitians are specifically trained to provide nutrition care; however, due to their limited numbers, they rely on nutritional problems being recognised by others with subsequent clinical referral. Furthermore, other health professionals, such as doctors and nurses, are well placed to initiate nutrition care and provide support of advice as they tend to have regular contact with patients and doctors are perceived by patients as a credible source of nutrition information. 4 This provides opportunities for discussions and nutrition screening. 5

However, although doctors, nurses and other health professionals perceive nutrition as important, they require the knowledge, skills and confidence to incorporate nutrition as part of patient care or to identify when an individual might benefit from a referral to a dietitian. Importantly, medical students and doctors' welcome further nutrition education, as professional bodies internationally now recommending doctors discuss diet with their patients. 6–8 Despite this perceived need, and continual focus on improving medical nutrition education, undergraduate or preregistration nutrition education for doctors is limited. 9 Moreover, there is limited information available on nutrition learning objectives or outcomes, or teaching methods. Internationally, only 45% of medical education accreditation and curriculum guidance was found to even mention nutrition, 10 and to this end, there is limited incentive for education providers to include nutrition in medical training.

In the UK, the responsibility for postgraduate medical education (PGME) is devolved to the respective professional bodies in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 11 The programmes are commonly referred to as foundation programmes, core training and specialty training. 12 During foundation training, junior doctors have protected learning time, and nutrition is identified as part of the syllabus followed in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 13 Separate curriculum exists for 32 specialty training programmes in the UK. 14 In specialty PGME, nutrition content varies depending on the perceived relevance of nutrition to the medical specialty with limited mandated content. Table 1 shows examples of where nutrition is mandated in UK postgraduate medical curriculum. In 2021, with the aim to standardise nutrition education in undergraduate medical training, a working party convened by the Association for Nutrition (AfN) published the nutrition curriculum for UK undergraduate medical students. 15 This builds on the UK General Medical Council (GMC) ‘outcomes for graduates’, 16 which stipulates the core competencies for medical graduates in the UK. However, ways to support systematic integration of nutrition into medical education are required, as there is currently no requirement to include nutrition in medical training. Even if nutrition education can be integrated into current medical training, there remains a need for nutrition education and ongoing support for medical doctors who are already qualified. 17

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Examples of where nutrition is mandated in UK postgraduate medical curriculum

With these challenges in mind, in March 2019, the NNEdPro Global Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, which has a key focus on medical nutrition education, launched a nutrition education package as part of their ‘Nutrition Education Policy in Healthcare Practice (NEPHELP)’ project. The aims of NEPHELP were: (1) to develop, evaluate and implement nutrition education workshops and educational resources; (2) to understand the feasibility and acceptability of a nutrition education model via participant and facilitator feedback; and (3) to gain insights into where doctors and health professionals see the place for nutrition in their education. This paper primarily focuses on aim 1, and to a lesser extent, secondarily focuses on aims 2 and 3.

This paper describes the iterative development and delivery of a nutrition education workshop for junior doctors and health professionals piloted in Glasgow, then delivered at six sites across England. Feasibility and acceptability of the workshops are explored along with reflections on the place for nutrition in medical and healthcare profession education.

Methodological approach

Study design.

The development of NEPHELP used action research methodology, 18 which is considered a pragmatic approach to instigate change. The action research cycle includes problem identification (including reflection), planning, action (implementation of change and monitoring) and evaluation or reflection before starting a new situation analysis. Action research was considered rigorous in this context because it supported the aim of exploring both enablers and barriers to the implementation of nutrition education in medical practice with the research participants. 19

The project was conducted in two stages, including (1) an initial pilot workshop in Glasgow, followed by (2) the delivery of workshops across England as part of the ‘NEPHELP Nutrition Training Roadshow’ ( figure 1 ).

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Place for nutrition paper.

The NEPHELP team

The interdisciplinary teaching team consisted of medical doctors, a registered dietitian, associate and registered nutritionists, a registered nurse, academics and education professionals, all members of the NNEdPro Global Institute. The teaching team developed and delivered the workshops and the evaluation tool.

Stage 1: piloting the NEPHELP workshop

Workshop participants and recruitment.

This was conducted with a multiprofessional international audience attending the BMJ Quality and Safety in Healthcare conference at Glasgow in 2019. Participants voluntarily signed up for a 4-hour NEPHELP nutrition workshop.

Workshop content

The initial workshop content was based on GMC expected learning outcomes for medical graduates, 16 postgraduate curricula 13 20 and perceived nutrition priorities within clinical settings, based on the educational and professional experiences of the interdisciplinary team, and included an overview of nutrition science related to clinical care Case-based discussions were used to assist with the translation of nutrition knowledge into practice.

The workshop aimed for participants to: (1) understand key principles of human nutrition, (2) understand the importance of balanced diet for health, and in illness, recognise factors that impact on equitable access to healthy food, (3) explore how individuals can include nutritional screening, care and dietetic referral into their practice and (4) provide feedback on the acceptability of the workshop as a strategy for delivering nutrition education.

The NEPHELP evaluation tool included quantitative and open-ended questions, which were designed to explore the knowledge, attitude and practices in nutritional care, and perceptions of requirements for nutrition in medical education. Feedback on the workshop content and ideas on how the programme could be improved were also gathered to inform further development of the workshop.

Stage 2: delivering the NEPHELP ‘Nutrition Training Roadshow’ across England

In this second stage, termed the ‘roadshow’, the NEPHELP workshop was delivered, evaluated and adapted to six healthcare settings across England. The NEPHELP roadshow was delivered in three formats: (1) as a part of mandatory training within health settings (hospitals, primary care etc), (2) a standalone workshop or (3) as an invited workshop delivered as part of a general GP training day and organised by an external group.

Participants and recruitment

Workshop participants were invited by the PGME and NHS contacts who also circulated workshop information. The delivery of stage 2 workshops varied depending on NEPHELP facilitator availability, with some being codelivered between the NEPHELP team and local dietitians or doctors.

Following each iteration of the workshop, evaluation forms and informal reflections were captured to inform the refinement of workshop content. The NEPHELP evaluation tool (described above) was adapted to the audience in each workshop. Additional feedback was provided by PGME faculty through their own evaluation forms. This ‘in-house’ feedback differed for each centre, was designed and collected independently but shared with the NEPHELP team. NEPHELP observers took notes during workshop discussions, and after each workshop, the facilitators listened to the observations and critically reflected on the session.

The iterative nature of the action research methodology allowed for the continuous review of data as it was collected. Quantitative data collected through NEPHELP evaluation tool and PGME forms were analysed descriptively. Qualitative data collected from open questions in the evaluation tool, PGME forms, notes taken during the workshop by observers and postworkshop critical reflection sessions were subject to content analysis, 21 an approach widely used in qualitative research. Analysis was completed by two members of the NEPHELP team, who did not have prior relationships with any of the participants. EM and KM independently grouped the material into topics using a word processing package, and the main topics were then discussed with the wider NEPHELP team.

The initial 4-hour workshop was piloted in Glasgow in March 2019, with 40 interdisciplinary participants at the BMJ Quality and Safety in Healthcare conference. Following the pilot, the workshop was modified based on participant evaluations (n=4), oral feedback from participants and the NEPHELP team reflections. The roadshow was conducted between March 2019 and February 2020, with workshops conducted at 6 locations across England with 169 participants and a total of 13.5 hours ( table 2 ).

Overview of completed NEPHELP workshops (March 2019 to February 2020)

At the end of the workshop, five (12.5%) NEPHELP evaluation questionnaires were returned from two doctors working in internal medicine, one GP, one nurse and one service manager ( table 2 ). While all respondents agreed that the workshop was useful for themselves and their colleagues, there were suggestions that the workshop included greater involvement of community care and increased focus on elements of nutrition care across the care continuum. Following this feedback, the focus for NEPHELP to also consider general practitioners and other healthcare professionals was widened.

The total response rate for the NEPHELP evaluation tool was 12.5% for the pilot and 10% for subsequent workshops. In addition, 15% completed PGME evaluation tools, and 26% of participants contributed some feedback but the heterogenic nature meant there was limited consistency in evaluation methods between each session. The combined PGME and NEPHELP evaluation data are reported individually in table 3 .

Combined PGME and NEPHELP evaluation data

The roadshow

Of the six workshops held during the Roadshow, three were mandated sessions and three were voluntary, as summarised in table 2 . Mandated sessions had much higher attendance; however, there was a low response rate overall to the evaluation questionnaires. Feedback from each session was used to inform future sessions ( table 4 ).

Summary of evaluation findings from each workshop

Multiple methods for delivery were tested, spanning rapid sessions in existing training, to full day workshops, with no format perceived as being ideal. The variation in format addressed the logistical constraints on time and location, and the need to fit the workshops within existing programmes of study. For example, a full day session requested by a GP trainer (Essex) was held on a weekend, and although advertised and free, only one person attended. In contrast, the rapid session (East of England) attended by 60 participants aimed to see if the training could be added into an existing event, and if all learning objectives could be covered in the shorter time. Formal feedback from this session was limited.

NEPHELP evaluation responses

The mandated teaching in London at a teaching hospital for foundation year 2 had the highest response rate to the NEPHELP evaluation tool at 52% (n=17). Nine participants (53%) reported receiving no previous nutrition education, while eight (47%) recalled some nutrition training in their medical education. Of participants who reported receiving nutrition training, five reported receiving this education during medical school, one from a self-selected module, one during a biomedical sciences degree and one elsewhere in their foundation training. All participants felt that the clinical nutritional needs of patients were not prioritised, and as a result were poorly addressed in the hospital setting. As noted by one participant, nutrition is ‘ certainly, something that could be improved ’, but felt that it was ‘ unlikely to be top priority in a consultation ’.

When asked to give an example of where nutritional needs for a patient were met, 41% (n=7) recalled examples of acute nutrition, namely, either nasogastric or parenteral nutrition, 29% (n=5) reported seeing clinical benefit from malnutrition treatments and three specifically mentioned the benefits of dietitian involvement in secondary care. One participant noted examples “In upper GI (gastrointestinal) surgery a lot of patients were on TPN (total parenteral nutrition) or NG/NJ (naso gastric/naso jejunal) feeds.” Another mentioned “Gastro ward with dietitian input (eg, TPN patient).”

When these participants were asked about the barriers to effective nutritional care, 15 (88%) identified time as a barrier, 11 (61%) identified a lack of knowledge, 8 (47%) identified a lack of clarity on roles and responsibilities and 7 (41%) perceived a lack of interest from colleagues as a barrier to such care in practice. One participant said, “I'm aware as a junior in A&E [Accident and Emergency] it is quite slow spending time taking a good diet history and giving advice would make consultations even longer.” When questioned about including nutritional screening or history taking as part of their practice respondents reported the following reasons a lack of nutrition training (n=6, 35%), time pressures for doctors (n=5, 29%) and some participants perceived nutrition care as a dietitian’s role (n=4, 24%). Comments included, “Poor training and perception that nutrition is the preserve of dietitians. Time not allocated”. Another focused on the lack of education: “Little education in med school. Not much time. Unclear whose role it is.” The lack of interest and importance was also mentioned: “Both knowledge on importance but also lack of interest in implementing what little people do know about nutrition.”

Most respondents (88%) felt doctors had a role in nutrition care with half (n=9) identifying the role of a doctor in initial assessment to identify nutrition risks and a third (n=5) indicating the importance of onward referral to the dietitian as part of their role. As one participant mentioned, there are “Very few specialists so it needs to be taken responsibility for by all staff.” They saw their role as the “Assessing, advising, signposting and referring.” Another participant focused on actions to take, particularly regarding handover. “Reorganising when and where referrals are required. Risk assessment. Improving inter-team handover.” While one questioned the role of a doctor in nutrition care, highlighting bigger societal issues. “Some roles, but the most significant barriers lie in public health policy, food poverty and education.”

Most participants in this group (16/17) felt that nutrition education should be an essential element of medical training and found the content of the workshop relevant. When asked about the most appropriate timing of this nutrition education, 12 participants (71%) felt this should be linear, with nutrition education increasing from medical school to junior doctor, while 3 participants (18%) felt nutrition education was most relevant to junior doctors. Two participants (12%) felt nutrition training was most relevant to medical students and would be best placed in undergraduate medical education. Seven of the participants (41%) valued skill-based nutrition education and case-based learning. However, opinions varied on what was relevant nutrition content, but included, ‘practical examples and how to put into practice’ , ‘ important from Global public health perspective’, ‘common things in hospital for example, refeeding’, ‘eating disorders, intuitive eating, diet culture and how best to educate without promoting diet culture’. In contrast, one participant did not perceive nutrition as relevant in medical training as “Patient education and school age education plus socioeconomic factors far outweigh medical input” and others felt that “didactic teaching [was] less useful.”

Mandated versus voluntary attendance

Mandated sessions were better attended and evaluated. In the UK, all junior doctors have protected learning time to attend mandated teaching. 11 13 20 22 NEPHELP workshops were delivered in mandated teaching during two FY2 training sessions and one GP trainee protected teaching session. In contrast, attendance at non-mandated training was particularly poor. Participants commented on the difficulties experienced in attending non-mandated sessions due to professional and personal pressures. “If I don’t have to go it’s not something I would attend, at the end of a week I have other priorities”.

Training was generally better received when local doctors were present and less well received when other healthcare professionals individually delivered the same content. The perception was that training would have been better received if a medical role model acted as a peer educator, for example, where teaching was codelivered with another GP trainee as opposed to being delivered by non-medical members of the NEPHELP team who are unknown to the participants. Limited opportunity for interprofessional education (IPE) and poor collaboration in nutrition care across health systems was also identified as a barrier to effective nutrition care practice.

Low prioritisation of nutrition in clinical care

Many participants identified a low priority given to nutrition in clinical care. Foundation year trainees recognised that nutrition is not addressed adequately in clinical practice but did not have recommendations for how it could be improved, citing logistical challenges such as a lack of priority, time and senior recognition of nutrition in patient management, care planning and treatment. They also felt that there was limited time available for education and variation in opinion on the most important aspects of nutrition. Some topics rated as important were based on prior clinical experiences such as working in a ‘gastro’ environment, or seeing TPN/NG feeding, while others perceived a topic to be importance based on personal interests, such as the ‘low carbohydrate diet ’ . Many participants indicated that their personal nutrition knowledge, level of interest and social media informed their practice.

Lack of clarity on roles and responsibilities in nutrition care

While participants recognised the importance of nutrition, they remained unclear on their role and scope of practice (as doctors) in nutrition care. Participants attending the primary care training day did not feel that a session on nutrition was appropriate for them as GPs and perceived nutrition as relating solely to healthy eating. Many Foundation doctors found it challenging to address nutritional issues in practice and indicated that their focus was the immediate medical concern. Some participants believed that public health professionals should hold more responsibility than doctors in the delivery of nutrition care. Addressing misconceptions about the role of diet in the prevention and management of non-communicable diseases, its role in medical treatment across all settings, and how different members of the multi professional healthcare team can work synergistically to achieve favourable patient outcomes, may raise the profile of nutrition in medical practice.

It is recognised that collaboration across professions such as registered nurses, doctors and allied health professionals fosters a positive and rewarding practice environment and improves patient outcomes. 23 This collaboration has previously been identified by medical students and junior doctors with an interest in nutrition as a key factor to support the integration of nutrition into medical practice. 24

Interprofessional education (IPE) is recognised by the WHO as an ‘innovative strategy that will play an important role in mitigating the global health workforce crisis’ and address professional silo working. 25 The cross-cutting nature of nutrition, and its involvement in the promotion of health and prevention and management of disease, reiterates that nutrition should be a core element of all healthcare professional’s education. Ideally, it should be ideally through an IPE lens to foster a multidisciplinary approach in practice.

Challenges for multiprofessional learning, working and collaboration

During NEPHELP, there was a reluctance from PGME providers to include non-medical professionals within junior doctor-protected sessions, limiting the opportunity and scope for IPE. Moreover, there was a perception that the NEPHELP workshop was not as well received when a medical doctor was not part of the teaching team. For trainees, the historic paucity of nutrition education within medical training limits the number of role models who can model and advocate for nutrition care. 8 26 However, research has identified the importance of professional role models to support learning in medical education and how this authenticates the place for content and its relevance to clinical practice. 27

Using action research methodology, the NEPHELP team set out to develop an educational package based on GMC outcomes for graduates, which could be delivered in different healthcare settings. In addition, they sought to understand where doctors and health professionals see nutrition as fitting into their educational journey and considered the feasibility of this workshop approach.

Lessons learnt from NEPHELP

From this work, we recognise that there is no one ‘place’ for nutrition, but there is a need for clear curriculum content at all stages of a doctor’s education.

Undergraduate and postgraduate nutrition curriculum development

The recently published undergraduate nutrition curriculum for medical doctors represents a consensus among multiple stakeholders, nutrition professionals and medical royal colleges on the required nutrition competencies for medical graduate. 28 This benchmarks what should be taught in medical education as an accompaniment to GMC learning outcomes for graduates. In addition, the 2021 Foundation curriculum 13 supports engagement with third-sector organisations, which are at the forefront in providing services to support health prevention including services to support education or access to healthy foods or services directly addressing food poverty.

Clearer postgraduate mandated nutrition competencies within existing PGME curriculum may help to better elucidate key nutrition knowledge and skills for practicing doctors, which could be a useful accompaniment to the foundation doctor’s curriculum, helping to increase validity and visibility of nutrition while also clarifying the role of medical doctors and the wider MDT. However, F2 participants completing the NEPHELP evaluation tool indicated a preference for more linear nutrition education, suggesting a desire to advance nutrition along with other medical skills but with a clear preference for more clinically focused, case-based teaching.

To demonstrate interprofessional roles and responsibilities of care, there is a need for clinically relevant scenarios more closely aligned to existing roles and workplace expectations to ‘nudge’ professionals to raise the profile of nutrition in their practice, as part of an MDT approach. Educating doctors in the absence of the MDT may not address the issue.

Organisations such as NNEdPro, the AfN and GMC can work with educators, including medical schools and foundation programmes to create a framework for trainees to work towards achieving the role and competencies they outline.

Furthermore, recent findings from Lepre et al , 29 reflecting the expressed needs of end users within the medical/healthcare workforce, indicate the need for knowledge and skills to consider the findings from nutrition screening and assessment and coordinate nutrition care, thereby highlighting the importance of the findings from this work in implementation.

Summary of recommendations

Nutrition educators.

Nutrition content needs to reflect the context of the workplace, with most participants indicating their preference to more clinically focused practical teaching directly relevant to their roles and signposting to resources the participants can use.

Participants preferred practical-based/short-based/skills-based education, which can be easily linked back to practice and can be easily integrated into short windows of opportunity for education.

Universal nutrition education, such as NEPHELP, may offer a short, focused baseline form on which other nutrition education can be recommended to support core as well as more specialist and potentially a more expert specialist nutrition education pathway.

Clinicians in primary and secondary care

The needs of those in primary care and secondary care were noted to be significantly different, as well as a major need to reframe the communication and transfer of nutrition care between the two settings.

There is a need for IPE or discussion across professional boundaries to support nutrition pathways. Without this, it may be difficult to address some of the identified barriers. This may pose a challenge in finding a common language so that nutrition messaging is clear and breaks through professional silos within a more multiprofessional model of care.

Postgraduate medical educators

Although nutrition is mentioned in published curriculum frameworks, examples of how nutrition might be included in education for UK Junior doctors are limited 30 and should be developed to support capacity building.

Trainee GPs wanted more in-depth nutrition education suggesting we need a variety of options and opportunities; from the minimum standards to assure patient safety, to potential career pathways for further specialisation.

To support sustainability, a PGME nutrition curriculum may assist in reaching a consensus on expectations related to nutrition and professional working roles.

PGME providers can take advantage of existing multidisciplinary nutrition educators such as the UK Nutrition Implementation Coalition. Training workshops also need to be endorsed by a professional body with relevant continued professional education credits.

Strengths and limitations

Data from multiple sources of feedback were pooled to provide deeper insights into some of the potential barriers and enablers to implementing nutrition education.

Heterogenic feedback forms and processes in each setting limited analysis. Attempts to standardise data collection on participant opinions on the utility of the nutrition workshops, as well as perceptions on nutrition roles and responsibilities in practice, were made. The NEPHELP evaluation tool was not a validated tool, which limited the usefulness of the feedback captured. To minimise facilitator pre conceptions, postworkshop discussions, alongside evaluations from participants, were used.

Another limitation was the recruitment of participants to participate in the non-mandated sessions. This was particularly evident during the Essex Roadshow event, where despite the workshop being organised at the request of the primary care providers and the enthusiasm to run this workshop outside of normal working hours at the weekend, only one participant attended. Generally, due to the nature of nutrition education and its broad application across multiple areas of practice, most health practitioners would be interested in focused nutrition content that relates to their clinical setting, specialty and region. Hence, we would imagine that if the nutrition content is clinically and regionally specific, this might stimulate greater interest and enthusiasm in nutrition education and its application in their healthcare setting.

Demographics of participants completing feedback were mainly junior doctors and general practitioners. The low response rate limits the generalisability and transferability of our findings and does not consider the views of other healthcare professionals regarding enablers and barriers to nutrition education, as well as the provision of nutrition focused care on clinical practice.

The NEPHELP project successfully delivered and adapted a bespoke nutrition education programme for doctors. However, there was no clear a ‘place’ for this training and there are significant, ongoing, barriers to delivering nutrition training in the medical postgraduate setting.

For this reason, in the UK, NNEdPro, ERimNN (Education And Research In Medical Nutrition Network), Culinary Medicine UK and Nutritank have come together to form the Nutrition Implementation Coalition (2022–23). 31 A coalition encompassing multiprofessionals who can provide a central hub of material and expertise that will support medical schools and health professionals who may lack the current faculty to develop and implement nutrition education. Also, the multiprofessional nature of the coalition can act as a role model for interprofessional working to focus on developing the seamless delivery of nutritional care. Such coalitions may be one way of developing and sustaining interest in developing nutrition expertise, by work alongside mandatory training across the range of healthcare professionals in both primary and secondary care. Finding opportunities for the delivery of clinically relevant nutrition education in ‘bitesize’ sessions may tap into the need for solution-focused education. Nutrition is central to health and disease in both prevention and treatment, this has been recently highlighted through COVID-19 and its sequelae. The interest that developed during the pandemic could provide an opportunity to translate research back into fundamental nutrition training.

Recognising there is no one ‘place’ for nutrition, the Nutrition Implementation Coalition provides a strategy to provide a ‘hub’ of material and expertise that allows the content to be available yet adapted to the needs of the providers and settings. Beyond this paper, this research has continued with the development of the online NEPHELP course via a virtual learning environment and its evaluation in primary care.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

This study involves human participants. Participants were given information sheets about the project and how their responses may be used for research, and to inform the educational evaluation and curriculum development. UK NHS National Research Ethics Service guidance indicates that ethics review was not required. Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

Acknowledgments

NEPHELP Team & NNEdPro Organisational Support.

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• Ferguson LM , et al
• Abramovich N ,
• Burridge J , et al
• Stevens FCJ ,
• Aryee PA , et al
• Maudsley RF
• Douglas P , et al

EA and KM are joint first authors.

X @DrBreannaLepre, @Celia_Laur

EA and KM contributed equally.

Contributors The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: EM, KM, LB, CL, BL and SR. Data collection: WN, LB, EA, LB and EM. Analysis and interpretation of results: EA, SR and KM. Draft manuscript preparation: EA, KM and SR. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. SR is the guarantor of this work.

Funding NEPHELP was developed as a nutrition education programme for healthcare professionals following a grant from the Medical Nutrition International award for 2017-2019, with initial periods of time spent surveying needs of future participants. 8 The project continued through further AIM foundation funding through 2021.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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MATH Seminar: “Examples of simple linear representations of categories”, Serge Bouc, 1:30PM May 29 2024 (EN)

You are cordially invited to the Algebra Seminar organized by the Department of Mathematics.

Speaker: Serge Bouc (University of Picardie Jules Verne)

“Examples of simple linear representations of categories.”

Abstract: After recalling general facts on simple linear representations of categories, I will illustrate by some examples situations where we know how to compute explicitly these simple representations, and some others where we (still?) don’t.

Date: Wednesday, May 29, 2024 Time: 13:30 Place: SA141 – Mathematics Seminar Room

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