international trade assignment topics

257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics

🏆 best essay topics on trade, 🔎 easy trade research paper topics, 👍 good trade research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot trade ideas to write about, 🎓 most interesting trade research titles, 💡 simple trade essay ideas, ❓ trade research questions.

• The Effects of Globalization to Employment and International Trade
• Globalization Impacts on Trade and Employment
• Example of Successful Trading Company: Walmart, INC.
• Apple Inc.’s Globalization Strategy and International Trade
• The Importance of International Trade
• Governmental Role in Influencing International Trade
• Transatlantic Slave Trade and Its Effects
• World Trade Organization’s History, Achievements, and Challenges The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the global international organization that regulates trade between nations; that was established in 1995 and consists of 164 members.
• Costs Involved in Warehousing, Impacts and Their Trade-offs in the Aviation Costs incurred in the warehousing of aviation and aerospace materials and parts include handling and storage charges, and operational and general administrative expenses
• International Business and Free Trade Globalization is at the center stage but it is affected by international trade, and free trade. This paper looks into globalization, international trade, and free trade.
• Cultural Differences in Business & Trade This paper reports on cultural differences among people and determine their impact on trade. Some of the differences are pretty obvious, for example, a language.
• China’s Trade Policy for the Global Economy The paper seeks to prove that China presents an outstanding example of rapid economic growth and has affected the development of the global economy significantly.
• Sony Corporation International Trade Strategy Analysis Sony’s current objective and strategy are focused on getting closer to people, which means that the company is shifting its vector of development on creating social value
• Fair Trade: Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages The WTO indicted Japan for what it described as a violation of the internal taxation and regulations as stipulated in the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade 1994.
• The Fair Trade Concept The very concept of fair trade implies that no overpricing should occur when carrying out essential financial transactions between the suppliers and the producing companies.
• International Trade Payment Forms To succeed in international markets and gain sales against international competitors, exporters need to give clients attractive terms of payment supported by viable forms.
• Christopher Columbus: Voyage to Asia’s Discover Trade Routes Christopher Columbus wants to attempt to find new trade routes to Asia by sailing westward. This desire is motivated by dangerous waters in the East, and high cost of shipping.
• Electric Cars and Trade Paradigm Global businesses and working environments are complex and require an in-depth assessment of issues for proper management.
• Main Reasons for Trade Between Nations The developed shipping industry and the availability of resources, including land, labor, and capital, in different countries, promote international trade.
• Conscious Capitalism and Fair Trade The paper discusses the concept of conscious capitalism. It supports fair trade and is relevant to many types of businesses.
• Triangular Trade, Its Legs and Mechanism Triangular trade consisted of three parties, namely Africa, England, and the New World. This essay will discuss the development of transatlantic trade.
• Sony Corporation and the New Trade Theory The New Trade theory is referred to as an economic theory developed by several economists in the 1970s. This theory has clearly been elucidated by the Sony corporation.
• The Effects of Trade Unions on Alienation at Work The workers, by being aware of their trade union’s support, experience alienating feelings of stress, dissatisfaction, and meaninglessness at work.
• Issues in Cryptocurrency Trading Ever since the success of Bitcoin, cryptocurrencies have been steadily growing in number as well as the volume of transactions that occur through them.
• Comparative Advantage and Free Trade Despite its attractive formulation, comparative advantage theory has several pitfalls and is rarely manifested in real-life situations due to trade restriction policies.
• Business Law: Trade Union This work assesses the chances of organizing a community of workers and shows how the state is trying to regulate it. Unionization is a vital part of the working process.
• Employee Relations and Trade Unions Businesses now focus on a wider range of factors and place a greater emphasis on other factors such as employee appraisal and motivation.
• Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
• Fair Trade: Ethics in the UK Garment Industry This paper will aim at understanding the code of conduct that is voluntarily disclosed by the UK apparel companies.
• Facilitating Trade and Securing Import & Export One of the European Government’s concerns is to facilitate trade while also securing import and export procedures.
• Fair Enough? Big Business Embraces Fair Trade In fair trade, product manufacturers and consumers are responsible for growers in the creation of their possibility to sell products for a reasonable price.
• The United Arab Emirates and International Trade The United Arab Emirates has become one of globalization’s most prominent economic success stories thanks to its diversified economy.
• Human Rights and International Trade Human rights in international trade precipitated the formation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which caters to the welfare of the workers and other interest groups.
• Importance of the Maritime Trade The Maritime system has both economic and social importance to the U.S. and North America, this is because ships form the primary mode of transport used for international trade.
• Multinational Corporations and Trade Unions Multinational corporations are the main subject of globalization in the modern world. Trade unions were concerned about the uncontrolled actions of such corporations.
• Impact of International Trade on Emerging Economies Discussing the impact on international trade of emerging economies like those of Eastern Europe, India, and China, what can we expect from them in the next 20–50 years.
• Trade in Environmental Goods and Economic Growth This paper analyzes how trading in environmental-friendly goods and services may be important in improving the quality of the environment and promoting economic development.
• Sugar Cane Plantation and Slave Trade in South America By 1652, the price of slaves had doubled, marked by increased demand for slave labor and increased price of sugar in the new world. The price of slaves was determined by health, age.
• Trade in Singapore: Economic and Political Aspects Singapore is the ideal place for trade because of its geographic location, business environment and less burden imposed by the government.
• Modes of International Trade Payment The importer pays for the goods before they are shipped for export. The supplier is fully protected from non payment for the goods as it gets done in advance.
• Future Fabrication, International Trade, Transportation Nowadays, the development of air, rail, and road transport contributed to the development of the worldwide delivery of the products.
• Statistical Pairs Trading and Analyst Recommendation This paper focuses on the correlation between statistical pairs trading and analyst recommendations by employing the approach used by Gatev and colleagues.
• The World Trade Organization’s Impact on Public Health The World Trade Organization is an integration organization established on 1 January 1995 to liberalize international trade and regulate its member states’ business.
• Stockbroker E*TRADE: A Pioneer in Online Trading E*TRADE is among the most competitive and notable discount brokers. And this claim is based on its innovative trading resources and platforms.
• Trans-Pacific Regional Trade Agreement (CPTPP) This paper will present a discussion of the Comprehensive and Progressive Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) Agreement.
• Discussion of International Trade The article says that international trade is one of the essential things in the world today because without its help slowed down the development of a person as such.
• Researching of the Challenges of Free Trade In the world of serious business, along with opportunities for real economic growth, companies face the potential threat of financial and reputational collapse and decline
• Trade and Usage Control: Drug Enforcement Administration The paper looks into the history of the drug enforcement agency, the factors that led to its formation, its goals, and its comparison with the federal bureau of narcotics.
• Free Trade as a Fundamental Principle of Modern Globalization Free trade has become critical in the globalized world by expanding diversity of not just goods, but technology and workforce.
• Fair Trade Concept Overview The purpose of this paper is to define the concept of fair trade and to discuss its value to society through the example of organic products.
• International Trade and Trade Policies Trade policies were initially done away with but the globalization has now begun to haunt all world governments.
• International Trade Simulation and Report Comparative advantage is done so as to have to have the trades and specialization determined. These theories are for international trade concepts.
• International Trade and Investment Countries may form an agreement framework between them in an attempt to expand trade between them and/or resolve underlying disputes.
• European Trade Goods for Native Americans The use of European trade goods changed Native Americans’ lives while providing them with more opportunities to succeed in supporting and protecting their families.
• The Impact of Globalization on Labor Market and Trade Globalization is the process that refers to the coming together of the international markets. This report examines the impacts of globalization on trade and employment.
• North American Free Trade Agreement’s Pros & Cons This report will discuss the benefits and demerits of NAFTA to the transportation industry of the United States, Mexico and Canada.
• Globalization Impact on Trade and Employment One of the notable effects of globalization is heightened trade liberalization and opening up of global labor markets.
• The Theme of Trade in the Art In this paper, we will examine four artworks related to the theme of trade, and see how these artworks reflect the conditions of the society they are related to.
• International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization This paper studies three international financial organizations: the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the World Trade Organization.
• Boeing and Airbus: Trade Barriers and Government’s Role The case of Boeing and Airbus demonstrates the governmental impact that created confusion and depicts the effect of trade barriers.
• Free Trade and Prosperity Based on the Ricardian Trade model, it is worth having free trade even if some people are losing. Free trade promotes access to lower-priced goods with higher quality. Although some people in the home country will experience losses, imports from countries like Mexico and China are cheap, and this helps…
• Japan-US International Trade Relationship Through the example of the Japan-US trade relationship, this paper will analyze the importance of a proper assessment of a nation’s and its partner’s economy.
• Fair Trade Joe: Business Opportunities Fair Trade Joe has multiple opportunities, such as using its customer-oriented strategy to develop relationships with its clients, grow retention, and build brand awareness.
• Insider Trading – The Legal and Illegal The insider trading is illegal activity when non-public information is used to gain an advantage over other traders.
• Free and Fair Trade: Vietnam-EU Partnership Free trade includes policies that help to reduce barriers that may serve as an impediment to international commerce.
• International Trade Law: Cif Contract CIF contracts are one of the most popular trade agreements between a buyer and a seller in the sphere of international trade when sea carriage is used.
• Consumer Law: Trade Practises Act The report outlines section 52 of the Trade Practises Act, which provides for the measures companies should consider before introducing new products to the market.
• The Global Marketing and Trade Environments Economic and trade environments are critical in understanding product performance. A significant marketing concern is reaching the right target audience.
• ASEAN Free Trade Area and Economic Development ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) opened new opportunities for Eats Asian countries to stabilize their economies and improve financial performance of the region.
• Medical Devices Trade Agreements for Healthcare Medical devices are a critical aspect of healthcare delivery, becoming more prevalent for health management as technology becomes more complex and reliable.
• Ethical Trade in the UK Garment Industry This research is relevant to understand in business ethics in the garment industry is genuine or a mere response to the pressure groups and the stakeholders.
• Nestlé’s Nescafe Partners’ Blend and Fair Trade Nestle UK is a leading manufacturer and an established value-adding company that provides a market opportunity for coffee farmers.
• Free Trade Agreements Between Canada and Other Countries The connection between Canada and other countries has been ignored over the years, free trade agreements are necessary and should be pursued for various reasons.
• Market Revolution: Agriculture and Global Trade In the era of traders, the vast land area and rich natural resources created many economic opportunities. Most people lived in rural areas and were engaged in agriculture.
• The 1807 Bill and the Abolition of the Slave Trade The study of the problem of discrimination from a historical perspective allowed me to better understand its origin as it proposes to consider the debate regarding human rights.
• Negotiating Globally: The U.S.-China Trade War Donald Trump added to the controversy of his term in the U.S. President’s office by starting a full-scale trade war against China.
• World Trade Agreements and Anti-Dumping Measures This paper considered the issue of the increasing influence of dumping practices. It is one of the ways of price discrimination.
• Trade and Supply Chain Improvement Initiatives The ability to operate supply chain (SC) and trade processes efficiently is inextricably connected to modern states’ economic success and status in the international market.
• African Kingdoms, Atlantic Slave Trade, and New World Slavery The connections between African kingdoms, the Atlantic slave trade, and the new world slavery are shown in this paper.
• Trade Policies in International Business The ideas of antidumping policies are seen in the article posted in The Economic Times about duties imposed by India on ursodiol.
• A Trade Policy for Game Consoles in the US and Brazil Even though trade relations between Brazil and the United States are regulated and are among the most profitable for both countries, trade policy has specific nuances.
• How Multinational Businesses Can Improve Their Trade Compliance Globalization is a wave informing and shaping the practices of many companies operating in different parts of the world.
• Aspects of the Trading Conditions of Online Brokers The paper aims to explore three collaborative offers from major online brokerage platforms from the perspective of the average investor.
• Trade Advantages within the Global Economy Kenya is an Eastern African country that is bordered by Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda, Somalia, Tanzania, and the Indian Ocean.
• The North America Free Trade Agreement in News The North America Free Trade Agreement was a landmark trade deal between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that took effect in 1994.
• Supply Chain Management and Trading System This essay is largely devoted to the discussion of supply chain management and the contemporary trading system.
• International Trade Philosophy Multinational companies which have a presence in foreign markets need to rely on a clear philosophy which can serve as the foundation and guidance for their operations abroad.
• Experiments in High-Frequency Trading High-frequency trading (HFT) is becoming increasingly popular with private businesses and traders. HFT allows traders to make transactions within fractions of seconds.
• Fair Trade and Its Benefits for Local Farmers Fair trade was introduced to support the work of local farmers, whose incomes depend not only on themselves but also on various factors such as drought, crop diseases, and others.
• The Russian invasion of Ukraine and Its Impact on International Trade The Russian invasion of Ukraine has caused enormous human misery, but it has also harmed international trade, which will disproportionately affect low-income nations.
• The US-China Trade War: Microeconomics Principles This paper uses the microeconomics principles to substantiate the impact of trade between China and the US, and the trade war on businesses and consumers of both countries.
• Why International Trading Is Beneficial The paper states that international trading is vital in overcoming the problems of limited natural resource production opportunities.
• Export and Import in World Economy and International Trade The paper aims to study two mechanisms, export and import, which function together and must be examined to learn more about the world economy and all international trade.
• Trade Between Europe and Other Countries The trade relationship between Europe and other countries is improving, however, there are cultural, political, governmental, and economic challenges.
• Globalization and Poverty: Trade Openness and Poverty Reduction in Nigeria Globalization can be defined as the process of interdependence on the global culture, economy, and population. It is brought about by cross-border trade.
• Trade Agreement Between Mexico and Brazil Using the example of an agreement concluded between Brazil and Mexico, it is worth considering the advantages and disadvantages of such actions.
• Brazil’s Aspirations to Join the World Trade Organization Brazil’s aspirations to join the World Trade Organization faced a certain resistance on behalf of the country’s left-wing politicians who feared it.
• The US Trade Deficit as a Current News Issue The US trade deficit resulted from a rise in imports, probably caused by businesses’ replenishment of inventories depleted during the COVID-10 pandemic.
• Thailand: Culture, Tourism, International Trade This paper aims to research the country of Thailand: its population and society, the culture of Thailand, the country’s economy and international trade, and tourism in Thailand.
• Federal Trade Commission (FTC) The current paper presents two points why advertising should be controlled by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).
• India’s International Trade Policy India partners with great countries that help promote trade. Trade between India and the EU has dramatically increased by 12.5%.
• The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the International Trading The coronavirus pandemic has created new tough barriers to globalization and trade: the shutdown of production and the borders of leading countries and economic groups.
• Fair Trade Organized Social Movements Fair trade is an organized social movement that advocates fair standards of international labor, environmental, and social regulation.
• Aspects of International Trade The focus of the paper is to compare and contrast the factor-proportions theories and country-specific theories that address the partners.
• Exploring the Global Economy: International Trade and Finance Global trade and finance is a framework based on efficiency and effectiveness through interconnectedness and specialization, which carries greater risks for all involved parties.
• Trade Peculiarities in Food and Agriculture Food trading is a peculiar area, as food is the basis for surviving the population. The one who controls food production and trading routes, also controls all populations.
• Pollution Rights Trading Will Effectively Control Environmental Problems The further use of the cap-and-trade system and its constant perfection can contribute to controlling the environmental issues related to harmful emissions.
• Negative Sentiments Against Trade and Globalization Although the authors’ views are robust and applicable to developed economies, rising negative sentiments against trade and globalization remain relevant in developing countries.
• The Role of the FTC and CFPB in Safeguarding Consumers The report investigates the role of the Federal Trade Commission and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau in the economy of the country, their legal grounds, and leverages.
• Greece’s Trading Interaction Analysis Greece’s trading interaction analysis showed that Greece exports and imports goods and services, such as various equipment and specialized machines.
• The Spread of Islam With Trade and Geography Due to the research on Islam, scientists managed to preserve the scientific heritage of previous civilizations and develop new directions in science, culture, and art.
• European Slave Trade in Historical Documents The European Slave Trade was one of the three stages involved in the triangular transaction, otherwise known as the Trans-Atlantic trade.
• The UK Global Competitiveness in Trade After Brexit The long-term goal for UK in international trade is to be globally competitive. One major problem is the negative trend in trade deficit during the last decade with EU members.
• Climate Change and Tesla’s Electric Cars The paper discusses environmental sustainability. Using Tesla company electric vehicles is the best decision for tackling the climate change problem.
• The Current Trading Environment of Airbus This paper provides a brief company history, current situation overview, internal and external analysis, evaluates challenges, and identifies future directions.
• Effects of Latin America’s Trade with Developed Nations The essay examines the performance of Latin America in the world’s economy and investigates the decreasing terms of exchange despite the world’s growing economy.
• Federal Trade Commission and Consumer Financial Protection Bureau The paper analyzes the two bodies established to promote consumer protection and eliminate inappropriate business practices.
• Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates Trade Comparison The purpose of this paper is to explore the nature of the free trade agreement between the United Arab Emirates and Switzerland.
• Multinational Business Finance and Currency Trade At the time of the recession, investments became more substantial and soon large amounts of money were put into the financial system.
• Choosing a Currency Trading Strategy: When Investments Start to Grow While trading currency does involve a specific element of unpredictability, it still follows common economic laws, and its processes can be traced easily.
• The European Trade Policy: Objectives and Benefits The European Trade Policy is the most powerful tool through which the European Union establishes fair trade practices.
• Trade Routes and Colonization of North America During the period, also known as the Age of Discovery or the Age of Exploration, many countries became involved in the process of searching for new trade routes.
• The Trade War Between the USA and China The most important geopolitical issue is the trade war between the USA and China. Its development affects every other country due to the two economies in the world.
• The History of the Slave Trade in America This paper aims at exploring the rise of the slave trade in America and its influence on American economic life.
• Sino-American Trade War and Its Impact The trade war between the US and China has negatively influenced the economic systems of both countries. There could be increased costs for customers in the US.
• Fire Cases of World Trade Center and Dupont Fires Fires are among the fatal tragedies that have befallen America since time immemorial. Fire tragedies continue to haunt people despite efforts made to fight fires.
• History of the Indian Ocean Trade The Indian Ocean Trade took place between 1200 to 1500ce, and it made a great impact in the world due to the activities involved.
• The Federal Trade Commission This paper presents that the funeral services industry is essential since it allows grieving people to bury their dead ones in style.
• Trade Issues and Patterns of Mexico The trade situation in Mexico can be evaluated ambiguously, as it has both positive and negative characteristics.
• Gender, Race, and Trade Unions It can be noted that there are particular strategies, which can be applied when gender or racial discrimination happens.
• The U.S. Trade Balance and China Trade War Challenges This paper describes the US trade balance in terms of its impact on the country’s economy, as well as in the context of the ongoing phenomenon of a trade war with China.
• Trade War Between the US and China The trade war between the US and China makes a negative impact on the economies of both countries, leading to a trade deficit and higher prices.
• International and Traditional Trading Theories A trade war is a situation in which countries seek to harm each other’s economies, retaliate against each other by imposing import restrictions and other methods.
• Productivity Trade-Offs in Organizations Productivity is calculated by combining the time used for creating something as well as materials to divide them later equally.
• Coronavirus-Related Free and Fair Trade Issue in News The paper discusses the article by Finbarr Bermingham and Wendy Wu on the delayed release of the intellectual property action plan.
• The China-United States Trade War The paper provides information on trade barriers between USA and China and their promotes free trade on the international scene.
• Petroleum Trading and Risk Management Petroleum and gas producers’ choice to hedge utilizing varieties of hedging activities needs to be executed based on individual cases.
• “Do Investors Trade Too Much?” by Odean The author assumes that this may have certain relation to the overall excessive trading volume which can often be observed on the world market.
• The Effects of Globalization on Trade Globalization entails incorporating national wealth through the trade of goods, investment, capital distribution, labor exchange, and technology use.
• Commodity Trading Advisor: Skills and Practice Analysis This paper has covered the legal matters that a Commodity Trading Advisor needs to deal with before practicing so as to avoid serious implications.
• The World Trade Organization: Purpose and Functions The World Trade Organization (WTO) is one the most vital parts of modern trade. It is an intergovernmental organization, regulating sales across the world.
• Long-Term Impacts of the Chinese-American Trade War The trade war between the United States and China is one of the main factors of instability in the global economy.
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: A Legacy That Lives On The Transatlantic slave trade that took place between the 16th and the 19th centuries removed Africans from their homelands and brought them to Americas against their will.
• Dying and Killing for Ivory: Africa, Asia, & the Global Ivory Trade Given the worldwide increase in crimes against wild flora and fauna, there is a need for closer cooperation between law enforcement agencies through the exchange of information.
• International Trade During COVID-19 This document provides an analysis of Canada’s politics in response to the outbreak of COVID-19. A review of this country as a fully-democratic state will be provided to introduce it.
• Investing in the Current Market of Trading Cards The current market of trading cards is experiencing a significant rise as the annual revenues of those collecting them increase.
• Present Day Resistance Historical Roots to the Trade Globalization The selfish character of economic integration is the primary historical basis for the resistance to globalization.
• What Is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)? North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trade bloc formed in 1994 to enhance free trade between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
• Long-Term Impacts of the Chinese-American Trade War and Globalization of the World Economy The globalization of the economy has become a consequence of the increasing embeddedness of national economies into the world economy.
• Trade Liberalization: Environmental Effects Trade liberalization presents major opportunities, especially to developing nations. New policies allow global trade to create and sustain global economic growth.
• Trade Agreements and the Healthcare Industry With the current globalization of trade, the provision of healthcare services is becoming a significant issue that requires the special attention of the professionals.
• International Trade: Identifying Market Structure Being a monopolistic competition, the U.S. car market can be seen as a rather environment to target. Its structure is multilayered and, with several key organizations.
• UK Interests in EU-India Free Trade Agreement To dispel dogmas created by the critics, the United Kingdom decided to state its interest in the ongoing FTA negotiations.
• The World of Trade in 1897 by Jules Ferry According to Ferry, the world of trade changed significantly at that time due to the introduction of protectionism.
• Atlantic Slave Trade and Its Effect on Africa and the Americas The Atlantic Slave Trade involved shipping of the African slaves from the Western coast of Africa to the Americas across the Atlantic Ocean.
• Applying International Trade Concepts Simulation and Economics
• International Trade: Term Definition
• World Trade Organization Definition and Tasks
• Trade Policy Dilemmas in Australia
• Rodamia: International Trade Simulation
• United States Trade Deficit Trends
• Developing States-World Trade Organization Conflict
• The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Slavery Abolishment
• World Trade Organization and North American Free Trade Agreements
• Trade Effect on Environmentalism and Poverty
• Investment Policies, Trade and Debt on India
• Protectionism or Free Trade as a Ways of Reversing Trade Deficit
• Trade Unions in France and Spain
• Employment Contract, Termination and Restraint to Trade
• Economic Development: International Trade Debate
• Fighters for the Abolition of the Slave Trade: Olaudah Equiano’s Characteristic
• World Trade Organisation in the Modern Global Economy
• International Trade Debate: Discussion of Nuances
• South Korea as a Country for US Investment and Trade
• Garment Trading Company: Motivational Climate and Its Improvement
• Globalization, the Sex Trade and HIV-AIDS
• Information Systems in Aurora International Trading
• A Damned Piece of Rascality: The Business of Slave Trading in Southern Appalachia
• Encourage Fair Trade in Scotland
• Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade
• North American Free Trade Agreement and Employment
• Global Mind Commodities Trading Company’s Strategic Marketing
• Multi-Fibres Agreement and Free Trade in Textile Sector
• Have the Trade Policies of President Donald Trump Increased the Competitiveness of the USA?
• Bhutan’s Trade and Exchange Rate Policies
• Trade Wars: Who Can Stand the Pain the Longest – China or the USA?
• International Business: Sino-American Trade War
• The Impact of the U.S.-Mexican Trade War
• North American Free Trade Agreement
• HIV Transmission and Syringe Trade-In System
• Trading Instructions: Primary Source Analysis
• Global Trade Slowdown and Protectionism

✍️ Trade Essay Topics for College

• International Trade Benefits for the US Economy
• Slave Trade and Workforce in American History
• The Demographic Changes of American Trade Unions
• Global Political Economy: World Trade Organization, World Bank, and European Union
• The World Trade Organization’s Controversies
• Labour Rights in International Trade
• Nicaragua’s Overreliance on International Trade
• Sugar and Cotton History and Present Trade
• China Trade Barriers and Their Economic Effects
• International Trade Theory: Hill’s Book Summary
• The Political Economy of International Trade
• Canada’s International Trade Policy
• International Business and Free Trade Agreement
• Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture
• Using Free and Secure Trade to Smuggle Drugs
• Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products
• Trade Openness and Economic Growth’s Relationship
• The United Kingdom’s Fair Trade Initiatives
• World Trade Center Disaster and Anti-Terrorism
• Foreign Investment and Trade Policy in the US
• Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture
• Insider Trading Situation in 2017
• Economics: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade System
• Carbon Tax and Cap-and-Trade System
• American Cuban Conundrum: Trade Relations
• Gulf States, International Trade and Security
• Economic Interdependence Theory and Future of Trade
• China-Africa Trade and Political Relations
• United Kingdom Trade Union Congress Mobilization
• Trade Mark Protection in the United States Law
• Tradable Permit Schemes: Cap and Trade
• New France’s and the North American’ Fur Trade
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: Development and Effects
• Free Trade as a New Phenomenon in International Trade
• Denmark’s Savings and Trade Balance
• Climate Change and International Trade
• World Trade Organization and Doha Declaration
• Gardena Flowers and Plants Trading Company Analysis
• Defending Slavery: Termination of Slavery and Slave Trade in South America
• US International Trade and Economic Nationalism
• What Are the Differences Between American and European Trade Unions?
• What Is the Importance of a Surplus Trade Balance?
• Does the World Trade Organization Hinder Economic Growth in Developing Countries?
• Does Trade With Low-Wage Countries Cause a Trade Deficit in the High-Wage Country?
• What Are the Differences Between Free Trade and Protectionism?
• Are Trade Unions Necessary in the Present Context?
• What Are International Trade Law Limitations and Benefits?
• What Are the Gains From Trade and the Implications for Trade Negotiations?
• Why the Theory of Comparative Advantage Is the Basis for International Trade?
• Does Trade With Low-Wage Countries Hurt American Workers?
• What Are the Objectives of Trade Union?
• Why Does Canada Have Inter-Provincial Trade Issues?
• Why Is the Usa So Rich if Its Trade Balance Is Negative?
• Why Was France Warning the UK for Bitter Trade Negotiations?
• Why Does the UK Have Such Restrictive Trade Union Laws?
• Why Doesn’t the Us or UK Devalue Its Currency to Solve Its Trade Balance Problems?
• What Is the Difference Between Trade Associations and Labor Unions?
• What Is the Significance of GATT in International Trade Law?
• What Countries Have Lax Insider Trade Law Enforcement?
• Do International Trade Laws Apply in France?
• Why Does the Trade Union Movement, Overall, in Australia, Support the Labor Party?
• Why Many LEDCs Struggle to Increase Their Balance of Trade?
• Was Michel Barnier the Wrong Man to Handle the EU’s Trade Negotiations With the UK?
• Why Does the Democratic Party Wish for Trump to Fail in Trade Issues?
• What Are the Trade Issues of China in the USA Market?

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/trade-essay-topics/

"257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/trade-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics'. 9 September.

1. StudyCorgi . "257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/trade-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/trade-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "257 Trade Essay Topics for Students & Trade Project Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/trade-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Trade were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 9, 2024 .

• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Geography & Travel
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts

• Introduction

Historical overview

• The theory of international trade
• State interference in international trade
• Contemporary trade policies
• Patterns of trade

international trade

international trade , economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets and clothing; capital goods, such as machinery; and raw materials and food. Other transactions involve services, such as travel services and payments for foreign patents ( see service industry ). International trade transactions are facilitated by international financial payments, in which the private banking system and the central banks of the trading nations play important roles.

International trade and the accompanying financial transactions are generally conducted for the purpose of providing a nation with commodities it lacks in exchange for those that it produces in abundance; such transactions, functioning with other economic policies, tend to improve a nation’s standard of living . Much of the modern history of international relations concerns efforts to promote freer trade between nations. This article provides a historical overview of the structure of international trade and of the leading institutions that were developed to promote such trade.

The barter of goods or services among different peoples is an age-old practice, probably as old as human history. International trade, however, refers specifically to an exchange between members of different nations , and accounts and explanations of such trade begin (despite fragmentary earlier discussion) only with the rise of the modern nation-state at the close of the European Middle Ages. As political thinkers and philosophers began to examine the nature and function of the nation, trade with other countries became a particular topic of their inquiry. It is, accordingly, no surprise to find one of the earliest attempts to describe the function of international trade within that highly nationalistic body of thought now known as mercantilism .

Mercantilism

Mercantilist analysis, which reached the peak of its influence upon European thought in the 16th and 17th centuries, focused directly upon the welfare of the nation. It insisted that the acquisition of wealth, particularly wealth in the form of gold , was of paramount importance for national policy. Mercantilists took the virtues of gold almost as an article of faith; consequently, they never sought to explain adequately why the pursuit of gold deserved such a high priority in their economic plans.

Mercantilism was based on the conviction that national interests are inevitably in conflict—that one nation can increase its trade only at the expense of other nations. Thus, governments were led to impose price and wage controls, foster national industries, promote exports of finished goods and imports of raw materials, while at the same time limiting the exports of raw materials and the imports of finished goods. The state endeavoured to provide its citizens with a monopoly of the resources and trade outlets of its colonies.

The trade policy dictated by mercantilist philosophy was accordingly simple: encourage exports, discourage imports, and take the proceeds of the resulting export surplus in gold. Mercantilists’ ideas often were intellectually shallow, and indeed their trade policy may have been little more than a rationalization of the interests of a rising merchant class that wanted wider markets—hence the emphasis on expanding exports—coupled with protection against competition in the form of imported goods.

A typical illustration of the mercantilist spirit is the English Navigation Act of 1651, which reserved for the home country the right to trade with its colonies and prohibited the import of goods of non-European origin unless transported in ships flying the English flag. This law lingered until 1849. A similar policy was followed in France.

A strong reaction against mercantilist attitudes began to take shape toward the middle of the 18th century. In France, the economists known as Physiocrats demanded liberty of production and trade . In England, economist Adam Smith demonstrated in his book The Wealth of Nations (1776) the advantages of removing trade restrictions. Economists and businessmen voiced their opposition to excessively high and often prohibitive customs duties and urged the negotiation of trade agreements with foreign powers. This change in attitudes led to the signing of a number of agreements embodying the new liberal ideas about trade, among them the Anglo-French Treaty of 1786, which ended what had been an economic war between the two countries.

After Adam Smith, the basic tenets of mercantilism were no longer considered defensible. This did not, however, mean that nations abandoned all mercantilist policies. Restrictive economic policies were now justified by the claim that, up to a certain point, the government should keep foreign merchandise off the domestic market in order to shelter national production from outside competition. To this end, customs levies were introduced in increasing number, replacing outright bans on imports, which became less and less frequent.

In the middle of the 19th century, a protective customs policy effectively sheltered many national economies from outside competition. The French tariff of 1860, for example, charged extremely high rates on British products: 60 percent on pig iron; 40 to 50 percent on machinery; and 600 to 800 percent on woolen blankets. Transport costs between the two countries provided further protection.

A triumph for liberal ideas was the Anglo-French trade agreement of 1860 , which provided that French protective duties were to be reduced to a maximum of 25 percent within five years, with free entry of all French products except wines into Britain. This agreement was followed by other European trade pacts.

Resurgence of protectionism

A reaction in favour of protection spread throughout the Western world in the latter part of the 19th century. Germany adopted a systematically protectionist policy and was soon followed by most other nations. Shortly after 1860, during the Civil War , the United States raised its duties sharply; the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 was ultraprotectionist. The United Kingdom was the only country to remain faithful to the principles of free trade .

But the protectionism of the last quarter of the 19th century was mild by comparison with the mercantilist policies that had been common in the 17th century and were to be revived between the two world wars. Extensive economic liberty prevailed by 1913. Quantitative restrictions were unheard of, and customs duties were low and stable. Currencies were freely convertible into gold, which in effect was a common international money . Balance-of-payments problems were few. People who wished to settle and work in a country could go where they wished with few restrictions; they could open businesses, enter trade, or export capital freely. Equal opportunity to compete was the general rule, the sole exception being the existence of limited customs preferences between certain countries, most usually between a home country and its colonies. Trade was freer throughout the Western world in 1913 than it was in Europe in 1970.

627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best trade topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on trade, 📌 simple & easy trade essay titles, 🎓 trade writing prompts, 🥇 most interesting trade topics to write about, 💡 interesting topics to write about trade, ❓ trade essay questions.

• Fair Trade Essay Besides, fair trade emphasizes the alteration of various operations and policies of conventional trade to promote equity in the business. It is essential to the note that the farmer is a member of the cooperative […]
• British Trading Giant Tesco: Impact of Globalization That is why the research work presented to your attention is the study of one of the greatest companies dealing with the retail trade in the world British trading giant Tesco.
• Free Trade vs. Protectionism The root cause of the problem is the desire for local industries to be protected from an influx of cheap foreign imports.
• History of Air Transportation and International Trade The dynamic growth of airfreight was attributed to increase in tonnages and a sharp increase of the average distances traveled by air.
• Parsons and Weber: Tools and Trade Parsons’ contributions to social theories and social actions include his analysis of social institutions, outlining systemic theory into sociology, description of the voluntaristic theory of action and analysis of anti-Semitism, fascism and aggression as the […]
• Protectionism in International Trade Protectionism refers to policy agendas, which aim to increase the number of tariffs and subsidies that governments use to prevent or minimise trades or exploitation that result from free trade in the international market.
• Absolute Advantage Theory in the Trading Process The theory was proposed by Adam Smith, and according to the way it was described in the 18th century, the very notion of absolute advantage, as opposed to the modern concept of comparative advantage, suggested […]
• International Trade and Logistics of Ford Motor Company It is renowned for its pioneering role in Just in Time logistics; however, the model has brought a lot of challenges that the organisation needed to deal with in order to stay competitive.
• Firm-Based Trade Theories Here, Porter stated that the competitiveness of a given country in a specific industry was based on the capacity of that country to innovation and improvement in the given industry.
• ‘Human Resources Management’ and ‘Trade Unions’ Conventionally, the roles of trade unions have been to safeguard jobs and to protect the real earning of workers, provide them security and better working conditions and to struggle against mistreatment and uncertainty in order […]
• Starbucks Company’s Trade Theories The firm was the first to present a revolutionary approach to coffee consumption in the US. According to the theory, Starbucks operates in a competitive and profitable industry.
• Intellectual Property: Trade Marks Problem According to the American Bar Association, formation of this agency marked the beginning of actual protection of intellectual property by the law.
• The Hudson’s Bay Company and the Northwest Fur Trade The firm was established as a joint stock with the trading of the stock of the firm requiring the consent of the governor and the committee.
• The Silk Road Trade and Its History The use of camel transportation increased the viability of the Silk Road. The movement of people and goods along the Silk Road benefited the Roman and Han empires.
• The Benefits and Disadvantages of Free Trade Economic integration is a major challenge to the national fiscal policies, the existence of some economies without straining and the entry of new members in the euro zone.
• The Film “World Trade Center” The main actor of the film works at the Port Authority, where he’s working day began when the initial attack on the World Trade Center buildings referred to us as the Twin Tower building, started.
• The Importance of Air Transport to Global Trade The main purpose of this essay is to describe the importance of air transport in the global trading. It is because of air transport that goods can be transported from one part of the globe […]
• Economic Policies: United Arab Emirates and World Trade Organisation The binding power of the minimum wage law Regardless of the legitimacy of the law on minimum wage, it is not binding to certain industries and occupations.
• Free Trade: “Bad Samaritans” by Chang Later, the author talks about the real history of globalization, in which he mentions the Korean War and its effects on the two economies.
• The London Whale’s Trading Strategy and Failure This unusual market behavior was traced to the investment behaviors of Iksil who was heading the credit department at the JPMorgan Company.
• The Number 1 General Trading: Company Analysis The Number 1 General Trading is an SME organization of the UAE and the political factors of the country are very influential agenda for the company to conduct its business smoothly in this territory.
• The Achievements of World Trade Organization The defending country is not able to influence the formation of the panel or prolong the duration of the case, because WTO has a time frame within which to determine any dispute.
• Javan Rhinos: Wildlife Trading of Endangered Animals Out of the five rhino species, Javan rhinoceros is the most threatened species despite being in the ecosystem for millions of years, playing a crucial role in shaping the landscape by its feeding style.
• How Does Foreign Trade Impact on The US Economy? Trade between the United States and the rest of the world has played a significant role in the growth and development of the US economy over the past years.
• International Trade in Nigeria The structural adjustment programs introduced by the World Bank in Nigeria’s agricultural sector have partly contributed to the reduction in production in the industry.
• Fair Enough? Big Business Embraces Fair Trade To the producer, fair trade compromises the quality since the current standards fail to specify criteria to determine quality of products.
• The Use of Incoterms in International Trade Incoterms regulates several issues related to the distribution of costs during the transportation of goods, determining the transfer of risks from the seller to the buyer, and fixing the time of goods delivery.
• Trade Marks Act 1994 and Registration of Shapes The essay is a critical analysis of when a shape qualifies to be registered as a trademark under the Trade Marks Act 1994.
• Water Policy: The Impacts of Water Trading The introduction of water policy according to a study by Edwards and Cheers limits the water rights of the farmers in Kerang immensely contributing to the deteriorating agricultural prospects in this region.
• International Trade: Haiti’ Advantages and Disadvantages A country is considered to have a comparative advantage in the production of a certain commodity if it is capable of producing it at a relatively cheaper cost than other countries. From the table above, […]
• Organ Trade: Legal Position and Crime The rise in demand for organs for transplant and the scarcity of organs to transplant have led to the rise of the organ trade with healthy persons putting up their organs for sale due to […]
• The Far East Trading Company Financial Reporting The advantage of maintaining the Swedish organizational culture in the company’s top management is that it facilitates the continuity of effective financial strategies in each department, thus fostering the financial foundations of the company over […]
• Containerisation, International Transportation and Trade Donovan reports that before the introduction of containerisation, moving goods across oceans cost about 15% of the retail value of the goods leading to a significant increment in the cost that consumers paid.
• When the Best Price Is Not the Fair Trade Price: Starbucks The purpose of the fair trade practices is to improve the welfare of the farmers by increasing their income. It is the moral and legal right for Starbucks to act in a way that it […]
• The Concepts of Free and Fair Trade Therefore, free trade allows the invisible hand of the market to take control of the situation. Milk and milk products are not among the products that are traded fairly in most countries of the world.
• Trading on the Stock Markets In the United States, the biggest stock market, basing on the market capitalization, is the NYSE “New York Stock Exchange”. This stock exchange, being the only major stock exchange in the country, used to operate […]
• Risk Analysis of Tracking Adults at Trade Shows Firms are now using advanced data management systems to improve the visibility of events during trade fairs to boost their growth rate and profitability.
• The Trade Commission’s Organization and Management This is evidenced in the manner in which he mishandles the relocation to the new commercial building. From the facts of this case, the problems facing the Trade Commission all emanate from Mr Clark as […]
• Trade and Legal Risks to Businesses in the UAE In the UAE, the use of agents raises a legal risk because foreign firms have to use local agents to sell goods and services directly to the people.
• Canada and Colombia’ Coffee Trade Consequently, countries that produce the commodity founded the Association of Coffee Producing Country to augment the International Coffee Organization. The perfect conditions for the growth of the variety in the country are found between 1200-1800 […]
• China & India: Theories of International Trade The overpopulation in the country and the lack of development in the rural area contributed to the increase in migration to cities.
• North American Free Trade It has also created special economic trade relationships within the three countries, for instance, the nonimmigrant NAFTA Professional visa allows citizens of Canada and Mexico to work in the US.
• Pros and Cons of International Trade In conclusion, it is worth emphasizing that the phenomenon of international trade and the exchange of goods is of profound importance for the economies of countries.
• Volkswagen Company’s Risk-Return Trade-Offs The analysis of absolute changes in the stock prices of the company demonstrates that it was highly volatile during the past year. In particular, the minimum price of Volkswagen’s stock was $154.
• International Economics: Neoclassical Theory of Trade Customers give tax to the government and profits to the firm. The government on the other hand, offers law and order to the firm and customers.
• Walmart and North American Free Trade Agreement In addition to this, the Agreement that relied on free trade was more beneficial for Walmart because of the company’s strong competitive advantage of a unique distribution system and bargaining power.
• Antitrust and Unfair Trade Practices: The Dynamic Corporate Environment One of the beneficiaries would be the government and the economy because if trade was to thrive, then the government could rake in revenue in form of taxes while the society would benefit if the […]
• Fair Trade as an Alternative to Free Trade The failure of the conventional trade system has forced people to reconsider the assumption that free trade is the best way to create wealth and benefit all of humanity.
• Martha Stewart’s Insider Trading Scandal This is due to the fact that the company significantly depended on the name as well as the image of Martha Stewart, and thus has a strong association with Martha Stewart.
• The US-Brazil Ethanol Tariff Trade Dispute Brazil has had successfully used the dispute settlement mechanisms of the WTO in its previous trade disputes with the United States and the present impasse over the ethanol import tariff is being viewed by the […]
• World Trade Organization: Facilitating Global Trade Amidst Challenges The WTO is an entity that is focused on harmonizing free trade across the world. The essay will highlight the initial goals of the organization as well as areas where it has had a positive impact.
• Critiquing WTO’s Treatment of Developing Countries The WTO has made significant efforts to establish a multilateral system of trade. However, this move has attracted anti-WTO protests among players in the global community.
• Shipping Container: The Transportation and Trading Industry Despite the adverse effects associated with shipping, it is important to recognize the benefits it brings and work towards finding ways to minimize its impact on the environment and communities.
• Online Illegal Drug Trading and Response to It With the rise of the global economy and the accessibility of the internet, it is now possible to build a solid and safe framework for counterfeit activities.
• The Heckscher-Ohlin Model’s Impact on Global Trade Patterns Moreover, the model is based on the assumption that nations around the globe share similar production technologies, the comparative advantages being differences in quantities and economization of production factors.
• Insider Trading SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) Violations In essence, the term refers to the practice of trading the stocks of a public company while possessing exclusive information about said stock.
• African Slave Trade and Its Components In the second component of slave trade, slaves were transported to West Indies from Africa they were sold at a profit.
• How the Africans Perceived the Transatlantic Slave Trade The theme of the development of Africa by Europeans is synonymous with the problem of the slave trade, and the colonialists took an active part in it.
• The Trade Relationship between Rising Action Bakery and Power Flour, LLC These participants will be interested in the benefits of acquiring Joe’s product, the price, the integration of supply into their chains, and the quality of the product.
• Women in the Plumbing Trade As a result, women might have several advantages in the hiring process in companies that want to restore the gender balance in the plumbing industry.
• Trade Relations Between Turkey and Russia The close economic ties between Turkey and Russia have benefited the Western Nations and the growth and development of the local economies of the two nations.
• Trade Policies for Developing Nations (Hungary) According to Vattai, Hungary is expected to experience a labor shortage due to the aging working population and the mismatch of skills in jobs.
• International Trade Systems: JBS S.A. Deep Dive Instead, JBS has a relatively standardized, high-quality approach to its products, maximizing the effects of economies of scale and aggressive pricing in global markets, which it is able to achieve by buying out or undercutting […]
• The Key Elements of the Slave Trade in Africa Before and throughout the transatlantic slave trade, slavery was a common practice in many West and Central African civilizations. This led to brutality and terror against enslaved people, which was unheard of in earlier times.
• International Trading Organizations: Impact on Growth of International Brands An example of such an organization is the is the World Trade Organization that was established specifically to monitor the international trade with the goal of liberalizing it. The fees that have to be paid […]
• Using Mathematics in Trading Metrics Strictly speaking, to get the derivative for a function, such as a time series, one needs to study the limit of the increment of that function to the increment of time, as shown in the […]
• COVID-19 Pandemic’s Impact on World Trade According to Azevedo, the World Trade Organization is developing strategic responses to mitigate the risks of COVID-19 on the economy, jobs, and people’s well-being.
• Aspects of Euro Trade Currency One of the reasons for selecting the Euro currency is that it is the second most purchased currency on the forex market after the USD and is also a key worldwide reserve currency.
• Wistron vs. Luxshare: US-China Trade War In that regard, Lin recognized an opportunity to advance iPhone production operations to India in a bid to shun the trade war.
• China’s Internal Trade Policy and Legal Obligations The aftermath of World War II attributed to the justification of communism and the spread across the highly affected nations globally and a trickle-down effect to the U.
• The “Hats and the Fur Trade” Article by J. F. Crean In order to support their analysis, the author refers to a 1765 French book by M.l’Abbe Nollet, in which the writer explores “the sources of raw materials, the methods of production, and the history of […]
• Shaping the Future of Trade and Economic Interdependence The different countries according to the World Economic Forum believe that the public and the private corporation are appreciating the global community.
• Trump’s Trade Dump: Agreement With China According to detractors, it is the sort of management trade policy that the U.S.has long opposed, particularly about China and its economic control.
• International Business: Estimating the Gains From Trade for America Research produced by the Institute for International Economics attempted to evaluate the benefits of free trade to the American economy. As such, according to the study, this issue is to be counterbalanced by more vigorous […]
• Chemical (Oil) Trading Among Countries This can lead to a decrease in the amount of capital available to the country, which can in turn lead to a decrease in economic growth.
• Children’s Sexual Exploitation, Trafficking, and Women Trading in the Modern World One of the main theses of the girl is that the place of birth of a child and his growing up really predetermines the risk of sexual abuse.
• Global Sourcing and International Trade On the other hand, the profitability paradox has adversely affected the reduction in profits due to the overstock of merchandise and the increased retail space development.
• Spoofing and Manipulative Trading Spoofing is the scheme of deceiving others on the market regarding the price and making them believe that the price is higher or lower.
• Overconfidence in the Trading Activity Context The scale of such decisions may vary according to the influence of the decision on a person’s life and emotional involvement.
• The Federal Trade Commission and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Five commissioners lead the FTC, which is divided into agencies such as the Bureau of Competition and the Bureau of Consumer Protection.
• Importance of Free Trade Agreements The essence of bilateral agreements is also to increase trade between countries, but the key feature is the presence of only two participants.
• Trade Secret and How It Differs From Trademark The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.
• How Global Trade Has Enriched Cultures The author describes how the rulers of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal dynasties contributed to the cultural development of their countries.
• The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade In Western Africa The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300 1589 is a book by Toby Green that examines conditions in Iberia and West Africa in the 14th and 15th centuries that set the […]
• Economic, Productivity Growth, and Free Trade The article by Saleem et al.is closely connected to the topic of factors contributing to productivity growth as researchers explored the impact of innovation and total factor productivity in Pakistan’s economic environment.
• Global Trade in Europe and North America Therefore, the differences in geography contribute to the choice of the transportation systems and determine the speed of the local and global trade operations.
• Trans-Atlantic African Slave Trade When Portuguese sailors cruised in West Africa in the 1440s to hunt for wealth, spices, and friends in contrast to Muslims and the Ottoman Empire, the one who exacts Mediterranean Sea trade, the initial stages […]
• British Slave Trade and Role of Native Americans 3 Although the resistance that Native Americans demonstrated was beyond impressive and inspirational, the strategic advantage of the British colonists defined the outcome, leading to a spike in the British slave trade and the further […]
• International Trading in the Global Economy Globalization has prompted an expanding geospatial division of creation and utilization and, as a result, an uncommon removal of ecological and social effects through worldwide exchange. An enormous extent of all worldwide effects can be […]
• Ethics in the News: Issue of “Insider Trading” Furthermore, the utilitarian emphasis on the tenet of “maximum overall happiness”, and the Kantian “in principle right or wrong” are advanced as the core consideration in making the right decision in ethical dilemmas.
• Atlantic Slave Trade: Factual Information The Atlantic slave trade impacted the creation of the colonies in the Americas as the enslaved people were used as the main labor force.
• Free Trade in the Global Context To correct its image in the eyes of other developed countries and correct the past mistakes, the United States decided to implement the concept of free trade for the benefit of all market participants.
• West African Maritime Trade and Globalization Namely, the first half of the book comments on the language and vocabulary development, the reclaiming of myths in the post-colonial society and the Nigerian ethnicity.
• The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the Federal Trade Commission The two organizations are essential for the economy of the United States and ensuring that merchants observe the rights of consumers.
• The Middle Passage in the History of American Slave Trade In the long term, the Middle Passage accounted for a significant number of Africans transported to North America, increasing the productivity of various businesses and further elevating the interest in the slave trade.
• Case Activity: a Plan for Fair Trade Mojo Sunshine Cafe requires a comprehensive public relations plan to create brand awareness to the prospective customers and increase the number of walk-in businesses at the local stores within college towns.
• Current Issues in Trade Development Trade is the exchange capital, goods and services across borders or territories. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product(GDP).
• Anthropologist James Deetz and the Tobacco Trade He noticed that there was a variation in the size of the bore stems and thought to himself that maybe there is a correlation between the bore stem size to the year it was created […]
• Exchange-Rate System, International Trade and Currency Crises In the future market contracting parties agree to future exchanges of currencies and set applicable exchange rates in advance.
• Free-Trade Policies and Poverty Level in Bangladesh The purpose of this paper is to examine the way in which the end of the quota system and introduction of a free-trade system for the garment industry in Bangladesh has impacted on poverty in […]
• Trends in World Trade and Global Marketing Secondly, it is economic integration and free trade agreements formed by the foundation of the European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, and the Eurasian Economic Community.
• Congressional Laws and Trading in Different States Wayfair, Inc.in which the prosecutor required out-of-state sellers to remit and also take the sales tax the same way as businesses with the same physical presence in the state.
• Slave Trade in America Analysis The abolition of slavery in American began during the revolutionary era, which led to the Civil war and the proclamation of Emancipation.
• Tariff Changes After Brexit in China-UK Trade Key areas of research that are relevant to this investigation include an investigation of tools and techniques associated with developmental research that applies to the research problem, defining the role of developmental research in understanding […]
• The Impacts of Regional Integration on Trade and Human Migrations in Central Africa: CEMAC Regional integration can be considered a method by which states enter into a bilateral and multilateral agreement to fulfill a common purpose.
• Trade Show as Expansion Tool in Biotechnology Industry The biotechnology sector is currently developing rapidly, and the demand for innovative products in this area is growing, which is especially relevant for the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
• The Plant Fungi Partnership — Benefits of Trade Aside from the direct benefits of nutrient exchange, the symbiosis of mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots demonstrates several indirect benefits.
• Free Trade Under Fire by Douglas Irwin Painting Review In the first part, the husband comes home with no food, money and poorly dressed as there are no opportunities to earn due to the dominance of free trade.
• Fair Trade Helping Coffee Growers This paper will discuss the symptoms and the precursors presented in the case and attempt to offer some recommendations. On the other hand, the movement threatens those not participating in it and only partially address […]
• Trade-Based Money Laundering The purpose of this paper is to research the subject of trade-based money laundering, its impact on global scene and export controls, identify types of trade finance techniques used to launder illegal money, and provide […]
• The Fair Trade System, the Socio-Economic Movement The Central Okanagan Foundation is a community foundation and, as a public foundation, it is devoted to improving people’s lives in the Central Okanagan.
• Position of “History of the Emirates: Trade” Film The film presents a detailed account of the Emirates with a specific focus on trade and the historical forces that shaped the country.
• Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership Regulatory coherence – The difference in EU and US regulations jeopardized trade, and it needed to be addressed sooner. Therefore, the pact was expected to apply to the TTIP such that when a commodity meets […]
• Globalization. World Trade Organization This reduction in the size of the globe and increase in communication between the nations of the world is what I would call ‘globalization’.
• Valuation of Securities and Stock Trading The discussion on the asset allocation problem focuses on locating the minimum variance portfolio on the efficient frontier of the two assets. At the point of the minimum variance portfolio, the weight of the two […]
• Galleon Group’s Insider Trading Therefore, in this case, one can speak about complete irresponsibility and unwillingness to put oneself in the position of other people.
• Corporate Law: Antique Trade in Essex How can they minimize the risk to the assets to be transferred to the company should the business fail? What provisions should be included in the articles of association to ensure that Loraine and Brenda […]
• Trade-Based Money Laundering and Its Attractiveness The proliferation of the trade-based money laundering is directly related to the growing complexity of international trade systems, where new risks and vulnerabilities emerge and are seen as favorable among terrorist organizations seeking for the […]
• Long-Distance Trade and Western Sudanese Politics Thus, the trade routes acted as major contributors to the rise of the Ghana and Songhai kingdoms, making them dominant. The external trade in the Sahel and internal riverine trade along the Niger were sources […]
• Trading in Shares by Listing Trading in shares is regenerative in that once a company is listed in the stock market and made an entrance through an IPO-initial public offer, the shares would stay in the market circulating for as […]
• Contract and Agency Law: Restraint of Trade A typical restraint of trade clause on an employment contract will be: The employee agrees that he or she will not, after the termination of the employment contract with the employer, either directly or indirectly, […]
• The Impact of Trade Policy on Unemployment According to Dutt, Mitra, and Ranjan, there is a strong link between trade and unemployment, and, therefore, adaptations of various trade policies are bound to impact unemployment indirectly. Dutt, Mitra, and Ranjan note that there […]
• Trade Between USA and Taiwan The trend in the exchange rate of the US dollar against the Taiwanese dollar has been characterized by major fluctuations as shown in the graph below. 2100 against the US dollar and in the middle […]
• Benefits of Trade Liberalization Measures on Automobile Industry The US government has also implemented the Clean Air Act whose objective is to minimize the emission of greenhouse gases by the automotive industry. Adoption of such policies is likely to promote the growth of […]
• Illegal Trade at Stock Markets Given the experience of Neto in the stock market, he ought to have known that insider trading is illegal. Consequently, Neto should not have given out information of the customer knowing that the information was […]
• My Experiences of Trading in Dubai Financial Market This is possible in the realms of data entry, fluctuations in the value of traded securities, and other relevant provisions attainable in the process.
• China’s Accession to the World Trade Organization Compared to the decade before the accession to the WTO, the share of labor-intensive agricultural products in China’s total agricultural exports in the period of 2002 to 2005 increased by 4.
• Winnie Truong’s Solo Trade Fair: An Art Exhibition The characters in the drawing have a human feature; this is more-less a combination of the prehistoric and modern. Nevertheless, the gallery is augmented by modern digital information devices and designed to admit a variety […]
• Financing International Trade This paper investigates two main issues in exporting trade: the first is a probable explanation of the reason why an exporter would provide financing for an importer and whether there exists much risk in such […]
• Trade Groups Identifies Medical Device Makers Passing on Federal Tax If higher pricing is illegal in the context of the new taxation policy for all organizations and importers of medical devices, it implies that they need to look for alternative ways of recovering the costs.
• On the Conclusion of Trade Contracts This implies that one party should be willing to give the contract and the other party should be ready to take the contract.
• Introducing Automated Trading Systems: The Possible Outcomes in Saudi Arabia One of the most important methods that are increasingly being applied is the use of technology to update and automate trading systems, with an aim of taking the advantage of the existing and dynamic state […]
• Legal Context of Fashion and Design: Trade Dress This is one of the strategies that can often be adopted by designers to defend their rights in court. This is one of the points that can be made.
• Long-Distance Trade In Venice: 1500-1914 Being one of the most beautiful cities in the world that attracts the attention of a number of tourists, Venice is also considered as one of the main Italian cities the development of which defines […]
• Foreign Exchange Currency Trading During the January 24 to January 28, 2011 trading week, the bullish pressure of the Euro, which was enhanced by the investors’ confidence that the Euro Zone would tackle its debt crisis and Germany’s pledge […]
• Boilover: Fire Aspects of the World Trade Center Terrorist Attacks Analysis These includes the intensity of the incident heat on the burning object, the composition of the burning fire, the ability of air that supports combustion to reach the burning fire, the mass of the burning […]
• Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights for Developing States This is in relation to pharmaceutical drugs and the flow of information to such countries. South Africa is a developing nation that has had a share of setbacks in implementing the TRIPS agreement.
• Sex Trade in South Korea Around US Military Bases According to reports released in 2003 by the Korean Institute of Criminology and the Korean Feminist Association, hundreds of thousands of women in the country are involved in the sex trade.
• Japanese Trade Law: A Strategic Location in the World in Which to Invest the Business Bureaucracy is rampant in Japan and there is a dense network of business regulations and procedures in Japan, many of these business regulations and procedures that are found in Japan, in other places procedures and […]
• General Agreements on Trade Services (GATS) and International Issues Within the context of healthcare provision, the foreign commercial presence defines the supply of medical services to another country through a commercial presence.
• Illegal Tobacco Trade in Germany However, the legal aspects associated with it and the diverse sanctions to control the use of the product are what have given birth to the illegal aspect of it.
• The Role of the Federal Trade Commission IPAMG is a firm that is charged with the role of passing information about financial planning and investment. This is unfair competition and it lead to a penalty for the IPAMG.
• Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading 2008 This paper assesses the extent to which the implementation of the requirements of the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive by Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 has resulted in the general duty for fair trade.[3] […]
• Insider Trading Effects on Enterprises The price that is quoted as the asking price for the securities is inclusive of the premium for the immediate buyers of the securities. Open capital refers to a concept where there is complete liberalization […]
• The Problem of Illegal Drug Trade One of the best approaches is the establishment of community justice programs that seek to identify the root cause of the problem and deal with it in the most appropriate way.
• “The Carbon Trading Truth: It Will Cost Jobs” by Pascoe The author is, however, doubting the seriousness of the planned carbon reduction since no one in Australia has proposed serious green gas reduction which would in effect assuring everybody not to worry yet about the […]
• Slave Trade as Part of Atlantic Commerce However, from the beginning of the establishment of the Atlantic Trade and throughout its existence, the Africans were the voluntary sellers of their people.
• Cross-Cultural Trade’s Contribution to the American History The tribes with the newest and the most technologically advanced iron tools contributed to diminishing the other tribes’ population and minimizing local social and cultural diversity.
• Implications of the US-China Trade War on Luxembourg and Saudi Arabia Nevertheless, the warring countries’ major trade partners, as is the case with Luxembourg and Saudi Arabia, are equally exposed to the risk of unintended implications because of the delicate nature of global supply and revenue […]
• The Colonial Trade and Slave Entrepreneurship The significance of the Akan Drum can be examined in the political and economic context of the colonisation, slave trade and slavery in the Americas.
• International Trade Simulation Assignment The present paper analyzes the effects of tariffs imposed on Chinese manufactures of tires, steel, and aluminum in the US. The idea behind the new policy was to protect the jobs of tire manufacturers in […]
• Contemporary Systematic Trading Industry The contemporary sphere of systematic trading is a dynamic environment that is influenced by emerging trends in the financial industry and responds to changes in the political, economic, and social sectors.
• Political Risk Management in Foreign Trade Political risks in foreign trade refers to factors that are politically instigated by governments of various trading nations that hinder trading, affect running of business or make investing in these countries difficult or risky.
• International Trade: Cooperation or Hegemony It should be stated from the outset that greater openness, in the true sense of a state, succeeds in exposing the domestic economy and social stability of a state to negative factors in the global […]
• Canada-China Trade Relations and Agreements Additionally, education is cited as one of the major areas that form the pillars of economic cooperation between Canada and China. In the case of China and Canada, the trade is currently skewed in favor […]
• Transatlantic Slave Trade and Colonial Chesapeake Slavery Most of the West African slaves worked across the Chesapeake plantation. This paper will explore the various conditions and adaptations that the African slaves acquired while working in the Chesapeake plantation.
• Slave Trade History: “The Life of Olaudah Equiano” Many of the Africans, whom the white people had as slaves, were stolen from their families and were cruelly treated during the transportation.
• The World Trade Supranational Organization The organization certifies international trade agreements and policies, which supervise the trade of services, goods, and intellectual property. First, the candidate country presents an application to the WTO working committee comprising of its economic and […]
• Trade Shows and Regional Economic Environment The increase in the number of trade fairs and exhibitions shows the importance of these activities in improving the activities of various sectors.
• Dollar Depreciation and Trade Deficit in the USA
• The Trade in Data as Business
• Trading Situation of American and Belgian Traders
• Trade Protectionism in the US, Europe, and the UAE
• Congress of South African Trade Unions and Its Policies in 1985-1994
• The Influence of Internet Trade on Electronics Buying Behaviour
• Global Trade Negotiations and It’s Importance in Business
• Martha Stewart: An Accusation of Insider Trading
• Trade Restrictions on Earths Stones
• China and Africa: International Trade
• Globalization in Eastern Europe: Foreign Investments and International Trade
• Confrontation Between Big Companies and Free Trade
• Pros and Cons of Trade Agreements
• The Future of New Zealand Trade Unions
• Free Trade and Canada’s Agreements
• The European Communities and Free Trade Economy
• Employee’s Duties and Restraint of Trade
• The United States-Australia Trade Relationship
• India and Pan-Asian Trade Agreement
• India for Pan-Asian Trade Agreement
• The International Trading System: The Main Principles
• Understanding the Evolution of Trade Deficits
• Columbian Exchange, Age of Discovery and Atlantic Slave Trade
• The Chicago Board of Trade
• Ethics and Insider Trading: Mebel Doran & Co.
• Should World Trade Organization Be Reformed?
• US Trading Process Analysis
• Has ‘Free Trade’ as a Matter of Public Policy Undermined the Role of the Canadian State?
• WTO’s Role of Ensuring Smooth, Predictable and Free Flow of Trade
• International Trade Regulations of Canada
• Slave Trade and Rise of Capitalism
• Environmental Policies and Trade Liberation
• International Trade: Threats and Openings for Workers
• Big Drive Auto: Foreign Trade
• Trade Barriers Assessment in Canada
• Problem-Analysis of Counterfeit Trade
• Barriers in the Canadian Trade System
• Import and Export in International Trade Process
• PricewaterhouseCoopers Firm’s International Trade Skills
• The Impact of Trade, Debt and Investment Policies on Russia Under the Presidency of Boris Yeltsin
• The Influence of Trade Union Organizations
• Hecksher-Ohlin Theory and Today’s World Trade
• Transportation Costs and Trade
• Slave Trade in Africa and Europe Before and After 1550
• Shell Transport and Trading Company: Overview
• Trading Problems in Developing Economies
• Pablo Escobar and Cocaine Trade in Colombia
• Capitalism: Competitional Free Trade
• Changes in World Trade Patterns of Developing Countries
• Conflict Management Challenges in Trade Unions
• Trade Opportunity for Amdocs Company in BRIC Countries
• Korea: General Information, Economic and Trade
• American Seaports’ Importance to Global Trade
• Derivatives Trading and Hedging
• International Trade of Peterson Advocates in Australia
• Impact of European Union Trade Policy on World Economy
• Neural Networks and Stocks Trading
• Gender and Trade as a Reflection of the Socio-Economic Development of Modern Society
• North American Free Trade Agreement: Achievements and Failures
• “Oil Price Surge Widens US Trade Gap” by Daniel Pimlott: Article Analysis
• Ideal Structure of the US International Trade Policy
• Influence of the GATS on International Trade in Health Services
• Role of Foreign Private Clinics and International Trade
• Global Health Policy and Trade Through World Health Organization
• Telemedicine: Evolution Today of This Form of Trade With Development of IT and E-Commerce
• Trade Unions and Their Effect on Employees Salaries
• Virtual Trading From End-to-End Websites
• Argentina’s International Trade: Themes and Issues in Modern Global Economy
• Globalisation and Corporate Responsibility in Trading
• Suggestions on How the World Trade Organization Could Rule in the Issue of Geographical Indications
• Trade Organizations in International Economic Law
• Chicago Board of Trade’s History and Operations
• The Economic Implication of America’s Trade Deficit
• Role of Trade Unions in Canadian Companies
• World Trade as the Adjustment Mechanism of Agriculture to Climate Change by Julia & Duchin
• Chicago Mercantile Exchange and Board of Trade Merger
• The Fomation and Development of Trade Unions
• Trade Agreements and Trans-Border Flows of Labor
• Supply Chain Management and Trading System Definition
• Sulfur Dioxide Market Trading Program
• Doha Round Trade Negotiations
• North American Free Trade Agreement and Its Dynamics
• Globalization Issues and Impact on Poverty and Free Trade
• Trademarks, Copyrights, Patents, and Trade Secrets
• Carbon Trading for Aviation and Regulations
• Insider Trading and Related Moral Problems
• Trade Policy for Businesses or Consumers?
• Bangladesh’s International Textile Trade
• Banana Dispute: World Trade Organization vs. European Union
• The United States and South Africa’s Trade Row
• Trade and Foreign Investment in China
• Illicit Drug Trade: Income Source for Developing States
• Shipping Trade and Finance Course and Experiences
• International Trade: Import Barriers and Tariff Systems
• Effects of Trade Liberalization in Latin America
• International Trade Impact on the Amazon Region
• Transatlantic Slave Trade
• Historical Significance of Dutch and English Trading Posts
• Free Trade and Economic Development in Kenya
• “Global Experience at Work” and “Light Rail Trade Show”
• Wood Trade and Microeconomics
• Impact of Cultural Differences in International Trade
• Value of International Trade
• Protectionism Role in the US Trade Policy
• Economic Analysis of Trade and Labor
• Trading Market’s Economic Analysis
• Small Business: Trade Contracts and Micro-Purchases
• E-Commerce and Its Effects on Business and Trade
• History of Trade Between Arabian Peninsula
• Argentina-Kenya International Trade in Agriculture
• International Trade and Migration and Their Benefits
• Countries’ Benefits from International Trade
• Algorithmic Trading and Event Studies in Finance
• Protectionism and Free Trade System
• Doha Round and Its Role for Trade Negotiations
• Anti-Corruption Efforts in Trading With China
• Chapters 7-9 of “International Trade” by Suranovic
• Australia’s Economic Growth and International Trade
• American-South Korean Trade Agreement
• Macroeconomic Concepts and International Trade Simulation
• Trade Patterns in the Wider World
• Women in Trade Unions in India
• Sex Trade of Women: Community-Based Intervention
• Trade and Policy: Main Aspects
• Sino-American Trade War in 2018
• Mortgage-Backed Securities and Derivatives Trading
• Brexit Trade and Investment Implications
• Opium Trade Morality From Political Perspective
• Opium Trade, Opium War and Its Morality in History
• Trump’s Trade Restrictions and International Mechanisms
• Shenzhen Pilot Carbon Emission Trading System in China
• Fair Trade, Its Factors and Economic Arguments
• Stochastic Oscillator Trading Method
• Free Trade and Global Economy
• Legalization of the Ivory Trade
• International Trade and Migration Gains
• The Australian Trade and Tariff Industry
• Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement: Trade and Economics
• Middle East Effect on Global Trade
• Southeast and International Trade in Asian History
• Free Trade Agreement in Malaysian Beef Industry
• Insider Trading, Earnings Quality and Accrual Mispricing
• The Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement
• Amazon Company’s International Trade
• Globalization and International Trade
• International Trade: Import and Export
• Trade With Cuba: Benefits and Drawbacks
• Starbucks Company’s Position on Fair Trade
• Concept of the Extra Credit in Trade
• Balance of Payment and the US Deficit Trade
• Mexican Trucking and Free Trade Agreement
• Turkey-Islamic State of Iraq and Syria Oil Trade
• North American Free Trade Agreement’s Influence
• Mexican Economy and North American Free Trade Agreement
• Old World Long-Distance Trade and Globalization
• European Union vs. North American Free Trade Zone
• The US, Canada and Mexico’s Free Trade Agreement
• Slave Trade’s Impact on the Black Experience
• Multi-Pak USA Inc.’s Trading Information
• Currency Fluctuations and International Trade
• India’s Economic Progress and Trade
• The Mongol Empire, Its Culture, Trade, Religion
• Thailand-US International Trade and Labor Laws
• Slave Trade in North America and Antony Johnson’s Story
• Investor Competence, Trading Frequency, and Home Bias
• Amcor Limited: Legal Aspect of International Trade
• Bitcoin and US-China Trade Relationship
• Trade Unions History and Development
• Slave Voyages and Trade Seasonality
• Intra-Industry Global Trade and Imperfect Market
• Environmental Factors in the Global Market Trade
• US vs. UAE Wrongful and Fraudulent Trading
• Bagby Copy Company’s Trade-Offs and Decisions
• The United Arab Emirates-Argentina Trade Relations
• Piracy Problem and Its Effects on World Trade
• Impact of Political Systems and Trade Embargoes
• The Atlantic Slave Trade Functioning
• International Trade Concepts and Definitions
• UK Business and Trade Environment
• Russia as a World Trade Organization Member
• EU Trade Barrier Impact on the UAE Economy
• Foreign Exchange Market and Trading Issues
• United States-Russia Trade Policy
• The Dubai World Trade Centre: Services and Management
• The Amazon Strike and German Trade Union Culture
• Chinese-Canadian Trade Relations
• International Trade Impact on the Amazon Region Environment
• Chinese-Canadian Bilateral Trade
• How Kuwait Trade with Germany and Turkey?
• Free Trade and Isolationism in the 21st Century
• Canada-China Trade: Petroleum, Gas, Energy
• Free Trade vs Protection: the UAE Market
• US Business, Trade Deficit and Balance of Payments
• General Agreement on Tariff and Trade: Influences
• Political Economy of Trading States
• Defining Globalization and Its Effects on Current Trade
• Abu Dhabi Trading Corporation’s Human Resource Management
• The Heckscher-Ohlin Model: Trade, Growth and Convergence
• Regional Geography After Colonization and Slave Trade
• Balance of Trade: Global Markets and Competition
• History of the Indians in the Fur Trade of Canada
• Dubai Model: Trade and Tourism in the UAE
• Trading Blocs and World Trade Organisation Issues
• David Ricardo’s Model of International Free Trade
• South Africa: International Agribusiness, Trade and Financing
• Trade Unions’ Importance in Workplaces
• Ministry of International Trade and Industry Role in Japan
• Valero Energy Company: International Trade and Finance
• CEO of Dubai World Trade Centre
• The World Trade Organisation Challenges
• Free Trade: An Ambiguous Phenomenon
• International Trade Policies’ Major Controversies
• Mills Trading: Governance Issues in a Family Business
• Shrimp Trade: US vs Vietnam
• Trade Unions in US
• Dubai World Trade Center: International Relations and Infrastructure Development
• Trade: U.S. Antidumping Duties on Washing Machines
• The Transatlantic Slave Trade
• Free Trade Impacts on Korea
• Slavery and the Abolition of Slave Trade
• The Cap-and-Trade Regulation Laws
• Business-Government Trade Relations
• The Trend in America’s International Trade
• Impacts of Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa
• Politics: the Gulf Cooperation Council Trade Agreements
• The Fair Trade Movement and Its Socioeconomic Influences
• The Fair Trade Concept
• Trade Liberalization: Public Concerns and Comparative Advantage
• Global Food Trade’s Benefits
• Free Trade Agreement Colombia and USA
• Saudi Arabia’ Trade and Business Practices
• Trade Economics in “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea” by Seland
• Workplace Dynamics in Dubai Trade: A Survey
• Regional Trade Agreements
• Fair Trade US organization
• Sustainability and Trends of the Global Trade Imbalance
• Origin of Trade Preferences
• Foreign Trade Zone: Legal Issues and Implications
• Negotiations in International Trade and Politics
• The World Trade Organization (WTO)
• World Trade Organization: Achieving Objectives in Jordan
• Problems of Insider Trading
• U.S. Seal MFG Exhibiting at the WEFTEC Trade Show
• Global Trade and Financial Institutions
• World Trade Organization vs. USA on the Byrd Amendment
• Cultural Differences and Ethics of International Trading
• Russia Joins the World Trade Organization
• International Trade Policy: Fair or Free?
• Issues in International Trade
• Trade and Economic Policy Reform in United Kingdom
• Teaching Content Through Literature and Technology: Trade Books
• Automobile Trade, Tariffs or Quotas
• Trade Complementarities between South Korea and Vietnam
• Trading Between and Within Markets For Electricity, Gas and Carbon
• Organization Design: Optimizing Trade Offs
• Sustainability of Trade Relationship Between EU and China
• Drug Trade Demand in the U.S.
• The Free Trade Role in the Industrial Development of Syria
• Trade Liberalisation in the United Kingdom
• Ethical and Legal Implications of Insider Trading
• Colonisation and Drug Trade
• The Impact of Export Trade on the US Economy
• Uses of Currency Hedging in International Trade
• International Trade and Its Effects on Globalization
• North American Free Trade Agreement and the EU
• “The Diligent: A Voyage Through the Worlds of the Slave Trade” by Robert Harms
• The Rise in Cross-Border Trade
• Impacts of China’s Economy on the Global Trade
• RFID in Food Industry and Global Trading Patterns
• Credit Letters in International Trade
• Critical Assess Trade Relations between the US and EU
• The World Trade Organization Role in the World of Trade
• International Marketing – Skyland Trading Company
• International Business Financial and Trade
• Russia’s Entry into the World Trade Organization
• Theoretical Analysis – The World Trade Organization
• World Trade Organization: Regulations and Contracts between Countries
• Major Trade Routes of the Post-Classical World
• How Can the UAE Eliminate Threats From Iran Through Trade and Investment in Russia?
• The Issue of Global Trade Imbalances in the US and China
• World Trade Organization Trade Agreements
• World Trade Organization: Tariffs and Trade
• Global Economic Imbalance in Trade
• The Impact of U.S. Trade Embargo on Cuba Tourism
• Is International Trade a Zero Sum Game?
• Cap and Trade Regulation
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology and Global Trade Patterns
• Is Global Carbon Emission Trading a Good Idea?
• International Trade – Protection of Australian Car Industry Course and Code
• World Trade Organization and Globalization
• Costs and Benefits of Free Trade and Globalization
• Insider Trading in Tokyo and Its Regulation
• Canada and Her Trading Partners
• Volcker Rule in Trade
• Healthcare Administration: Foreign Trade Commission
• Multilateral Trade Liberalization Versus Regional Agreements: Charting the Way Forward
• Trade in Human Organs across Borders
• Managing Openness: International Trade Data and Analysis
• Factors That Influence Exchange Rates
• The International Trade Risks for Global Businesses
• Foreign Trade Between UAE and Japan
• The Role of Sea Power in International Trade
• The Impacts of FDIs and Trade to the Asian Pacific Regions
• Exporting Business and Trade Concept: Crystal International Corp.
• International Trade Shaped the Economy
• Challenges Facing Human Resources: Organizations, Employees, and Trade Unions
• What is Aristotle’s View on Trade?
• “5 Simple Tips for Successful Stock Trading” by Richard Band
• Dubai Economic Policy on International Trade
• Technological Development in Trade and Its Impacts on Poverty
• Global Trade Imbalance: Ensuring Proper Development of the Humanity
• Political Economy of International Trade
• The Process of Foreign Trade System Reform and Current Policy Issue in China
• Trade Imbalance Between USA and China
• Relationship Between WTO and the Regional Trade Organizations
• International Trade: Foreign Exchange and Global Finance
• Trade Models and Free Business Opposition
• Review: “World Trade Center” by Oliver Stone
• Concept of Globalization and Its Impact on the International Trading Order
• Political Regulation of the International Trade
• The Current State of Australia-Japan Trading Relations
• Summary: “Trade Protectionism Rises as Economies Slow” by Sudeep Reddy
• Relationship between Trade and Development
• Cultural Diversity in International Trade and International Business Management Through Globalization
• The Atlantic Slave Trade
• The Impact of Algorithmic Trading on Mutual Fund Performance
• International Trade as a Contributor to a Peaceful Existence of Nations
• International Microeconomics Trade Dispute: US-China dispute on Exportation of Raw Materials
• International Trade Policy and Economic Growth Realization
• Free Trade and National Policies
• The Concept of Global Trade Imbalance as a Policy Issue
• Exchange and Trade: Analyzing Market Movements
• Trade Liberalization in International Trade
• A Mechanism for Combating Mercantilism and Producing Balanced Trade
• E-Business Plan: Old and Used Books Trade
• Impact of Algorithmic Trading on Tournament Behavior of Mutual Fund Managers
• EU Trade and Sustainable Development
• The Effects of Domestic Slave Trade and Women Exploitation on the Enslaved Families
• Changing Patterns of International Trade With London
• Honey’s History and Trade
• Emissions Trading System
• Role of Trade Unions in 2011
• Trade Unions in Employment Relations
• How Technology Has Affected Globalization, International Trade, and Financial Stability
• International Trade and Investment
• Women’s Participation in Trade During the Colonial Period in America
• Impact of Free Trade in Developing Countries
• The World Trade Center
• Trade Unions Decline in the Influence
• Organized Crime in Labor and Drug Trade
• British Involvement in the Atlantic Slave Trade
• The Law of Comparative Advantage Forms the Basis of International Trade
• The Role of Globalization and Free Trade in Latin America
• Global Trade During the Financial Crisis (from 2006 to 2010)
• World Trade Organization Regulations
• The International Arms Trade
• Trade Reform, Adjustment, and Growth
• Debate: How U.S. Economy Benefit from International Trade
• International Trading and Cultural Differences
• Open Economy: International Trade and Finance
• The Opium Trade: Why Did It Flourished in 19th Century China
• The Role of Trade Unions in 2011
• European Union Emissions Trade Scheme
• Trade Barriers: Arguments For and Against
• Trade Unions Network History and Structure
• International Trade as a Significant Issue in International Political Economy
• How Exchange Rates Have an Impact on International Trade
• Politics of Subsidies and World Trade
• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
• The US-China Economic and Business Relations
• Global Free Trade System and Commerce
• Insider Trading Impact on Markets
• A Comparative Perspective: African Slave Trade and Spanish Rule in Peru
• Kicking Away the Ladder: The “Real” History of Free Trade
• Eurasian Region: Developing Global Trade
• The Federal Trade Commission Act
• Trade Show Critique: Unidem Sales & Umbra
• Concepts of Free and Fair Trade and the Existing Differences Between the Two
• The Division of Foreign Trade and Export Support in Abu Dhabi
• Understanding of the World Trade Organization
• The Role of the International Investment in Global Trade
• The World Trade Organization Global Rules and Function
• Marketing and Finance: Trade Effect on Brazilian Companies
• Slave Trade Begins in America at Santo Domingo
• The Atlantic Slave Trade: Causes, Operation, and Effects
• Cultural Exchange Through Trade in the Sixteenth Century
• Barriers to International Trade and Economic Development in Africa
• The Absolute Advantage Cost Theory
• The International Free Trade in NAFTA Countries
• Strategies and Competition in the Marketing Environment
• Relation between International Trade and World Output
• Perlman, Selig. A History of Trade Unionism in the United States
• The East African Trade (EAC) Agreement Among Uganda, the Republic of Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya
• Trade Blocs in Global Economy
• Impact of the Product Differentiation on Free Trade
• Globalization Effects on Food Industry, Trading, Education
• Concept of the Free-Market Economy in Free Trade
• Atlantic Slave Trade: Catalyst of the Industrial Revolution?
• Do Countries Benefit From International Trade?
• What Is a Trade Union Membership?
• The Benefits of Trade: China Versus India
• Do Female Representatives Make a Difference? Women Full-Time Officials and Trade Union Work
• Do Countries Really Benefit From International Trade?
• Impact of Trade Liberalization on American Countries
• North American Free Trade Agreement
• Trade Liberalization Effects on Latin America
• Impact of Trade Liberalization
• Latin America Trade Liberalization: Economic Development
• Columbian Exchange: The Europe-India Trade
• Trade of Coffee and Gold
• Softwood Lumber Trading Between Canada and US
• Development of the Atlantic Trade Triangle a Colonial Capitalism (Mercantilism)
• International Trade Between China and Africa
• Participation of Women in Early American Trade
• Trade Between Taiwan and Japan
• Unethical Trade Behavior: Poor Quality Exports
• Slavery, Racism, and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
• General Motors Company Trading Environment
• World Publics Welcome Global Trade – But Not Immigration
• International Trade and Investments
• How Successful Has Been European Free Trade Zone
• Trade Off in Business Life
• International Trade and Supply Chain: The Foster Group Example
• International Trade: Pros and Cons of Dependency Between Countries
• International Trade Advantages and Limitations
• Can Pollution Rights Trading Effectively Control Environmental Problems?
• Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade History
• Trading Symbol From NYSE
• What Was the First Trade in History and How Did It Happen?
• Are Trade Barriers Ever Acceptable?
• Can Countries Avoid the Inevitable Trade-Off?
• Does Trade Promote Growth in Developing?
• What Were the Four Main Trade Routes?
• Who Started International Trade?
• Does WTO Actually Promote World Trade?
• How Did Trade Affect the Environment?
• Who Is the Father of Terms of Trade?
• How Should Employers Deal With Trade Unions?
• What Were the Cultural Impacts of Trade?
• What Factors Affect Business or Trade Policy?
• How Did Trade Spread Culture?
• Will Tire Tariffs Launch a Trade Dispute?
• What Are the Four Influences on International Trade?
• How Was Trade Done in the Olden Days?
• Why China Seek Regional Free Trade Agreements?
• Why Canada Entered Into Trade Agreement With the United States?
• Why Is Trade Important in Globalization?
• How Many Types of Trade Are There?
• What Strategies Have Trade Unions Been Adopting?
• How the Cuba Policy Affected Trade With the U.S. Today?
• How Did Venice Become a Trade Empire?
• What Is Global Trade Data?
• What Are the Two Types of Analysis in Trading?
• Bureaucracy Paper Topics
• Cryptocurrency Essay Ideas
• Franchising Essay Topics
• Manufacturing Essay Topics
• Retailing Essay Titles
• Wall Street Questions
• Monopoly Essay Topics
• World Trade Organization Questions
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 3). 627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/trade-essay-topics/

"627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 3 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/trade-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 3 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/trade-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/trade-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "627 Trade Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/trade-essay-topics/.

Trade and Globalization

How did international trade and globalization change over time? What is the structure today? And what is its impact?

By: Esteban Ortiz-Ospina , Diana Beltekian and Max Roser

This page was first published in 2014 and last revised in April 2024.

On this topic page, you can find data, visualizations, and research on historical and current patterns of international trade, as well as discussions of their origins and effects.

Other research and writing on trade and globalization on Our World in Data:

• Is globalization an engine of economic development?
• Is trade a major driver of income inequality?

Related topics

Economic Growth

See all our data, visualizations, and writing on economic growth.

Economic Inequality

See all our data, visualizations, and writing on economic inequality.

See all our data, visualizations, and writing on migration.

See all interactive charts on Trade and Globalization ↓

Trade has changed the world economy

Trade has grown remarkably over the last century.

One of the most important developments of the last century has been the integration of national economies into a global economic system. This process of integration, often called globalization, has resulted in a remarkable growth in trade between countries.

The chart here shows the growth of world exports over more than the last two centuries. These estimates are in constant prices (i.e. have been adjusted to account for inflation) and are indexed at 1913 values.

The chart shows an extraordinary growth in international trade over the last couple of centuries: Exports today are more than 40 times larger than in 1913.

You can switch to a logarithmic scale under ‘Settings’. This will help you see that, over the long run, growth has roughly followed an exponential path.

The increase in trade has even outpaced economic growth

The chart above shows how much more trade we have today relative to a century ago. But what about trade relative to total economic output?

Over the last couple of centuries the world economy has experienced sustained positive economic growth , so looking at changes in trade relative to GDP offers another interesting perspective.

The next chart plots the value of traded goods relative to GDP (i.e. the value of merchandise trade as a share of global economic output).

Up to 1870, the sum of worldwide exports accounted for less than 10% of global output. Today, the value of exported goods around the world is around 25%. This shows that over the last hundred years, the growth in trade has even outpaced rapid economic growth.

Trade expanded in two waves

The first "wave of globalization" started in the 19th century, the second one after ww2.

The following visualization presents a compilation of available trade estimates, showing the evolution of world exports and imports as a share of global economic output .

This metric (the ratio of total trade, exports plus imports, to global GDP) is known as the “openness index”. The higher the index, the higher the influence of trade transactions on global economic activity. 1

As we can see, until 1800 there was a long period characterized by persistently low international trade – globally the index never exceeded 10% before 1800. This then changed over the course of the 19th century, when technological advances triggered a period of marked growth in world trade – the so-called “first wave of globalization”.

This first wave came to an end with the beginning of World War I, when the decline of liberalism and the rise of nationalism led to a slump in international trade. In the chart we see a large drop in the interwar period.

After World War II trade started growing again. This new – and ongoing – wave of globalization has seen international trade grow faster than ever before. Today the sum of exports and imports across nations amounts to more than 50% of the value of total global output. 2

Before the first wave of globalization, trade was driven mostly by colonialism

Over the early modern period, transoceanic flows of goods between empires and colonies accounted for an important part of international trade. The following visualizations provide a comparison of intercontinental trade, in per capita terms, for different countries.

As we can see, intercontinental trade was very dynamic, with volumes varying considerably across time and from empire to empire.

Leonor Freire Costa, Nuno Palma, and Jaime Reis, who compiled and published the original data shown here, argue that trade, also in this period, had a substantial positive impact on the economy. 3

The first wave of globalization was marked by the rise and collapse of intra-European trade

The following visualization shows a detailed overview of Western European exports by destination. Figures correspond to export-to-GDP ratios (i.e. the sum of the value of exports from all Western European countries, divided by the total GDP in this region). You can use “Settings” to switch to a relative view and see the proportional contribution of each region to total Western European exports.

This chart shows that growth in Western European trade throughout the 19th century was largely driven by trade within the region: In the period 1830-1900 intra-European exports went from 1% of GDP to 10% of GDP, and this meant that the relative weight of intra-European exports doubled over the period. However, this process of European integration then collapsed sharply in the interwar period.

After the Second World War trade within Europe rebounded, and from the 1990s onwards exceeded the highest levels of the first wave of globalization. In addition, Western Europe then started to increasingly trade with Asia, the Americas, and to a smaller extent Africa and Oceania.

The next graph, using data from Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010) 4 , shows another perspective on the integration of the global economy and plots the evolution of three indicators measuring integration across different markets – specifically goods, labor, and capital markets.

The indicators in this chart are indexed, so they show changes relative to the levels of integration observed in 1900. This gives us another perspective on how quickly global integration collapsed with the two World Wars. 5

The second wave of globalization was enabled by technology

The worldwide expansion of trade after the Second World War was largely possible because of reductions in transaction costs stemming from technological advances, such as the development of commercial civil aviation, the improvement of productivity in the merchant marines, and the democratization of the telephone as the main mode of communication. The visualization shows how, at the global level, costs across these three variables have been going down since 1930.

Reductions in transaction costs impacted not only the volumes of trade but also the types of exchanges that were possible and profitable.

The first wave of globalization was characterized by inter-industry trade. This means that countries exported goods that were very different from what they imported – England exchanged machines for Australian wool and Indian tea. As transaction costs went down, this changed. In the second wave of globalization, we are seeing a rise in intra -industry trade (i.e. the exchange of broadly similar goods and services is becoming more and more common). France, for example, now both imports and exports machines to and from Germany.

The following visualization, from the UN World Development Report (2009) , plots the fraction of total world trade that is accounted for by intra-industry trade, by type of goods. As we can see, intra-industry trade has been going up for primary, intermediate, and final goods.

This pattern of trade is important because the scope for specialization increases if countries are able to exchange intermediate goods (e.g. auto parts) for related final goods (e.g. cars).

Trade and trade partners by country

Above, we examined the broad global trends over the last two centuries. Let's now examine country-level trends over this long and dynamic period.

This chart plots estimates of the value of trade in goods, relative to total economic activity (i.e. export-to-GDP ratios).

These historical estimates obviously come with a large margin of error (in the measurement section below we discuss the data limitations); yet they offer an interesting perspective.

You can edit the countries and regions selected. Each country tells a different story. 7

In the next chart we plot, country by country, the regional breakdown of exports. India is shown by default, but you can edit the countries and regions shown.

When switching to displaying relative values under ‘Settings’, we see the proportional contribution of purchases from each region. For example, we see that more than a third of Indian exports went to Asian countries in recent decades.

This gives us an interesting perspective on the changing nature of trade partnerships. In India, we see the rising importance of trade with Africa—a pattern that we discuss in more detail below .

Trade around the world today

How much do countries trade, trade openness around the world.

The metric trade as a share of GDP gives us an idea of global integration by capturing all incoming and outgoing transactions of a country.

The charts shows that countries differ a lot in the extent to which they engage in trade. Trade, for example, is much less important to the US economy than for other rich countries.

If you press the play button on the map, you can see changes over time. This reveals that, despite the great variation between countries, there is a common trend: over the last couple of decades trade openness has gone up in most countries.

Exports and imports in real dollars

Expressing the value of trade as a share of GDP tells us the importance of trade in relation to the size of economic activity. Let's now take a look at trade in monetary terms – this tells us the importance of trade in absolute, rather than relative terms.

The chart shows the value of exports (goods plus services) in dollars, country by country.

The main takeaway here is that the trend towards more trade is more pronounced than in the charts showing shares of GDP. This is not surprising: most countries today produce more than a couple of decades ago , and at the same time they trade more of what they produce. 8

What do countries trade?

Trade in goods vs. trade in services.

Trade transactions include goods (tangible products that are physically shipped across borders by road, rail, water, or air) and services (intangible commodities, such as tourism, financial services, and legal advice).

Many traded services make merchandise trade easier or cheaper—for example, shipping services, or insurance and financial services.

Trade in goods has been happening for millennia , while trade in services is a relatively recent phenomenon.

In some countries services are today an important driver of trade: in the UK services account for around half of all exports; and in the Bahamas, almost all exports are services.

In other countries, such as Nigeria and Venezuela, services account for a small share of total exports.

Globally, trade in goods accounts for the majority of trade transactions. But as this chart shows, the share of services in total global exports has slightly increased in recent decades. 9

How are trade partnerships changing?

Bilateral trade is becoming increasingly common.

If we consider all pairs of countries that engage in trade around the world, we find that in the majority of cases, there is a bilateral relationship today: most countries that export goods to a country also import goods from the same country.

The interactive visualization shows this. 10 In the chart, all possible country pairs are partitioned into three categories: the top portion represents the fraction of country pairs that do not trade with one another; the middle portion represents those that trade in both directions (they export to one another); and the bottom portion represents those that trade in one direction only (one country imports from, but does not export to, the other country).

As we can see, bilateral trade is becoming increasingly common (the middle portion has grown substantially). However, many countries still do not trade with each other at all.

South-South trade is becoming increasingly important

The next visualization here shows the share of world merchandise trade that corresponds to exchanges between today's rich countries and the rest of the world.

The 'rich countries' in this chart are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. 'Non-rich countries' are all the other countries in the world.

As we can see, up until the Second World War, the majority of trade transactions involved exchanges between this small group of rich countries. But this has changed quickly over the last couple of decades, and today, trade between non-rich countries is just as important as trade between rich countries.

In the past two decades, China has been a key driver of this dynamic: the UN Human Development Report (2013) estimates that between 1992 and 2011, China's trade with Sub-Saharan Africa rose from $1 billion to more than $140 billion. 11

The majority of preferential trade agreements are between emerging economies

The last few decades have not only seen an increase in the volume of international trade, but also an increase in the number of preferential trade agreements through which exchanges take place. A preferential trade agreement is a trade pact that reduces tariffs between the participating countries for certain products.

The visualization here shows the evolution of the cumulative number of preferential trade agreements in force worldwide, according to the World Trade Organization (WTO). These numbers include notified and non-notified preferential agreements (the source reports that only about two-thirds of the agreements currently in force have been notified to the WTO) and are disaggregated by country groups.

This figure shows the increasingly important role of trade between developing countries (South-South trade), vis-a-vis trade between developed and developing countries (North-South trade). In the late 1970s, North-South agreements accounted for more than half of all agreements – in 2010, they accounted for about one-quarter. Today, the majority of preferential trade agreements are between developing economies.

Trading patterns have been changing quickly in middle-income countries

An important change in the composition of exported goods in these countries has accompanied the increase in trade among emerging economies over the last half century.

The next visualization plots the share of food exports in each country's total exported merchandise. These figures, produced by the World Bank, correspond to the Standard International Trade Classification, in which 'food' includes, among other goods, live animals, beverages, tobacco, coffee, oils, and fats.

Two points stand out. First, the relative importance of food exports has substantially decreased in most countries since the 1960s (although globally, it has gone up slightly more recently). Second, this decrease has been largest in middle-income countries, particularly in Latin America.

Regarding levels, as one would expect, in high-income countries, food still accounts for a much smaller share of merchandise exports than in most low- and middle-income-countries.

Trade generates efficiency gains

The raw correlation between trade and growth.

Over the last couple of centuries, the world economy has experienced sustained positive economic growth , and over the same period, this process of economic growth has been accompanied by even faster growth in global trade .

In a similar way, if we look at country-level data from the last half century we find that there is also a correlation between economic growth and trade: countries with higher rates of GDP growth also tend to have higher rates of growth in trade as a share of output. This basic correlation is shown in the chart here, where we plot the average annual change in real GDP per capita, against growth in trade (average annual change in value of exports as a share of GDP). 12

Is this statistical association between economic output and trade causal?

Among the potential growth-enhancing factors that may come from greater global economic integration are: competition (firms that fail to adopt new technologies and cut costs are more likely to fail and be replaced by more dynamic firms); economies of scale (firms that can export to the world face larger demand, and under the right conditions, they can operate at larger scales where the price per unit of product is lower); learning and innovation (firms that trade gain more experience and exposure to develop and adopt technologies and industry standards from foreign competitors). 13

Are these mechanisms supported by the data? Let's take a look at the available empirical evidence.

Evidence from cross-country differences in trade, growth, and productivity

When it comes to academic studies estimating the impact of trade on GDP growth, the most cited paper is Frankel and Romer (1999). 14

In this study, Frankel and Romer used geography as a proxy for trade to estimate the impact of trade on growth. This is a classic example of the so-called instrumental variables approach . The idea is that a country's geography is fixed, and mainly affects national income through trade. So if we observe that a country's distance from other countries is a powerful predictor of economic growth (after accounting for other characteristics), then the conclusion is drawn that it must be because trade has an effect on economic growth. Following this logic, Frankel and Romer find evidence of a strong impact of trade on economic growth.

Other papers have applied the same approach to richer cross-country data, and they have found similar results. A key example is Alcalá and Ciccone (2004). 15

This body of evidence suggests trade is indeed one of the factors driving national average incomes (GDP per capita) and macroeconomic productivity (GDP per worker) over the long run. 16

Evidence from changes in labor productivity at the firm level

If trade is causally linked to economic growth, we would expect that trade liberalization episodes also lead to firms becoming more productive in the medium and even short run. There is evidence suggesting this is often the case.

Pavcnik (2002) examined the effects of liberalized trade on plant productivity in the case of Chile, during the late 1970s and early 1980s. She found a positive impact on firm productivity in the import-competing sector. She also found evidence of aggregate productivity improvements from the reshuffling of resources and output from less to more efficient producers. 17

Bloom, Draca, and Van Reenen (2016) examined the impact of rising Chinese import competition on European firms over the period 1996-2007 and obtained similar results. They found that innovation increased more in those firms most affected by Chinese imports. They also found evidence of efficiency gains through two related channels: innovation increased and new existing technologies were adopted within firms, and aggregate productivity also increased because employment was reallocated towards more technologically advanced firms. 18

Trade does not only increase efficiency gains

Overall, the available evidence suggests that trade liberalization does improve economic efficiency. This evidence comes from different political and economic contexts and includes both micro and macro measures of efficiency.

This result is important because it shows that there are gains from trade. But of course, efficiency is not the only relevant consideration here. As we discuss in a companion article , the efficiency gains from trade are not generally equally shared by everyone. The evidence from the impact of trade on firm productivity confirms this: "reshuffling workers from less to more efficient producers" means closing down some jobs in some places. Because distributional concerns are real it is important to promote public policies – such as unemployment benefits and other safety-net programs – that help redistribute the gains from trade.

Trade has distributional consequences

The conceptual link between trade and household welfare.

When a country opens up to trade, the demand and supply of goods and services in the economy shift. As a consequence, local markets respond, and prices change. This has an impact on households, both as consumers and as wage earners.

The implication is that trade has an impact on everyone. It's not the case that the effects are restricted to workers from industries in the trade sector; or to consumers who buy imported goods. The effects of trade extend to everyone because markets are interlinked, so imports and exports have knock-on effects on all prices in the economy, including those in non-traded sectors.

Economists usually distinguish between "general equilibrium consumption effects" (i.e. changes in consumption that arise from the fact that trade affects the prices of non-traded goods relative to traded goods) and "general equilibrium income effects" (i.e. changes in wages that arise from the fact that trade has an impact on the demand for specific types of workers, who could be employed in both the traded and non-traded sectors).

Considering all these complex interrelations, it's not surprising that economic theories predict that not everyone will benefit from international trade in the same way. The distribution of the gains from trade depends on what different groups of people consume, and which types of jobs they have, or could have. 19

The link between trade, jobs and wages

Evidence from chinese imports and their impact on factory workers in the us.

The most famous study looking at this question is Autor, Dorn and Hanson (2013): "The China syndrome: Local labor market effects of import competition in the United States". 20

In this paper, Autor and coauthors examined how local labor markets changed in the parts of the country most exposed to Chinese competition. They found that rising exposure increased unemployment, lowered labor force participation, and reduced wages. Additionally, they found that claims for unemployment and healthcare benefits also increased in more trade-exposed labor markets.

The visualization here is one of the key charts from their paper. It's a scatter plot of cross-regional exposure to rising imports, against changes in employment. Each dot is a small region (a 'commuting zone' to be precise). The vertical position of the dots represents the percent change in manufacturing employment for the working-age population, and the horizontal position represents the predicted exposure to rising imports (exposure varies across regions depending on the local weight of different industries).

The trend line in this chart shows a negative relationship: more exposure goes along with less employment. There are large deviations from the trend (there are some low-exposure regions with big negative changes in employment); but the paper provides more sophisticated regressions and robustness checks, and finds that this relationship is statistically significant.

This result is important because it shows that the labor market adjustments were large. Many workers and communities were affected over a long period of time. 21

But it's also important to keep in mind that Autor and colleagues are only giving us a partial perspective on the total effect of trade on employment. In particular, comparing changes in employment at the regional level misses the fact that firms operate in multiple regions and industries at the same time. Indeed, Ildikó Magyari found evidence suggesting the Chinese trade shock provided incentives for US firms to diversify and reorganize production. 22

So companies that outsourced jobs to China often ended up closing some lines of business, but at the same time expanded other lines elsewhere in the US. This means that job losses in some regions subsidized new jobs in other parts of the country.

On the whole, Magyari finds that although Chinese imports may have reduced employment within some establishments, these losses were more than offset by gains in employment within the same firms in other places. This is no consolation to people who lost their jobs. But it is necessary to add this perspective to the simplistic story of "trade with China is bad for US workers".

Evidence from the expansion of trade in India and the impact on poverty reductions

Another important paper in this field is Topalova (2010): "Factor immobility and regional impacts of trade liberalization: Evidence on poverty from India". 23

In this paper, Topalova examines the impact of trade liberalization on poverty across different regions in India, using the sudden and extensive change in India's trade policy in 1991. She finds that rural regions that were more exposed to liberalization experienced a slower decline in poverty and lower consumption growth.

Analyzing the mechanisms underlying this effect, Topalova finds that liberalization had a stronger negative impact among the least geographically mobile at the bottom of the income distribution and in places where labor laws deterred workers from reallocating across sectors.

The evidence from India shows that (i) discussions that only look at "winners" in poor countries and "losers" in rich countries miss the point that the gains from trade are unequally distributed within both sets of countries; and (ii) context-specific factors, like worker mobility across sectors and geographic regions, are crucial to understand the impact of trade on incomes.

Evidence from other studies

• Donaldson (2018) uses archival data from colonial India to estimate the impact of India’s vast railroad network. He finds railroads increased trade, and in doing so they increased real incomes (and reduced income volatility). 24
• Porto (2006) looks at the distributional effects of Mercosur on Argentine families, and finds this regional trade agreement led to benefits across the entire income distribution. He finds the effect was progressive: poor households gained more than middle-income households because prior to the reform, trade protection benefitted the rich disproportionately. 25
• Trefler (2004) looks at the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement and finds there was a group who bore "adjustment costs" (displaced workers and struggling plants) and a group who enjoyed "long-run gains" (consumers and efficient plants). 26

The link between trade and the cost of living

The fact that trade negatively affects labor market opportunities for specific groups of people does not necessarily imply that trade has a negative aggregate effect on household welfare. This is because, while trade affects wages and employment, it also affects the prices of consumption goods. So households are affected both as consumers and as wage earners.

Most studies focus on the earnings channel and try to approximate the impact of trade on welfare by looking at how much wages can buy, using as a reference the changing prices of a fixed basket of goods.

This approach is problematic because it fails to consider welfare gains from increased product variety, and obscures complicated distributional issues such as the fact that poor and rich individuals consume different baskets so they benefit differently from changes in relative prices. 27

Ideally, studies looking at the impact of trade on household welfare should rely on fine-grained data on prices, consumption, and earnings. This is the approach followed in Atkin, Faber, and Gonzalez-Navarro (2018): "Retail globalization and household welfare: Evidence from Mexico". 28

Atkin and coauthors use a uniquely rich dataset from Mexico, and find that the arrival of global retail chains led to reductions in the incomes of traditional retail sector workers, but had little impact on average municipality-level incomes or employment; and led to lower costs of living for both rich and poor households.

The chart here shows the estimated distribution of total welfare gains across the household income distribution (the light-gray lines correspond to confidence intervals). These are proportional gains expressed as a percent of initial household income.

As we can see, there is a net positive welfare effect across all income groups; but these improvements in welfare are regressive, in the sense that richer households gain proportionally more (about 7.5 percent gain compared to 5 percent). 29

Evidence from other countries confirms this is not an isolated case – the expenditure channel really seems to be an important and understudied source of household welfare. Giuseppe Berlingieri, Holger Breinlich, Swati Dhingra, for example, investigated the consumer benefits from trade agreements implemented by the EU between 1993 and 2013; and they found that these trade agreements increased the quality of available products, which translated into a cumulative reduction in consumer prices equivalent to savings of €24 billion per year for EU consumers. 30

Implications of trade’s distributional effects

The available evidence shows that, for some groups of people, trade has a negative effect on wages and employment opportunities; at the same time, it has a large positive effect via lower consumer prices and increased product availability.

Two points are worth emphasizing.

For some households, the net effect is positive. But for some households that's not the case. In particular, workers who lose their jobs can be affected for extended periods of time, so the positive effect via lower prices is not enough to compensate them for the reduction in earnings.

On the whole, if we aggregate changes in welfare across households, the net effect is usually positive. But this is hardly a consolation for the worse off.

This highlights a complex reality: There are aggregate gains from trade , but there are also real distributional concerns. Even if trade is not a major driver of income inequalities , it's important to keep in mind that public policies, such as unemployment benefits and other safety-net programs, can and should help redistribute the gains from trade.

Explaining trade patterns: Theory and Evidence

Comparative advantage, theory: what is 'comparative advantage' and why does it matter to understand trade.

In economic theory, the 'economic cost' – or the 'opportunity cost' – of producing a good is the value of everything you need to give up in order to produce that good.

Economic costs include physical inputs (the value of the stuff you use to produce the good), plus forgone opportunities (when you allocate scarce resources to a task, you give up alternative uses of those resources).

A country or a person is said to have a 'comparative advantage' if it can produce something at a lower opportunity cost than its trade partners.

The forgone opportunities of production are key to understanding this concept. It is precisely this that distinguishes absolute advantage from comparative advantage.

To see the difference between comparative and absolute advantage, consider a commercial aviation pilot and a baker. Suppose the pilot is an excellent chef, and she can bake just as well, or even better than the baker. In this case, the pilot has an absolute advantage in both tasks. Yet the baker probably has a comparative advantage in baking, because the opportunity cost of baking is much higher for the pilot.

The freely available economics textbook The Economy: Economics for a Changing World explains this as follows: "A person or country has comparative advantage in the production of a particular good, if the cost of producing an additional unit of that good relative to the cost of producing another good is lower than another person or country’s cost to produce the same two goods."

At the individual level, comparative advantage explains why you might want to delegate tasks to someone else, even if you can do those tasks better and faster than them. This may sound counterintuitive, but it is not: If you are good at many things, it means that investing time in one task has a high opportunity cost, because you are not doing the other amazing things you could be doing with your time and resources. So, at least from an efficiency point of view, you should specialize on what you are best at, and delegate the rest.

The same logic applies to countries. Broadly speaking, the principle of comparative advantage postulates that all nations can gain from trade if each specializes in producing what they are relatively more efficient at producing, and imports the rest: “do what you do best, import the rest”. 31

In countries with a relative abundance of certain factors of production, the theory of comparative advantage predicts that they will export goods that rely heavily upon those factors: a country typically has a comparative advantage in those goods that use its abundant resources. Colombia exports bananas to Europe because it has comparatively abundant tropical weather.

Is there empirical support for comparative-advantage theories of trade?

The empirical evidence suggests that the principle of comparative advantage does help explain trade patterns. Bernhofen and Brown (2004) 32 , for instance, provide evidence using the experience of Japan. Specifically, they exploit Japan’s dramatic nineteenth-century move from a state of near complete isolation to wide trade openness.

The graph here shows the price changes of the key tradable goods after the opening up to trade. It presents a scatter diagram of the net exports in 1869 graphed in relation to the change in prices from 1851–53 to 1869. As we can see, this is consistent with the theory: after opening to trade, the relative prices of major exports such as silk increased (Japan exported what was cheap for them to produce and which was valuable abroad), while the relative price of imports such as sugar declined (they imported what was relatively more difficult for them to produce, but was cheap abroad).

Trade diminishes with distance

The resistance that geography imposes on trade has long been studied in the empirical economics literature – and the main conclusion is that trade intensity is strongly linked to geographic distance.

The visualization, from Eaton and Kortum (2002), graphs 'normalized import shares' against distance. 33 Each dot represents a country pair from a set of 19 OECD countries, and both the vertical and horizontal axes are expressed on logarithmic scales.

The 'normalized import shares' in the vertical axis provide a measure of how much each country imports from different partners (see the paper for details on how this is calculated and normalized), while the distance in the horizontal axis corresponds to the distance between central cities in each country (see the paper and references therein for details on the list of cities). As we can see, there is a strong negative relationship. Trade diminishes with distance. Through econometric modeling, the paper shows that this relationship is not just a correlation driven by other factors: their findings suggest that distance imposes a significant barrier to trade.

The fact that trade diminishes with distance is also corroborated by data on trade intensity within countries. The visualization here shows, through a series of maps, the geographic distribution of French firms that export to France's neighboring countries. The colors reflect the percentage of firms that export to each specific country.

As we can see, the share of firms exporting to each of the corresponding neighbors is the largest close to the border. The authors also show in the paper that this pattern holds for the value of individual-firm exports – trade value decreases with distance to the border.

Institutions

Conducting international trade requires both financial and non-financial institutions to support transactions. Some of these institutions are fairly obvious (e.g. law enforcement); but some are less obvious. For example, the evidence shows that producers in exporting countries often need credit in order to engage in trade.

The scatter plot, from Manova (2013), shows the correlation between levels in private credit (specifically exporters’ private credit as a share of GDP) and exports (average log bilateral exports across destinations and sectors). 35 As can be seen, financially developed economies – those with more dynamic private credit markets – typically outperform exporters with less evolved financial institutions.

Other studies have shown that country-specific institutions, like the knowledge of foreign languages, for instance, are also important to promote foreign relative to domestic trade. 36

Increasing returns to scale

The concept of comparative advantage predicts that if all countries had identical endowments and institutions, there would be little incentive for specialization because the opportunity cost of producing any good would be the same in every country.

So you may wonder: why is it then the case that in the last few years, we have seen such rapid growth in intra-industry trade between rich countries?

The increase in intra-industry between rich countries seems paradoxical under the light of comparative advantage because in recent decades we have seen convergence in key factors, such as human capital , across these countries.

The solution to the paradox is actually not very complicated: Comparative advantage is one, but not the only force driving incentives to specialization and trade.

Several economists, most notably Paul Krugman, have developed theories of trade in which trade is not due to differences between countries, but instead due to "increasing returns to scale" – an economic term used to denote a technology in which producing extra units of a good becomes cheaper if you operate at a larger scale.

The idea is that specialization allows countries to reap greater economies of scale (i.e. to reduce production costs by focusing on producing large quantities of specific products), so trade can be a good idea even if the countries do not differ in endowments, including culture and institutions.

These models of trade, often referred to as “New Trade Theory”, are helpful in explaining why in the last few years we have seen such rapid growth in two-way exchanges of goods within industries between developed nations.

In a much-cited paper, Evenett and Keller (2002) show that both factor endowments and increasing returns help explain production and trade patterns around the world. 37

You can learn more about New Trade Theory, and the empirical support behind it, in Paul Krugman's Nobel lecture .

Measurement and data quality

There are dozens of official sources of data on international trade, and if you compare these different sources, you will find that they do not agree with one another. Even if you focus on what seems to be the same indicator for the same year in the same country, discrepancies are large.

Such differences between sources can also be found in rich countries where statistical agencies tend to follow international reporting guidelines more closely.

There are also large bilateral discrepancies within sources: the value of goods that country A exports to country B can be more than the value of goods that country B imports from country A.

Here we explain how international trade data is collected and processed, and why there are such large discrepancies.

What data is available?

The data hubs from several large international organizations publish and maintain extensive cross-country datasets on international trade. Here's a list of the most important ones:

• World Bank Open Data
• WTO Statistics
• UN Comtrade
• UNCTAD World Integrated Trade Solutions

In addition to these sources, there are also many other academic projects that publish data on international trade. These projects tend to rely on data from one or more of the sources above, and they typically process and merge series in order to improve coverage and consistency. Three important sources are:

• The Correlates of War Project . 38
• The NBER-United Nations Trade Dataset Project .
• The CEPII Bilateral Trade and Gravity Data Project . 39

How large are the discrepancies between sources?

In the visualization here, we compare the data published by several of the sources listed above, country by country, from 1955 to today.

For each country, we exclude trade in services, and we focus only on estimates of the total value of exported goods, expressed as shares of GDP. 40

As this chart clearly shows, different data sources often tell very different stories. If you change the country or region shown you will see that this is true, to varying degrees, across all countries and years.

Constructing this chart was demanding. It required downloading trade data from many different sources, collecting the relevant series, and then standardizing them so that the units of measure and the geographical territories were consistent.

All series, except the two long-run series from CEPII and NBER-UN, were produced from data published by the sources in current US dollars and then converted to GDP shares using a unique source (World Bank).

So, if all series are in the same units (share of national GDP) and they measure the same thing (value of goods exported from one country to the rest of the world), what explains the differences?

Let's dig deeper to understand what's going on.

Why doesn't the data add up?

Differences in guidelines used by countries to record and report trade data.

Broadly speaking, there are two main approaches used to estimate international merchandise trade:

• The first approach relies on estimating trade from customs records , often complementing or correcting figures with data from enterprise surveys and administrative records associated with taxation. The main manual providing guidelines for this approach is the International Merchandise Trade Statistics Manual (IMTS).
• The second approach relies on estimating trade from macroeconomic data , typically National Accounts . The main manual providing guidelines for this approach is the Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual (BPM6), which was drafted in parallel with the 2008 System of National Accounts of the United Nations (SNA 2008). The idea behind this approach is to record changes in economic ownership. 41

Under these two approaches, it is common to distinguish between 'traded merchandise' and 'traded goods'. The distinction is often made because goods simply being transported through a country (i.e., goods in transit) are not considered to change a country's stock of material resources and are hence often excluded from the more narrow concept of 'merchandise trade'.

Also, adding to the complexity, countries often rely on measurement protocols developed alongside approaches and concepts that are not perfectly compatible to begin with. In Europe, for example, countries use the 'Compilers guide on European statistics on international trade in goods'.

Measurement error and other inconsistencies

Even when two sources rely on the same broad accounting approach, discrepancies arise because countries fail to adhere perfectly to the protocols.

In theory, for example, the exports of country A to country B should mirror the imports of country B from country A. But in practice this is rarely the case because of differences in valuation. According to the BPM6, imports, and exports should be recorded in the balance of payments accounts on a ' free on board (FOB) basis', which means using prices that include all charges up to placing the goods on board a ship at the port of departure. Yet many countries stick to FOB values only for exports, and use CIF values for imports (CIF stands for 'Cost, Insurance and Freight', and includes the costs of transportation). 42

The chart here gives you an idea of how large import-export asymmetries are. Shown are the differences between the value of goods that each country reports exporting to the US, and the value of goods that the US reports importing from the same countries. For example, for China, the figure in the chart corresponds to the “Value of merchandise imports in the US from China” minus the “Value of merchandise exports from China to the US”.

The differences in the chart here, which are both positive and negative, suggest that there is more going on than differences in FOB vs. CIF values. If all asymmetries were coming from FOB-CIF differences, then we should only see positive values in the chart (recall that, unlike FOB values, CIF values include the cost of transportation, so CIF values are larger).

What else may be going on here?

Another common source of measurement error relates to the inconsistent attribution of trade partners. An example is failure to follow the guidelines on how to treat goods passing through intermediary countries for processing or merchanting purposes. As global production chains become more complex, countries find it increasingly difficult to unambiguously establish the origin and final destination of merchandise, even when rules are established in the manuals. 43

And there are still more potential sources of discrepancies. For example differences in customs and tax regimes, and differences between "general" and "special" trade systems (i.e. differences between statistical territories and actual country borders, which do not often coincide because of things like 'custom free zones'). 44

Even when two sources have identical trade estimates, inconsistencies in published data can arise from differences in exchange rates. If a dataset reports cross-country trade data in US dollars, estimates will vary depending on the exchange rates used. Different exchange rates will lead to conflicting estimates, even if figures in local currency units are consistent.

A checklist for comparing sources

Asymmetries in international trade statistics are large and arise for a variety of reasons. These include conceptual inconsistencies across measurement standards and inconsistencies in the way countries apply agreed-upon protocols. Here's a checklist of issues to keep in mind when comparing sources.

• Differences in underlying records: is trade measured from National Accounts data rather than directly from custom or tax records?
• Differences in import and export valuations: are transactions valued at FOB or CIF prices?
• Inconsistent attribution of trade partners: how is the origin and final destination of merchandise established?
• Difference between 'goods' and 'merchandise': how are re-importing, re-exporting, and intermediary merchanting transactions recorded?
• Exchange rates: how are values converted from local currency units to the currency that allows international comparisons (most often the US-$)?
• Differences between 'general' and 'special' trade system: how is trade recorded for custom-free zones?
• Other issues: Time of recording, confidentiality policies, product classification, deliberate mis-invoicing for illicit purposes.

Many organizations producing trade data have long recognized these factors. Indeed, international organizations often incorporate corrections in an attempt to improve data quality.

The OECD's Balanced International Merchandise Trade Statistics , for example, uses its own approach to correct and reconcile international merchandise trade statistics. 45

The corrections applied in the OECD's 'balanced' series make this the best source for cross-country comparisons. However, this dataset has low coverage across countries, and it only goes back to 2011. This is an important obstacle since the complex adjustments introduced by the OECD imply we can't easily improve coverage by appending data from other sources. At Our World in Data we have chosen to rely on CEPII as the main source for exploring long-run changes in international trade, but we also rely on World Bank and OECD data for up-to-date cross-country comparisons.

There are two key lessons from all of this. The first lesson is that, for most users of trade data out there, there is no obvious way of choosing between sources. And the second lesson is that, because of statistical glitches, researchers and policymakers should always take analyses of trade data with a pinch of salt. For example, in a recent high-profile report , researchers attributed mismatches in bilateral trade data to illicit financial flows through trade mis-invoicing (or trade-based money laundering). As we show here, this interpretation of the data is not appropriate, since mismatches in the data can, and often do arise from measurement inconsistencies rather than malfeasance. 46

Hopefully, the discussion and checklist above can help researchers better interpret and choose between conflicting data sources.

Interactive charts on Trade and Globalization

The openness index, when calculated for the world as a whole, includes double-counting of transactions: When country A sells goods to country B, this shows up in the data both as an import (B imports from A) and as an export (A sells to B).

Indeed, if you compare the chart showing the global trade openness index and the chart showing global merchandise exports as a share of GDP , you find that the former is almost twice as large as the latter.

Why is the global openness index not exactly twice the value reported in the chart plotting global merchandise exports? There a three reasons.

First, the global openness index uses different sources. Second, the global openness index includes trade in goods and services, while merchandise exports include goods but not services. And third, the amount that country A reports exporting to country B does not usually match the amount that B reports importing from A.

We explore this in more detail in our measurement section below .

Klasing and Milionis (2014), one of the sources in the chart, published an additional set of estimates under an alternative specification. Similarly, for the period 1960-2015, the World Bank's World Development Indicators published an alternative set of estimates similar but not identical to those included from the Penn World Tables (9.1). You find all these alternative overlapping sources in this comparison chart .

Leonor Freire Costa, Nuno Palma, and Jaime Reis (2015) – The great escape? The contribution of the empire to Portugal's economic growth, 1500–1800 Leonor Freire Costa Nuno Palma Jaime Reis European Review of Economic History, Volume 19, Issue 1, 1 February 2015, Pages 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1093/ereh/heu019

Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010) - The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. Cambridge University Press.

Integration in the goods markets is measured here through the 'trade openness index', which is defined by the sum of exports and imports as a share of GDP. In our interactive chart you can explore trends in trade openness over this period for a selection of European countries.

Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010) - The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. The graph depicts the “evolution of three indicators measuring integration in commodity, labor, and capital markets over the long run. Commodity market integration is measured by computing the ratio of exports to GDP. Labor market integration is measured by dividing the migratory turnover by population. Financial integration is measured using Feldstein–Horioka estimators of current account disconnectedness.”

We also have the same chart but showing imports .

We also have the same chart, but showing imports .

This interactive chart shows trade in services as a share of GDP across countries and regions.

This chart was inspired by a chart from Helpman, E., Melitz, M., & Rubinstein, Y. (2007). Estimating trade flows: Trading partners and trading volumes (No. w12927). National Bureau of Economic Research.

We also have the same data, but as a stacked-area chart .

There are different ways of capturing this correlation. I focus here on all countries with data over the period 1945-2014. You can find a similar chart using different data sources and time periods in Ventura, J. (2005). A global view of economic growth. Handbook of economic growth, 1, 1419-1497. Online here .

The textbook The Economy: Economics for a Changing World explains this in more detail.

Frankel, J. A., & Romer, D. H. (1999). Does trade cause growth? American Economic Review, 89(3), 379-399.

Alcalá, F., & Ciccone, A. (2004). Trade and productivity . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(2), 613-646.

There are many papers that try to answer this specific question with macro data. For an overview of papers and methods see: Durlauf, S. N., Johnson, P. A., & Temple, J. R. (2005). Growth econometrics. Handbook of economic growth, 1, 555-677.

Pavcnik, N. (2002). Trade liberalization, exit, and productivity improvements: Evidence from Chilean plants . The Review of Economic Studies, 69(1), 245-276.

Bloom, N., Draca, M., & Van Reenen, J. (2016). Trade induced technical change? The impact of Chinese imports on innovation, IT and productivity. The Review of Economic Studies, 83(1), 87-117. Available online here .

You can read more about these economic concepts, and the related predictions from economic theory, in Chapter 18 of the textbook The Economy: Economics for a Changing World .

David, H., Dorn, D., & Hanson, G. H. (2013). The China syndrome: Local labor market effects of import competition in the United States . American Economic Review, 103(6), 2121-68.

It's important to mention here that the economist Jonathan Rothwell wrote a paper suggesting these findings are the result of a statistical illusion. Rothwell's critique received some attention from the media , but Autor and coauthors provided a reply , which I think successfully refutes this claim.

Magyari, I. (2017). Firm Reorganization, Chinese Imports, and US Manufacturing Employment . US Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies.

Topalova, P. (2010). Factor immobility and regional impacts of trade liberalization: Evidence on poverty from India . American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(4), 1-41.

Donaldson, D. (2018). Railroads of the Raj: Estimating the impact of transportation infrastructure . American Economic Review, 108(4-5), 899-934.

Porto, G (2006). Using Survey Data to Assess the Distributional Effects of Trade Policy. Journal of International Economics 70 (2006) 140–160.

Trefler, D. (2004). The long and short of the Canada-US free trade agreement . American Economic Review, 94(4), 870-895.

See: (i) Feenstra, R. C., & Weinstein, D. E. (2017). Globalization, markups, and US welfare . Journal of Political Economy, 125(4), 1040-1074. (ii) Fajgelbaum, P. D., & Khandelwal, A. K. (2016). Measuring the unequal gains from trade . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(3), 1113-1180.

Atkin, David, Benjamin Faber, and Marco Gonzalez-Navarro. "Retail globalization and household welfare: Evidence from Mexico." Journal of Political Economy 126.1 (2018): 1-73.

In the paper, Atkin and coauthors explore the reasons for this and find that the regressive nature of the distribution is mainly due to richer households placing higher weight on the product variety and shopping amenities on offer at these new foreign stores.

Berlingieri, G., Breinlich, H., & Dhingra, S. (2018). The Impact of Trade Agreements on Consumer Welfare—Evidence from the EU Common External Trade Policy. Journal of the European Economic Association.

Nobel laureate Paul Samuelson (1969) was once challenged by the mathematician Stanislaw Ulam: "Name me one proposition in all of the social sciences which is both true and non-trivial." It was several years later than he thought of the correct response: comparative advantage. "That it is logically true need not be argued before a mathematician; that is is not trivial is attested by the thousands of important and intelligent men who have never been able to grasp the doctrine for themselves or to believe it after it was explained to them."

(NB. This is an excerpt from https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/cadv_e.htm)

Bernhofen, D., & Brown, J. (2004). A Direct Test of the Theory of Comparative Advantage: The Case of Japan. Journal of Political Economy, 112(1), 48-67. doi:1. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/379944 doi:1

Eaton, J., & Kortum, S. (2002). Technology, geography, and trade. Econometrica, 70(5), 1741-1779.

Crozet, M., & Koenig, P. (2010). Structural Gravity Equations with Intensive and Extensive Margins. The Canadian Journal of Economics / Revue Canadienne D'Economique, 43(1), 41-62. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40389555

Manova, Kalina. "Credit constraints, heterogeneous firms, and international trade." The Review of Economic Studies 80.2 (2013): 711-744.

Melitz, J. (2008). Language and foreign trade. European Economic Review, 52(4), 667-699.

Evenett, S. J., & Keller, W. (2002). On theories explaining the success of the gravity equation . Journal of Political Economy, 110(2), 281-316.

For more information on how the COW trade datasets were constructed see: (i) Barbieri, Katherine, and Omar M. G. Omar Keshk. 2016. Correlates of War Project Trade Data Set Codebook, Version 4.0. Available at http://correlatesofwar.org and (ii) Barbieri, Katherine, Omar M. G. Keshk, and Brian Pollins. 2009. TRADING DATA: Evaluating our Assumptions and Coding Rules. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 26(5): 471–491.

Further information on CEPII's methodology can be found in their working paper .

The chart includes series labeled by the sources as 'merchandise trade' and 'goods trade'. As we explain below, part of the asymmetries in trade data comes from the fact that, although 'merchandise' and 'goods' are equivalent in the dictionary, these two terms often measure related but different things.

For example, if there is no change in ownership (e.g. a firm exports goods to its factory in another country for processing, and then re-imports the processed goods) the manual says that statistical agencies should only record the net difference in value. You can find more details about this in an OECD Statistics Briefing .

This issue is actually also a source of disagreement between National Accounts data and customs data. You can read more about it in this report: Harrison, Anne (2013) FOB/CIF Issue in Merchandise Trade/Transport of Goods in BPM6 and the 2008 SNA, Twenty-Fifth Meeting of the IMF Committee on Balance of Payments Statistics, Washington, D.C .

Precisely because of the difficulty that arises when trying to establish the origin and final destination of merchandise, some sources distinguish between national and dyadic (i.e. 'directed') trade estimates.

For more details about general and special trade see the Eurostat glossary .

The OECD approach consists of four steps, which they describe as follows: "First, data are collected and organized, and imports are converted to FOB prices to match the valuation of exports. Secondly, data are adjusted for several specific large problems known to drive asymmetries. Presently these include “modular” adjustments for unallocated and confidential trade; for exports by Hong Kong, China; for Swiss non-monetary gold; and for clear-cut cases of product misclassifications. The list of modules is expected to grow over time. In the third step, adjusted data are balanced using a “Symmetry Index” that weights exports and imports. As the final step, the data are also converted to Classification of Products by Activity (CPA) products to better align with National Accounts statistics, such as in national Supply-Use tables." You can read more about it here . In addition to the OECD, other sources also use corrections. The IMF's DOTS dataset, for example, uses a 6 percent rule for converting import valuations (in CIF) into export values (in FOB). More information can be found in the IMF's (2018) working paper on 'New Estimates for Direction of Trade Statistics'.

For more details on this see Forstater, M. (2018) Illicit Financial Flows, Trade Misinvoicing, and Multinational Tax Avoidance: The Same or Different? , CGD Policy Paper 123.

Cite this work

Our articles and data visualizations rely on work from many different people and organizations. When citing this topic page, please also cite the underlying data sources. This topic page can be cited as:

BibTeX citation

Reuse this work freely

All visualizations, data, and code produced by Our World in Data are completely open access under the Creative Commons BY license . You have the permission to use, distribute, and reproduce these in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited.

The data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. We will always indicate the original source of the data in our documentation, so you should always check the license of any such third-party data before use and redistribution.

All of our charts can be embedded in any site.

Our World in Data is free and accessible for everyone.

Help us do this work by making a donation.

Library electronic resources outage May 29th and 30th

Between 9:00 PM EST on Saturday, May 29th and 9:00 PM EST on Sunday, May 30th users will not be able to access resources through the Law Library’s Catalog, the Law Library’s Database List, the Law Library’s Frequently Used Databases List, or the Law Library’s Research Guides. Users can still access databases that require an individual user account (ex. Westlaw, LexisNexis, and Bloomberg Law), or databases listed on the Main Library’s A-Z Database List.

• Georgetown Law Library
• Foreign & International Law

International Trade Law Research Guide

Introduction.

• Secondary Sources: Treatises & Books
• Secondary Sources: Journal Articles
• Subscription Databases
• U.S. Government Agency Resources
• Internatioinal and Inter-Governmental Organization Resources
• Non-Governmental Organization Resources
• From GATT to the WTO: An Overview
• Quick Reference Table with Citations
• Texts and Status of the Agreements
• Negotiating Histories
• Commentaries
• Citations to WTO & GATT Agreements
• WTO Schedules & Tariff Information
• WTO Membership & Accession
• WTO Organization & Decision Making
• WTO & GATT Official Documents
• Dispute Settlement Practice & Procedure
• Dispute Status and Dispute-Related Documents
• Panel & Appellate Body Reports; Arbitration Decisions & Awards
• Citations to Dispute Resolution Materials
• Mega-Regional Trade Agreements: CPTPP & T-TIP
• NAFTA and the USMCA (NAFTA 2.0)
• U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (Superseded by NAFTA)
• Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR)
• Other Research Guides & Update History

Key to Icons

• Georgetown only
• On Bloomberg
• More Info (hover)
• Preeminent Treatise

The growth of international trade has generated a complex and ever-expanding body of primary law , including treaties and international agreements , national legislation , and trade dispute settlement case law .  This research guide focuses primarily on the multilateral trading system administered by the World Trade Organization .  It also includes information about regional and bilateral trade agreements , particularly those to which the U.S. is a party.  

Key Resources for International Trade Research

See the Subscription Databases page of this research guide for more detailed information about the resources that are briefly described below:

• Boderlex - trade-related news, with a particular focus on trade policy in Europe.  
• International Trade Practice Center - U.S. primary law governing international trade, secondary sources, practitioner tools, and news.  
• TradeLawGuide - tools for interpreting WTO agreements & case law.  
• U.S. International Trade Library - U.S. primary law & compiled legislative histories, congressional hearings, and secondary sources.  
• World Trade Online - trade-related news and current awareness.  
• WorldTradeLaw.net - WTO case law summaries & commentary.  
• WTO Analytical Index - interpretation & application of WTO agreements.  

Research Assistance and Help with Related Topics 

If you need assistance with international trade law research, visit the Research Help page of the Georgetown University Law Library's website. Or contact the Law Library's International and Foreign Law Department by phone (202-662-4195) or by email ( [email protected] ).  Georgetown Law Center students may schedule a one-on-one research consultation with a librarian.

For questions about U.S. customs law and tariffs, consult the Law Library's Customs Law (U.S.) research guide.  For questions about non-U.S. customs law and tariffs, consult the Law Library's Customs Law research guide.

For research involving disputes between foreign investors and host states, consult the Law Library's guide to International Investment Law .  For research involving transnational commercial disputes between private parties, consult the Law Library's guide to  International Commercial Arbitration .  

International Trade

Questions? Need Help? Contact the International & Foreign Law Dept.

International & foreign legal research (202) 662-4195 request a research consultation  .

• Next: Secondary Sources: Treatises & Books >>
• © Georgetown University Law Library. These guides may be used for educational purposes, as long as proper credit is given. These guides may not be sold. Any comments, suggestions, or requests to republish or adapt a guide should be submitted using the Research Guides Comments form . Proper credit includes the statement: Written by, or adapted from, Georgetown Law Library (current as of .....).
• Last Updated: Jan 19, 2024 3:46 PM
• URL: https://guides.ll.georgetown.edu/InternationalTradeLaw

Foreign and International Law: Topics: International Trade

• Arbitration
• Comparative Civil Procedure
• Constitutions and Constitutional Law
• Criminal Law and Criminal Tribunals
• Elections and Political Participation
• Environment
• Foreign Investment
• Global Warming
• Health and Population
• History and Government
• Human Rights
• Humanitarian Law
• Immigration
• Indigenous Peoples
• Intellectual Property
• International Affairs
• International Business
• International Law
• International Security
• International Sports Law
• International Taxation

International Trade

• Law and Economics
• Law Reform Commissions
• Legal Information Institutes
• Reference-General Sources
• Refugees/Asylum
• Statistics/Data Archives

Topics in Foreign and International Law

• Reference--General Sources
• ASIL Guide to Electronic Resources for International Economic Law Prepared by Jean Wenger, Government Documents/Foreign & International Law Librarian Cook County Law Library.
• Global Affairs Canada News releases, statements and publications, Canadian embassies and missions, foreign affairs and policy, international business development, and international cultural relations.
• CISG-France Professor Claude Witz, Saarbrücken University: Application of the Convention on the International Sale of Goods by French jurisdiction, including Cour de Cassation, Cour d'appel, and Tribunal de commerce decisions. In French.
• Directory of Economic, Commodity and Development Organizations Address, telephone listings, and description of international and regional organizations. Produced by the staff of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• From GATT to the WTO and Beyond: Research Guide
• G8 Information Centre - University of Toronto Background information on the G8, document texts from G8 Summit Meetings, G8 Ministerial Meetings, and scholarly publications.
• GATT Digital Archive Contains materials from 1947 to 1994.
• Global Sales Law Concentrates on the law of Germany, Switzerland and Austria.
• Guide on the Harmonization of International Commercial Law On GlobaLex. By Duncan Alford (2012).
• Guide to International Trade Law Sources on the Internet By Marci Hoffman.
• International Chamber of Commerce Select Business Policy Texts link for International Court of Arbitration and related rules, and the text of ICC public documents. Links for global business issues, the International Court of Arbitration, conferences and ICC publications.
• Lex Mercatoria From the University of Tromsoe, Norway, and Pace University School of Law Rich source of treaties and other primary documents in international trade law. Formerly the 'International Trade Law Monitor.'
• Organization of American States - Trade Unit Links to official sources of trade and investment information, full- text of bilateral investment treaties and trade agreements between countries in Western Hemisphere, quantitative data, and articles and opinions on trade in the Western Hemisphere.
• Regional Trade Agreements in Africa: A Historical and Bibliographic Account of ECOWAS and CEMAC By Victor Essien (2014).
• Research Guide on the Trading Systems in the Asian-Pacific Region: APEC, ASEAN and their Members On GlobaLex. By Chenglin Liu (2010), with update by Wilhelmina Randtke (2014).
• Trade Compliance Center From the U.S. Department of Commerce. Contains trade agreement database and market access database. The international trade agreements include WIPO, NAFTA and WTO documents, and bilateral trade agreements and protocols. The market access database provides for each country one or more of the following: commercial guide, country reports on economic policy and trade practices, national trade estimate reports, trade policy review summaries.
• U.N. Convention for the International Sale of Goods - Pace University Searchable CISG text, case law, bibliography, list of contracting states, UNCITRAL outline, and thesaurus of international trade keywords.
• UNIDROIT - Official Web Site of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law Links for conventions, principles and convention implementation.
• WebEc: World Wide Web Resources in Economics Scroll down to International Economics for links on international trade, international organizations, exchange rates, international treaties. Not maintained after 2007.
• World Bank: Trade and International Integration Texts of policy research working papers and executive summaries of the trade expansion program.
• WTO History Project
• WTO and GATT Research A research guide from New York University Law Library.
• World Trade Organization home page Information about the WTO.

Subject Guide

• << Previous: International Taxation
• Next: Topics L-Z >>
• Last Updated: Oct 23, 2020 3:40 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/ficl_topics

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Assignment on International Trade: Barriers and facilitation

Related Papers

Ferdyan Susetyo

Trade facilitation is an effort of simplification and harmonization of international trade procedures. Trade facilitation that manifested in the form of policy packages that aim to reduce trade costs and improve export growth. Export growth can be sourced from the level of diversity of exported goods (extensive margin) and the volume of exported goods (intensive margin). This study aims to analyze the effect of trade facilitation on the extensive and intensive margin of trade eight member countries of ACFTA during the years 2006-2014. Trade facilitation indicators used in this study consisted of exporters and importers port efficiency. This study uses gravity model and estimation techniques Random Effect Model. The results showed that exporter port efficiency have a positive and significant effect on the extensive margin while importer port efficiency has a positive and significant effect on the intensive margin.

Md. A M I R Hossain

In the paper, my aim is to focus on definition of International Relation, Trade, Development, and some aspects of development, International Relation and Globalization, International Relation & Economic Trade and Development of a country. I have also briefly highlighted steps of the government and citizens here in this paper.

Dr. S. K. S. Yadav , Ijds Ijds , Dr. Shreya Bhargav , Aman Roshan

ISSN-2277-5811(Print) & ISSN- 2278-9065(Online) Impact Factor: 2.813 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRADE AND COMMERCE-IIARTC (Refereed Research Journal of Social Science & Humanities) Volume-IV | Number -II | July-December, 2015 Impact Factor 2.813. Assessed by International Society for Research Activity (ISRA) Indexed with: 1. Cabells, Texas, U.S.A., 2. Ulrich, U.S.A. , 3. Connect journals, India, 4. ISRA, India, 5. Genamics Journal Seek, Hamilton, New Zealand , 6. Georgetown University Library, Washington DC 20057-1174,USA, 7. ZHdK Medien- und Informationszentrum, Pfingstweidstrasse 96, 8005 Zürich, Switzerland, 8. German National Library of Science and Technology (TIB), Welfengarten, Hannover (Germany), 9. Cosmos Foundation (Germany), 10. Electronic : Journals Library: Social Science Research Center, Berlin, (Germany), 11. Leipzig University Library, Germany, 12. Scribd, California, USA, 13. ZB MED, Germany, 14. GetCITED, India , 15. WZB Berlin Social Science Center, 16. Worldcat.

Ahmed Lamie

CREDIT Research Paper

Oliver Morrissey

Dr. S. K. S. Yadav , Ijds Ijds , sandeep kumar

International Journal of Trade & Commerce-IIARTC ISSN 2277-5811 (Print), ISSN 2278-9065 (Online) Impact Factor 2.813. Assessed by International Society for Research Activity(ISRA) Indexed 1. Cabells, Texas, U.S.A., 2. Ulrich, U.S.A. , 3. Connect journals, India, 4. ISRA, India, 5. Genamics Journal Seek, Hamilton, New Zealand , 6. Georgetown University Library, Washington DC 20057-1174,USA, 7. ZHdK Medien- und Informationszentrum, Pfingstweidstrasse 96, 8005 Zürich, Switzerland, 8. German National Library of Science and Technology (TIB), Welfengarten, Hannover (Germany), 9. Cosmos Foundation (Germany), 10. Electronic : Journals Library: Social Science Research Center, Berlin, (Germany), 11. Leipzig University Library, Germany, 12. Scribd, California, USA, 13. ZB MED, Germany, 14. GetCITED, India , 15. WZB Berlin Social Science Center, 16. Worldcat., 17.scribed, 17.Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek , Fachbibliotheken, Bibliothekssystem Universität, Hamburg,18, ibrarian library, 19 Gsr concerts | pdfsea.net ,, 20, J-Gate – Informatics 21. Gndec central library 22. Researchgate: DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3979.9442, Dr. S.K.S.Yadav, Editor-in-chief

TUYOBOKE Jimmy

International Trade is also concerned with allocation of economic resources among countries. Such allocation is done in the world markets by means of international trade under the concept of free trade, the best products are produced and sold in competitive market, and benefits of efficient production like better quality and lower price are available to all people of the world. In the most countries trade presents a significant share of gross domestic product. Real exchange rate, as the price of one current in relation to another as with any good the relative price of two currencies is determine by the supply and demand currencies in exchange rate market. We can use basic fundamental to explain how domestic currencies price change in relation to another Net exports are the value of a nation's minus the value of import. Net export are also called the trade balance Trade deficitis a situation in which net export (NX) are negative (import>export) A trade surplusis a situation in which net exports (NX) arepositive(Export>Import)

Bolor Bat-Erdene

Niaz Makhdum

In the modern world, the major importance of international trade has become an important issue. International trade creates a borderless market where every country can compete and maximize profits. It opens possibility for companies to enter into a larger market around the world as well as allows developing countries’ business to become a part of international production network. International trade leads more access to capital flow for developing countries. The aim of this paper is to prepare a common approach to international trade's benefit and losses of developing or under developing countries. Several objectives, theoretical concept of international trade and analysis of some recent economic cases are discussed .The main task is to find out that how developing or under developing countries are benefited from international trade over developed countries. But actually international trade has served the actual motive for developing countries.

Changez Khan

This report has been written under the overall guidance

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

marco fugazza

Mehdi Aminirad , Narges Ahmadvand

Ketan Bawane

Sevgi Sezer

Industrija,

Slobodan Kotlica , Natasa Stanojevic

Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi

Ali Rıza Sandalcılar

TESAM Akademi Dergisi

Murat Akkaya

Humphrey Katotoka

International Journal of Business and Applied Economics

Putri Ananda

Predrag Bjelić

Barbaros Kemer

Amir Hamzah Pohan

Hamza Ouache

OmGeorge Korele

DIMENSION EMPRESARIAL

Dr. Muhammad Saqib Irshad

İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi

üzeyir aydın

Jurnal Fisip Kybernan

siti nuraini

Daniela Benavente

Gloria Pasadilla

Dasuni Nayanathara Jayarathne

Gianluigi Moscato

Titta Novianti

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Careers & Service
• Using the Library
• Special Collections
• Legal Data Lab
• Search the Catalog

     ALERT: The shelter in place order has been lifted, but all UVA Library locations will remain closed today, November 14.

International Law Guide

• International Courts and Tribunals
• International Organizations
• Private International Law
• Selected Topics in Public International Law

See also...

Foreign Law Guide

General Guides and Resources for Public International Law

• GlobaLex Research guides to international law (by subject) and foreign law (by jurisdiction) from NYU's Hauser Global Law School Program.

• ASIL Research Guide to Public International Law An up-to-date guide to treaty and other public international law research with an emphasis on online resources. From the American Society of International Law.

Criminal Law

• ASIL Research Guide to International Criminal Law
• Research Guides to the International Criminal Courts for the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone From GlobaLex.
• Comparative Criminal Procedure: A Selected Bibliography From GlobaLex.
• International Criminal Court Legal Tools Provides access to documents important to international criminal law, including treaties, judgments and decisions, summaries of domestic criminal justice systems in many countries including relevant statutes or codes, and commentary on international criminal law and other aspects of international law.

Environmental Law

• ECOLEX: A Gateway to Environmental Law
• United Nations Environment Programme
• ASIL Research Guide to International Environmental Law
• A Basic Guide to International Environmental Legal Research From GlobaLex.

Human Rights and Humanitarian Law

• UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
• OHCHR Jurisprudence Database Contains recommendations and findings from the various UN human rights committees that consider complaints from individuals.
• Refworld UNHCR's comprehensive information source on refugee status includes treaties, legislation and court decisions, as well as information organized by country and topic.
• European Court of Human Rights Pending cases, judgments, basic texts and a complete index to all ECHR judgments.
• Bayefsky.com: The United Nations Human Rights Treaties
• ICRC's Customary International Humanitarian Law Database A free online version of their two-volume publication.
• University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
• Human Rights Library: Collections on the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights From the University of Minnesota.
• ESCR-Net Caselaw Database Database of domestic, international, and quasi-judicial cases and decisions on economic, social and cultural rights.
• U.S. Department of State - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
• Project Diana: An Online Human Rights Case Archive From Yale Law School.
• ASIL Research Guide to International Human Rights
• ASIL Research Guide to International Humanitarian Law
• International Human Rights Research Guide From GlobaLex.
• ICJ E-bulletin on Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights International Commission of Jurist's free monthly publication of legal developments in the fields of counter-terrorism and human rights.

Intellectual Property

• WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization
• WIPO Lex Collection of intellectual property legislation (in English) from WIPO member countries.
• AIPPI - International Association for the Protection of Intellectual Property An international NGO devoted to the "the development and improvement of intellectual property." The Questions/Committees section contains country-by-country reports on specific intellectual property law topics.
• European Patent Office
• U.S. Patent & Trademark Office General information, forms, and a free searchable patent and trademark database.
• U.S. Copyright Office Copyright basics, law, forms, and other materials available through the Library of Congress, the entity responsible for copyrights.
• ASIL Research Guide to International Intellectual Property Law
• IP Precedents Database Database of English translations of precedential domestic court decisions on IP topics; from the Research Center for the Legal System of Intellectual Property.

Law of the Sea

• United Nations: Oceans and Law of the Sea
• International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
• International Seabed Authority
• UVA Center for Oceans Law & Policy
• ASIL Research Guide to Law of the Sea

Trade, Investment or Economic Law

• GATT Documents Online From the WTO.
• GATT Digital Library From Stanford University.
• WorldTradeLaw.net
• International Trade Database: Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods From Pace University.
• Trans-Lex.org Research platform for transnational commercial law from the Center for Transnational Law, Cologne University, Germany.
• SICE - Foreign Trade Information System From the Organization of American States.
• United States International Trade Commission
• United States Trade Representative
• Harmonized Tariff Schedule

• ASIL Research Guide to International Economic Law
• ASIL Research Guide to International Commercial Arbitration
• Research Guide on the Harmonization of International Commercial Law From GlobaLex.

Women's Rights

• Women's Human Rights Resources From the University of Toronto.
• Women's Human Rights Documents From the University of Minnesota.
• Women's Rights Links From the University of Minnesota.
• Last Updated: Jul 12, 2023 10:02 AM
• URL: https://libguides.law.virginia.edu/international
• Privacy Statement   |  
• University of Virginia   |  
• Emergency Information

Post-Neoliberal Globalization: International Trade Rules for Global Prosperity

This paper analyzes frameworks for the design of the rules for international trading, assuming that it is possible to have some rule of law. In the Arrow-Debreu benchmark, where there is no economic power and political power is seemingly irrelevant, there is no need for trade agreements – free trade is the optimal policy for each country. But under even minimal deviations from that benchmark, trade agreements matter. We focus on environments in which there are market failures, technology is endogenous, and there is political power. Power dynamics play, for instance, a critical role in the design, implementation, and enforcement of agreements, with the latter being a critical difference between international agreements and domestic contracts and a key determinant of the feasibility and consequences of agreements. With endogenous technology, trade rules proscribing industrial policies may lead to lower growth and greater cross-country inequalities. Finally, we develop a framework which may be useful in the design and implementation of trade rules.

The authors would like to acknowledge the very thoughtful and constructive comments from David Vines, Simon Cowan, Giovanni Dosi, participants of seminars of the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, the University of Sao Paulo (Brazil), and The Foundations of Complex Evolving Economies Conference at Sant’ Anna School of Advanced Studies (Pisa, Italy), the excellent editorial work of Meaghan Winter, and the financial support of the Sloan and Hewlett Foundations. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

Published Versions

Martin Guzman & Joseph E Stiglitz, 2024. " Post-neoliberal globalization: international trade rules for global prosperity, " Oxford Review of Economic Policy, vol 40(2), pages 282-306.

More from NBER

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship  — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

Global Growth Is Stabilizing for the First Time in Three Years

But 80% of world population will experience slower growth than in pre-COVID decade

WASHINGTON, June 11, 2024 — The global economy is expected to stabilize for the first time in three years in 2024—but at a level that is weak by recent historical standards, according to the World Bank’s latest Global Economic Prospects report.

Global growth is projected to hold steady at 2.6% in 2024 before edging up to an average of 2.7% in 2025-26. That is well below the 3.1% average in the decade before COVID-19. The forecast implies that over the course of 2024-26 countries that collectively account for more than 80% of the world’s population and global GDP would still be growing more slowly than they did in the decade before COVID-19.

Overall, developing economies are projected to grow 4% on average over 2024-25, slightly slower than in 2023. Growth in low-income economies is expected to accelerate to 5% in 2024 from 3.8% in 2023. However, the forecasts for 2024 growth reflect downgrades in three out of every four low-income economies since January. In advanced economies, growth is set to remain steady at 1.5% in 2024 before rising to 1.7% in 2025.

“Four years after the upheavals caused by the pandemic, conflicts, inflation, and monetary tightening, it appears that global economic growth is steadying,” said Indermit Gill, the World Bank Group’s Chief Economist and Senior Vice President. “ However, growth is at lower levels than before 2020. Prospects for the world’s poorest economies are even more worrisome. They face punishing levels of debt service, constricting trade possibilities, and costly climate events. Developing economies will have to find ways to encourage private investment, reduce public debt, and improve education, health, and basic infrastructure. The poorest among them—especially the 75 countries eligible for concessional assistance from the International Development Association—will not be able to do this without international support.”

This year, one in four developing economies is expected to remain poorer than it was on the eve of the pandemic in 2019. This proportion is twice as high for countries in fragile- and conflict-affected situations. Moreover, the income gap between developing economies and advanced economies is set to widen in nearly half of developing economies over 2020-24 —the highest share since the 1990s. Per capita income in these economies—an important indicator of living standards—is expected to grow by 3.0% on average through 2026, well below the average of 3.8% in the decade before COVID-19.

Global inflation is expected to moderate to 3.5% in 2024 and 2.9% in 2025, but the pace of decline is slower than was projected just six months ago. Many central banks, as a result, are expected to remain cautious in lowering policy interest rates. Global interest rates are likely to remain high by the standards of recent decades—averaging about 4% over 2025-26, roughly double the 2000-19 average.

“Although food and energy prices have moderated across the world, core inflation remains relatively high—and could stay that way,” said Ayhan Kose, the World Bank’s Deputy Chief Economist and Director of the Prospects Group . “That could prompt central banks in major advanced economies to delay interest-rate cuts. An environment of ‘higher-for-longer’ rates would mean tighter global financial conditions and much weaker growth in developing economies.”

The latest Global Economic Prospects report also features two analytical chapters of topical importance. The first outlines how public investment can be used to accelerate private investment and promote economic growth. It finds that public investment growth in developing economies has halved since the global financial crisis, dropping to an annual average of 5% in the past decade. Yet public investment can be a powerful policy lever. For developing economies with ample fiscal space and efficient government spending practices, scaling up public investment by 1% of GDP can increase the level of output by up to 1.6% over the medium term.

The second analytical chapter explores why small states—those with a population of around 1.5 million or less—suffer chronic fiscal difficulties. Two-fifths of the 35 developing economies that are small states are at high risk of debt distress or already in it. That’s roughly twice the share for other developing economies. Comprehensive reforms are needed to address the fiscal challenges of small states. Revenues could be drawn from a more stable and secure tax base. Spending efficiency could be improved —especially in health, education, and infrastructure. Fiscal frameworks could be adopted to manage the higher frequency of natural disasters and other shocks. Targeted and coordinated global policies can also help put these countries on a more sustainable fiscal path.

Download the full report: https://bit.ly/GEP-June-2024-FullReport

Download growth data:   https://bit.ly/GEP-June-2024-Data

Download charts: https://bit.ly/GEP-June-2024-Charts

Regional Outlooks:

East Asia and Pacific:  Growth is expected to decelerate to 4.8% in 2024 and to 4.2% in 2025. For more, see  regional overview.

Europe and Central Asia:  Growth is expected to edge down to 3.0% in 2024 before moderating to 2.9% in 2025. For more, see  regional overview .

Latin America and the Caribbean:  Growth is expected to decline to 1.8% in 2024 before picking up to 2.7% in 2025. For more, see  regional overview .

Middle East and North Africa:  Growth is expected to pick up to 2.8% in 2024 and 4.2% in 2025. For more, see  regional overview.

South Asia:  Growth is expected to slow to 6.2% in 2024 and remain steady at 6.2% in 2025. For more, see regional overview.

Sub-Saharan Africa: Growth is expected to pick up to 3.5% in 2024 and to 3.9% in 2025. For more, see  regional overview.

Website:  www.worldbank.org/gep

Facebook:  facebook.com/worldbank

X (Twitter):  twitter.com/worldbank

YouTube:  youtube.com/worldbank

This site uses cookies to optimize functionality and give you the best possible experience. If you continue to navigate this website beyond this page, cookies will be placed on your browser. To learn more about cookies, click here .

International celebration of Micro-, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Day 2024

As we steer our ship into a New Development Course in a Changing World, the importance of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and the circular economy is crystal clear. MSMEs, which account for 90% of businesses, more than 70% of employment, and 50% of GDP worldwide, remain the core of the economy for most societies.

The United Nations General Assembly designated 27 June 2024 as "Micro-, Small, and Medium-sized Enterprises Day" (A/RES/71/279) to raise awareness of the tremendous contributions of micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Together with MSMEs and entrepreneurs, we can reach the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The workshop, organized by UN Trade and Development, the International Council for Small Business, and other partners, will celebrate the International Day of MSMEs 2024. The sessions will discuss the role, potential, and challenges of MSMEs in contributing to achieving the SDGs and other internationally agreed-upon commitments, with a particular focus on the circular economy.

Participants will include international experts and representatives from all stakeholder groups.

The workshop will be broadcast live.

International Council for Small Business (ICSB) 

Micro-, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Day, 27 June

• Create an account
• Register for an event

Chantal Line Carpentier, Head, Trade, environment, climate change, and sustainable development Branch Division of International Trade and Commodities, UN Trade and Development [email protected]

Dr. Ayman Tarabishy, President and CEO, ICSB [email protected]

With no trade to be had, Rays release Harold Ramirez

• Marc Topkin Times staff

ATLANTA — Unable to get a team interested in trading for Harold Ramirez, the Rays released the veteran outfielder/DH on Friday, making him a free agent.

Ramirez, 29, was designated for assignment last week when the Rays needed to create space on the 40-man roster to reinstate shortstop Taylor Walls. Ramirez cleared both outright and release waivers — as a claiming team would have been responsible for his full remaining salary — and then was given his unconditional release on Friday.

Rays manager Kevin Cash said he expects to Ramirez to get signed and be playing somewhere in the majors.

“I think he should,” Cash said. “I definitely expect that that will take place. It’s just going to be the right fit, a team that needs a right-handed bat that can hit and hit righties and certainly hit lefties.”

Though Ramirez was a key part of the Rays offense in 2022-23, hitting .306 with 18 homers and a .780 OPS over 242 games, he had struggled this season. In 48 games he had a .268 average, but 40 of his 44 hits were singles (12 of them infield singles) as he had one homer and a .589 OPS.

Plus, his playing time was limited by his lack of versatility and range in the field.

The Rays are responsible for the approximate $2.35 million remaining on his $3.8 million contract. If Ramirez signs a major-league contract elsewhere, his new team would have to pay only the prorated remaining amount of the $740,000 major-league minimum salary, with the Rays covering the rest. Ramirez would be eligible to re-sign with the Rays in 30 days.

Atlanta trip special for Georgia guys

Among three Rays players with Georgia roots, this weekend is most meaningful for outfielder Josh Lowe.

He grew up in nearby Marietta, has played minor-league games in the area and has been to Truist Park as a fan, but is excited to be playing there for the first time. And he had plenty of family (including his parents and maternal grandmother), friends and former coaches in the stands.

“Every time coming back is still special,” he said. “I get to see some of my friends from high school, my high school coaches. My grandma still lives here. So it’s kind of a little reunion coming back here and it’s awesome. ... This is really where baseball kind of started for me. This is home for me, where I grew up. And it’s very special to come back and put on a major-league jersey and play here.”

Right-hander Taj Bradley, who won’t pitch in this series, played at Redan High on the east side of Atlanta and has family in the area. Infielder Taylor Walls, who grew up about 2 1/2 hours south in the town of Cordele, said he was excited to be back, but wouldn’t have anywhere near the turnout like his 2021 visit when several hundred supporters made the trip.

Walls’ ‘walkoff’ play

OMG TAYLOR WALLS ELITE DEFENSIVE SS FOR THE W AND SERIES VICTORY #Rays #RaysUp pic.twitter.com/8S0LStbW2H — The Rays Way (@MLBRaysWay) June 14, 2024

Walls watched the video of his remarkable diving stop and glove-hand flip that started the game-ending double play against the Cubs on Thursday and still wasn’t sure by Friday afternoon how it all happened. Walls said he knew from how and where the ball was hit he was going to have to make an all-out dive.

Stay updated on Tampa Bay’s sports scene

Subscribe to our free Sports Today newsletter

You’re all signed up!

Want more of our free, weekly newsletters in your inbox? Let’s get started.

As soon as he felt the ball hit his glove, “it was almost like this all of a sudden rush of adrenaline through every vein in my body. From there, it just felt almost like a blackout, like an ‘I don’t even know what’s going on’ moment. Everything just felt like it was kind of an out-of-body experience almost. So that was pretty fun to have that feeling defensively.”

Yandy Diaz extended his on-base streak to 17 games with a leadoff single. ... The Rays will make a rare road appearance in their black City Connect uniforms for Saturday’s 4:10 p.m. game, with a high of 96 degrees forecast. ... Charlie Morton, who spent 2019-20 with the Rays, starts Saturday for the Braves.

Sign up for the Sports Today newsletter to get daily updates on the Bucs, Rays, Lightning and college football across Florida.

Never miss out on the latest with your favorite Tampa Bay sports teams. Follow our coverage on Instagram , X and Facebook .

Marc Topkin is a sports reporter covering the Tampa Bay Rays. Reach him at [email protected].

MORE FOR YOU

• Advertisement

ONLY AVAILABLE FOR SUBSCRIBERS

The Tampa Bay Times e-Newspaper is a digital replica of the printed paper seven days a week that is available to read on desktop, mobile, and our app for subscribers only. To enjoy the e-Newspaper every day, please subscribe.

Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Arnaud Costinot

Departments

As taught in.

• Globalization
• Financial Economics
• International Economics
• Macroeconomics

Learning Resource Types

International trade, 14.54 f16 lecture slides: introduction.

This resource contains information regarding international trade lecture slides: Introduction.

You are leaving MIT OpenCourseWare