what do scientists research

How To Become A Research Scientist: What To Know

Published: Feb 29, 2024, 1:40pm

Research is at the center of everything we know and discover, whether it’s food science, engineering, wildlife or the climate. Behind these discoveries, a research scientist conducts experiments, collects data, and shares their findings with the world.

Research and development scientist, or R&D scientist, is a broad career term that encompasses numerous types of scientists, from geologists to historians. Still, every research scientist has the same goal of furthering their field through experimentation and data analysis.

Browse this guide to discover how to become a research scientist and learn about this role, responsibilities and career outlook.

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What Does a Research Scientist Do?

Research scientists design and conduct research projects and experiments to collect and interpret relevant data. Many research scientists work in laboratory settings for universities, private businesses or government agencies.

These professionals are key players in many industries, from healthcare to marine biology . For instance, a chemist may test various materials for future upgrades to a medical device, while a wildlife research scientist might conduct long-term studies on a species’s breeding patterns.

The typical duties of a research scientist, regardless of their industry and position, include:

• Identifying research needs
• Collaborating with other professionals in a project
• Conducting research and experiments
• Writing laboratory reports
• Writing grant proposals
• Analyzing data
• Presenting research to appropriate audiences
• Developing research-related plans or projects

Research scientists may face challenges throughout their careers, like securing research funding or staying updated with policy changes and technologies. Additionally, to become involved in high-level research projects, research scientists usually need a doctoral degree, requiring substantial time and financial commitment.

How To Become a Research Scientist

The path to becoming a research scientist depends on your desired type of work.

For example, if you plan to become a research scientist for a hospital’s oncology department, you’ll likely need a doctoral degree and postdoctoral research experience. However, a product development researcher may only need a bachelor’s or master’s degree.

The following steps outline the general path needed for many research scientist positions.

Degree Finder

Earn a bachelor’s degree.

Research scientists can start by pursuing a bachelor’s degree in a field relevant to the research they want to conduct. For instance, an undergraduate degree in natural resources is helpful to become a wildlife biologist, while a prospective forensic scientist can pursue a degree in forensics.

If you’re undecided about your post-graduate goals, you can pursue a general major like chemistry, biology or physics before choosing a more field-specific master’s or doctoral degree.

Complete a Master’s Degree

Many higher-level research jobs require a master’s degree in a relevant field. Pursuing a master’s degree lets you gain work experience before beginning a doctorate, sets you apart from other doctoral candidates and qualifies you for advanced research positions.

However, you can skip a master’s degree and enter a doctoral program. Many doctoral programs only require a bachelor’s degree for admission, so you could save time and money by choosing that route rather than earning a master’s.

Get a Doctoral Degree

Doctorates require students to hone their research skills while mastering their field of interest, making these degrees the gold standard for research scientists.

A doctorate can take four to six years to complete. Research scientists should opt for the most relevant doctorate for their career path, like clinical research, bioscience or developmental science.

Pursue a Research Fellowship

Some jobs for research scientists require candidates to have experience in their field, making a research fellowship beneficial. In a research fellowship, students execute research projects under the mentorship of an industry expert, often a researcher within the student’s college or university.

Students can sometimes complete a fellowship while pursuing their doctoral degree, but other fellowships are only available to doctoral graduates.

Research Scientist Salary and Job Outlook

Payscale reports the average research scientist earns about $87,800 per year as of February 2024. However, research scientist salaries can vary significantly depending on the field and the scientist’s experience level.

For example, Payscale reports that entry-level research scientists earn about $84,000 annually, but those with 20 or more years of experience average approximately $106,000 as of February 2024.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports salary data for several types of research scientist careers. For example, a geoscientist earns a median wage of about $87,000, while the median wage of a physicist is around $139,000 as of May 2022.

As salaries vary based on research science positions, so does demand. To illustrate, the BLS projects the need for chemists and materials scientists to grow by 6% from 2022 to 2032 but projects medical scientist jobs to increase by 10% in the same timeframe. Both projections demonstrate above-average career growth, however.

Research Scientist Specializations

A research scientist can work in many industries, so it’s crucial to understand your options before beginning your studies. Pinpointing a few areas of interest can help you find the right educational path for your future career.

Research scientists can specialize in life, physical or earth sciences.

Life science researchers like botanists, biologists and geneticists study living things and their environments. Physical research scientists, like chemists and physicists, explore non-living things and their interactions with an environment. Earth science researchers like meteorologists and geologists study Earth and its features.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Becoming a Research Scientist

What degree does a research scientist need.

Research scientist education requirements vary by specialization, but entry-level research positions require at least a bachelor’s degree in a relevant field. Some employers prefer a master’s or doctoral degree, as advanced degrees demonstrate specialized knowledge and research experience.

How do I start a career in scientific research?

Research scientists need at least a bachelor’s degree. Many graduates pursue a master’s or doctoral degree while gaining experience with an entry-level position, internship or fellowship.

Does being a research scientist pay well?

Research scientist careers generally pay well; some specializations pay more than others. For example, the BLS reports a median salary of about $67,000 for zoologists and wildlife biologists as of May 2022, but physicists and astronomers earn just over $139,000 annually.

How many years does it take to become a research scientist?

It can take up to 10 years to become a doctorate-prepared research scientist, plus another one to five years to complete a postdoctoral fellowship. Entry-level research scientist roles may only require a four-year bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree, which takes one to two years.

Do you need a Ph.D. to be a research scientist?

No, not all research scientists need a Ph.D. Entry-level roles like forensic scientist technicians may only need a bachelor’s degree, and sociologists and economists usually need a master’s. Some research scientist roles, like physicists and medical scientists, require a doctoral degree.

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As a self-proclaimed lifelong learner and former educator, Amy Boyington is passionate about researching and advocating for learners of all ages. For over a decade, Amy has specialized in writing parenting and higher education content that simplifies the process of comparing schools, programs and tuition rates for prospective students and their families. Her work has been featured on several online publications, including Online MBA, Reader’s Digest and BestColleges.

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How research works: understanding the process of science.

Have you ever wondered how research works? How scientists make discoveries about our health and the world around us? Whether they’re studying plants, animals, humans, or something else in our world, they follow the scientific method. But this method isn’t always—or even usually—a straight line, and often the answers are unexpected and lead to more questions. Let’s dive in to see how it all works.

The Question Scientists start with a question about something they observe in the world. They develop a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction of what the answer to their question will be. Often their predictions turn out to be correct, but sometimes searching for the answer leads to unexpected outcomes.

The Techniques To test their hypotheses, scientists conduct experiments. They use many different tools and techniques, and sometimes they need to invent a new tool to fully answer their question. They may also work with one or more scientists with different areas of expertise to approach the question from other angles and get a more complete answer to their question.

The Evidence Throughout their experiments, scientists collect and analyze their data. They reach conclusions based on those analyses and determine whether their results match the predictions from their hypothesis. Often these conclusions trigger new questions and new hypotheses to test.

Researchers share their findings with one another by publishing papers in scientific journals and giving presentations at meetings. Data sharing is very important for the scientific field, and although some results may seem insignificant, each finding is often a small piece of a larger puzzle. That small piece may spark a new question and ultimately lead to new findings.

Sometimes research results seem to contradict each other, but this doesn’t necessarily mean that the results are wrong. Instead, it often means that the researchers used different tools, methods, or timeframes to obtain their results. The results of a single study are usually unable to fully explain the complex systems in the world around us. We must consider how results from many research studies fit together. This perspective gives us a more complete picture of what’s really happening.

Even if the scientific process doesn’t answer the original question, the knowledge gained may help provide other answers that lead to new hypotheses and discoveries.

Learn more about the importance of communicating how this process works in the NIH News in Health article, “ Explaining How Research Works .”

This post is a great supplement to Pathways: The Basic Science Careers Issue.

Pathways introduces the important role that scientists play in understanding the world around us, and all scientists use the scientific method as they make discoveries—which is explained in this post.

Learn more in our Educator’s Corner .

2 Replies to “How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science”

Nice basic explanation. I believe informing the lay public on how science works, how parts of the body interact, etc. is a worthwhile endeavor. You all Rock! Now, we need to spread the word ‼️❗️‼️ Maybe eith a unique app. And one day, with VR and incentives to read & answer a couple questions.

As you know, the importance of an informed population is what will keep democracy alive. Plus it will improve peoples overall wellness & life outcomes.

Thanks for this clear explanation for the person who does not know science. Without getting too technical or advanced, it might be helpful to follow your explanation of replication with a reference to meta-analysis. You might say something as simple as, “Meta-analysis is a method for doing research on all the best research; meta-analytic research confirms the overall trend in results, even when the best studies show different results.”

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What does a scientist do?

Would you make a good scientist? Take our career test and find your match with over 800 careers.

What is a Scientist?

A scientist engages in systematic and methodical inquiry to expand our understanding of the natural world. These individuals employ the scientific method, a structured approach to investigation that involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Scientists can specialize in various fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and more, each contributing to the collective body of scientific knowledge. Their work often involves a commitment to objectivity, rigorous methodology, and the pursuit of evidence-based explanations. Scientists may work in academic institutions, research laboratories, or private industries, and their discoveries contribute not only to theoretical understanding but also to technological advancements and practical applications that benefit society.

What does a Scientist do?

Duties and Responsibilities The duties and responsibilities of a scientist can vary depending on their specific field of expertise, whether it's in physics, chemistry, biology, or any other scientific discipline. However, there are some common core responsibilities that scientists typically share:

• Research and Experimentation: Scientists design, plan, and conduct experiments or investigations to test hypotheses and expand knowledge in their field. This involves carefully documenting procedures, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.
• Hypothesis Formulation: Scientists propose hypotheses or theories based on existing knowledge or observations. They formulate these hypotheses to guide their research and to make predictions that can be tested through experimentation.
• Literature Review: Staying current with existing research is essential. Scientists regularly review scientific literature to understand the state of their field, identify gaps in knowledge, and build upon or challenge existing theories.
• Data Analysis and Interpretation: Scientists use statistical methods and analytical tools to interpret experimental results. They draw meaningful conclusions from data, assess the significance of their findings, and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field.
• Publication and Communication: Scientists publish their research findings in peer-reviewed journals to share their discoveries with the scientific community. Effective communication skills are crucial, as scientists often present their work at conferences, collaborate with colleagues, and engage with the public to disseminate knowledge.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is common in scientific research. Scientists often work in interdisciplinary teams, pooling their expertise to address complex problems. Effective teamwork and communication are essential for success.
• Grant Writing: Many scientists secure funding for their research through grant applications. This involves developing proposals that outline the research objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes to convince funding agencies of the project's merit.
• Teaching and Mentoring: In academic settings, scientists may have teaching responsibilities, educating students at various levels. They may also mentor graduate students or junior researchers, guiding them in their own research endeavors.
• Ethical Considerations: Scientists adhere to ethical standards in their research, ensuring the humane treatment of research subjects, accurate representation of data, and responsible use of resources.
• Continuous Learning: Scientific fields evolve, and scientists must stay abreast of new developments. Continuous learning through attending conferences, workshops, and engaging with the scientific community is crucial for professional growth.

See our Comprehensive List of Science Related Careers and Degrees .

Industries Where Scientists Can Contribute Scientists work across a broad spectrum of industries, contributing their expertise to advance knowledge, solve complex problems, and drive innovation. Here are descriptions of various industries where scientists play pivotal roles, along with real-life examples of their work:

• Pharmaceuticals and Biotechnology: Scientists in this industry research and develop new drugs and therapies. They may be involved in clinical trials, studying the efficacy and safety of medications. For instance, pharmaceutical scientists at a company like Pfizer work on the development of vaccines and medications for various medical conditions.
• Healthcare and Medicine: Medical researchers work to understand diseases, discover diagnostic tools, and improve treatment methods. At institutions like the National Institutes of Health (NIH), scientists conduct groundbreaking research on diseases such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and neurological disorders.
• Agriculture and Food Science: Agricultural scientists focus on improving crop yields, developing sustainable farming practices, and ensuring food safety. Researchers at organizations like the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) work on enhancing crop varieties for global food security.
• Environmental Science and Conservation: Environmental scientists study ecosystems, climate change, and conservation efforts. Scientists at organizations like the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) conduct research to protect endangered species and preserve biodiversity.
• Technology and IT: Computer scientists and data analysts work in the technology industry to develop algorithms, improve cybersecurity, and analyze big data. Scientists at companies like Google Research contribute to advancements in machine learning, artificial intelligence, and data science.
• Energy and Renewable Resources: Energy scientists focus on developing sustainable and renewable energy sources. Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) work on innovations in solar, wind, and other clean energy technologies.
• Space Exploration and Aerospace: Astrophysicists and aerospace engineers contribute to space exploration and satellite technology. Scientists at NASA conduct research on planetary science, astrophysics, and space missions, expanding our understanding of the universe.
• Chemical and Materials Science: Chemists and materials scientists work in industries such as manufacturing, developing new materials with specific properties. Scientists at companies like Dow and DuPont research and innovate in areas like polymers, chemicals, and materials for various applications.
• Government and Public Policy: Scientists in government agencies contribute to public policy by providing evidence-based recommendations. For instance, climate scientists at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study the impact of human activities on the environment and inform environmental policies.
• Academic Research and Education: Scientists in academia conduct research, teach, and mentor students. Professors at universities like MIT or Stanford lead research projects, publish scholarly articles, and educate the next generation of scientists.

Are you suited to be a scientist?

Scientists have distinct personalities . They tend to be investigative individuals, which means they’re intellectual, introspective, and inquisitive. They are curious, methodical, rational, analytical, and logical. Some of them are also artistic, meaning they’re creative, intuitive, sensitive, articulate, and expressive.

Does this sound like you? Take our free career test to find out if scientist is one of your top career matches.

What is the workplace of a Scientist like?

The workplace of a scientist is highly diverse and depends on the specific field of science, industry, and the nature of their research or responsibilities. Scientists can be found working in a variety of settings, each tailored to their unique needs and objectives.

In academia, scientists often work in universities, research institutions, or laboratories. They have access to state-of-the-art facilities, equipment, and a collaborative environment. Professors and researchers may split their time between conducting experiments, analyzing data, and teaching students. The academic setting encourages intellectual exchange and provides opportunities for publishing research findings in academic journals.

In industry, scientists may work for companies ranging from pharmaceuticals to technology or energy. Industrial scientists often have access to specialized laboratories and cutting-edge technologies. Their work may involve product development, quality control, or the improvement of existing technologies. For example, a pharmaceutical scientist in a drug development company might spend time in a laboratory conducting experiments to create new medications.

Government agencies also employ scientists to conduct research and contribute to public policy. Government scientists may work in agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NASA, or the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Their responsibilities can include monitoring environmental conditions, conducting space exploration research, or contributing to health-related studies.

Fieldwork is another aspect of a scientist's workplace, especially for those in environmental science, ecology, or geology. Field scientists may spend a significant amount of time outdoors, collecting samples, conducting surveys, and analyzing data in real-world settings. This can involve working in diverse environments such as forests, oceans, or remote locations.

The workplace of a scientist may also extend to virtual spaces, particularly with advancements in technology. Computational scientists, data analysts, and researchers in fields like bioinformatics may spend a significant amount of time working with computer models, simulations, and large datasets. This allows for collaboration across borders and facilitates remote work opportunities.

Collaboration is a key aspect of many scientists' workplaces. Whether in academia, industry, or government, scientists often work in multidisciplinary teams. This collaborative approach fosters the exchange of ideas, diverse perspectives, and collective problem-solving.

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Home » Scientific Research – Types, Purpose and Guide

Scientific Research – Types, Purpose and Guide

Table of Contents

Scientific Research

Definition:

Scientific research is the systematic and empirical investigation of phenomena, theories, or hypotheses, using various methods and techniques in order to acquire new knowledge or to validate existing knowledge.

It involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data, as well as the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Scientific research can be conducted in various fields, such as natural sciences, social sciences, and engineering, and may involve experiments, observations, surveys, or other forms of data collection. The goal of scientific research is to advance knowledge, improve understanding, and contribute to the development of solutions to practical problems.

Types of Scientific Research

There are different types of scientific research, which can be classified based on their purpose, method, and application. In this response, we will discuss the four main types of scientific research.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research aims to describe or document a particular phenomenon or situation, without altering it in any way. This type of research is usually done through observation, surveys, or case studies. Descriptive research is useful in generating ideas, understanding complex phenomena, and providing a foundation for future research. However, it does not provide explanations or causal relationships between variables.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research aims to explore a new area of inquiry or develop initial ideas for future research. This type of research is usually conducted through observation, interviews, or focus groups. Exploratory research is useful in generating hypotheses, identifying research questions, and determining the feasibility of a larger study. However, it does not provide conclusive evidence or establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental Research

Experimental research aims to test cause-and-effect relationships between variables by manipulating one variable and observing the effects on another variable. This type of research involves the use of an experimental group, which receives a treatment, and a control group, which does not receive the treatment. Experimental research is useful in establishing causal relationships, replicating results, and controlling extraneous variables. However, it may not be feasible or ethical to manipulate certain variables in some contexts.

Correlational Research

Correlational research aims to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. This type of research involves the use of statistical techniques to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. Correlational research is useful in identifying patterns, predicting outcomes, and testing theories. However, it does not establish causation or control for confounding variables.

Scientific Research Methods

Scientific research methods are used in scientific research to investigate phenomena, acquire knowledge, and answer questions using empirical evidence. Here are some commonly used scientific research methods:

Observational Studies

This method involves observing and recording phenomena as they occur in their natural setting. It can be done through direct observation or by using tools such as cameras, microscopes, or sensors.

Experimental Studies

This method involves manipulating one or more variables to determine the effect on the outcome. This type of study is often used to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Survey Research

This method involves collecting data from a large number of people by asking them a set of standardized questions. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online.

Case Studies

This method involves in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization. Case studies are often used to gain insights into complex or unusual phenomena.

Meta-analysis

This method involves combining data from multiple studies to arrive at a more reliable conclusion. This technique can be used to identify patterns and trends across a large number of studies.

Qualitative Research

This method involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, focus groups, or observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena and to gain an understanding of people’s experiences and perspectives.

Quantitative Research

This method involves collecting and analyzing numerical data using statistical techniques. This type of research is often used to test hypotheses and to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Longitudinal Studies

This method involves following a group of individuals over a period of time to observe changes and to identify patterns and trends. This type of study can be used to investigate the long-term effects of a particular intervention or exposure.

Data Analysis Methods

There are many different data analysis methods used in scientific research, and the choice of method depends on the type of data being collected and the research question. Here are some commonly used data analysis methods:

• Descriptive statistics: This involves using summary statistics such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and range to describe the basic features of the data.
• Inferential statistics: This involves using statistical tests to make inferences about a population based on a sample of data. Examples of inferential statistics include t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data such as interviews, focus groups, and observations. Qualitative analysis may involve identifying themes, patterns, or categories in the data.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of written or visual materials such as articles, speeches, or images. Content analysis may involve identifying themes, patterns, or categories in the content.
• Data mining: This involves using automated methods to analyze large datasets to identify patterns, trends, or relationships in the data.
• Machine learning: This involves using algorithms to analyze data and make predictions or classifications based on the patterns identified in the data.

Application of Scientific Research

Scientific research has numerous applications in many fields, including:

• Medicine and healthcare: Scientific research is used to develop new drugs, medical treatments, and vaccines. It is also used to understand the causes and risk factors of diseases, as well as to develop new diagnostic tools and medical devices.
• Agriculture : Scientific research is used to develop new crop varieties, to improve crop yields, and to develop more sustainable farming practices.
• Technology and engineering : Scientific research is used to develop new technologies and engineering solutions, such as renewable energy systems, new materials, and advanced manufacturing techniques.
• Environmental science : Scientific research is used to understand the impacts of human activity on the environment and to develop solutions for mitigating those impacts. It is also used to monitor and manage natural resources, such as water and air quality.
• Education : Scientific research is used to develop new teaching methods and educational materials, as well as to understand how people learn and develop.
• Business and economics: Scientific research is used to understand consumer behavior, to develop new products and services, and to analyze economic trends and policies.
• Social sciences : Scientific research is used to understand human behavior, attitudes, and social dynamics. It is also used to develop interventions to improve social welfare and to inform public policy.

How to Conduct Scientific Research

Conducting scientific research involves several steps, including:

• Identify a research question: Start by identifying a question or problem that you want to investigate. This question should be clear, specific, and relevant to your field of study.
• Conduct a literature review: Before starting your research, conduct a thorough review of existing research in your field. This will help you identify gaps in knowledge and develop hypotheses or research questions.
• Develop a research plan: Once you have a research question, develop a plan for how you will collect and analyze data to answer that question. This plan should include a detailed methodology, a timeline, and a budget.
• Collect data: Depending on your research question and methodology, you may collect data through surveys, experiments, observations, or other methods.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, analyze it using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods. This will help you draw conclusions about your research question.
• Interpret results: Based on your analysis, interpret your results and draw conclusions about your research question. Discuss any limitations or implications of your findings.
• Communicate results: Finally, communicate your findings to others in your field through presentations, publications, or other means.

Purpose of Scientific Research

The purpose of scientific research is to systematically investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, and advance our understanding of the world around us. Scientific research has several key goals, including:

• Exploring the unknown: Scientific research is often driven by curiosity and the desire to explore uncharted territory. Scientists investigate phenomena that are not well understood, in order to discover new insights and develop new theories.
• Testing hypotheses: Scientific research involves developing hypotheses or research questions, and then testing them through observation and experimentation. This allows scientists to evaluate the validity of their ideas and refine their understanding of the phenomena they are studying.
• Solving problems: Scientific research is often motivated by the desire to solve practical problems or address real-world challenges. For example, researchers may investigate the causes of a disease in order to develop new treatments, or explore ways to make renewable energy more affordable and accessible.
• Advancing knowledge: Scientific research is a collective effort to advance our understanding of the world around us. By building on existing knowledge and developing new insights, scientists contribute to a growing body of knowledge that can be used to inform decision-making, solve problems, and improve our lives.

Examples of Scientific Research

Here are some examples of scientific research that are currently ongoing or have recently been completed:

• Clinical trials for new treatments: Scientific research in the medical field often involves clinical trials to test new treatments for diseases and conditions. For example, clinical trials may be conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new drugs or medical devices.
• Genomics research: Scientists are conducting research to better understand the human genome and its role in health and disease. This includes research on genetic mutations that can cause diseases such as cancer, as well as the development of personalized medicine based on an individual’s genetic makeup.
• Climate change: Scientific research is being conducted to understand the causes and impacts of climate change, as well as to develop solutions for mitigating its effects. This includes research on renewable energy technologies, carbon capture and storage, and sustainable land use practices.
• Neuroscience : Scientists are conducting research to understand the workings of the brain and the nervous system, with the goal of developing new treatments for neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.
• Artificial intelligence: Researchers are working to develop new algorithms and technologies to improve the capabilities of artificial intelligence systems. This includes research on machine learning, computer vision, and natural language processing.
• Space exploration: Scientific research is being conducted to explore the cosmos and learn more about the origins of the universe. This includes research on exoplanets, black holes, and the search for extraterrestrial life.

When to use Scientific Research

Some specific situations where scientific research may be particularly useful include:

• Solving problems: Scientific research can be used to investigate practical problems or address real-world challenges. For example, scientists may investigate the causes of a disease in order to develop new treatments, or explore ways to make renewable energy more affordable and accessible.
• Decision-making: Scientific research can provide evidence-based information to inform decision-making. For example, policymakers may use scientific research to evaluate the effectiveness of different policy options or to make decisions about public health and safety.
• Innovation : Scientific research can be used to develop new technologies, products, and processes. For example, research on materials science can lead to the development of new materials with unique properties that can be used in a range of applications.
• Knowledge creation : Scientific research is an important way of generating new knowledge and advancing our understanding of the world around us. This can lead to new theories, insights, and discoveries that can benefit society.

Advantages of Scientific Research

There are many advantages of scientific research, including:

• Improved understanding : Scientific research allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the world around us, from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest celestial bodies.
• Evidence-based decision making: Scientific research provides evidence-based information that can inform decision-making in many fields, from public policy to medicine.
• Technological advancements: Scientific research drives technological advancements in fields such as medicine, engineering, and materials science. These advancements can improve quality of life, increase efficiency, and reduce costs.
• New discoveries: Scientific research can lead to new discoveries and breakthroughs that can advance our knowledge in many fields. These discoveries can lead to new theories, technologies, and products.
• Economic benefits : Scientific research can stimulate economic growth by creating new industries and jobs, and by generating new technologies and products.
• Improved health outcomes: Scientific research can lead to the development of new medical treatments and technologies that can improve health outcomes and quality of life for people around the world.
• Increased innovation: Scientific research encourages innovation by promoting collaboration, creativity, and curiosity. This can lead to new and unexpected discoveries that can benefit society.

Limitations of Scientific Research

Scientific research has some limitations that researchers should be aware of. These limitations can include:

• Research design limitations : The design of a research study can impact the reliability and validity of the results. Poorly designed studies can lead to inaccurate or inconclusive results. Researchers must carefully consider the study design to ensure that it is appropriate for the research question and the population being studied.
• Sample size limitations: The size of the sample being studied can impact the generalizability of the results. Small sample sizes may not be representative of the larger population, and may lead to incorrect conclusions.
• Time and resource limitations: Scientific research can be costly and time-consuming. Researchers may not have the resources necessary to conduct a large-scale study, or may not have sufficient time to complete a study with appropriate controls and analysis.
• Ethical limitations : Certain types of research may raise ethical concerns, such as studies involving human or animal subjects. Ethical concerns may limit the scope of the research that can be conducted, or require additional protocols and procedures to ensure the safety and well-being of participants.
• Limitations of technology: Technology may limit the types of research that can be conducted, or the accuracy of the data collected. For example, certain types of research may require advanced technology that is not yet available, or may be limited by the accuracy of current measurement tools.
• Limitations of existing knowledge: Existing knowledge may limit the types of research that can be conducted. For example, if there is limited knowledge in a particular field, it may be difficult to design a study that can provide meaningful results.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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How To Become A Scientist: A New Scientist Careers Guide

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What does a scientist do?

Scientists are, by definition, individuals who study and gain expertise in one of the natural sciences: biology , chemistry , physics , astronomy and earth sciences . Each of these five main natural sciences has its own subdivisions, and the scope of work will vary for each subdivision. 

As a scientist, you will study and research a topic within one of these fields, often in great detail. Research scientists are essentially experts in specific topics within their fields.

However, even though there are many different types of scientists, the responsibilities of all research scientists are very similar.

Most scientists will need to propose their own research and gain funding for it from relevant organisations. As a scientist, you will therefore need to write up research proposals and funding applications. 

Once you start your research, you may conduct it in a lab, out in the field, or in a specialised facility, depending on the research topic. When you obtain results, you will then need to analyse them and present them to other scientists, as well as write up research papers to publish in journals or books. 

Being a scientist can be a very gratifying job, as you will often help in the development of new products. For instance, you might develop new tests as a biomedical scientist , advance technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) or work with machine learning as a computer scientist, or produce new medical guidelines as a clinical scientist .

You will also support scientists and workers in other disciplines. For example, as a data scientist you will analyse large sets of data to produce insights into datasets that may then be used in further scientific research.

How to become a scientist

Becoming a scientist requires a lot of studying and researching. Y ou wi ll need to complete an undergraduate degree in the field you woul d like to work in. F or example, if you woul d like to become a forensic scientist you should study forensic science or a related subject such as criminology. 

To obtain an undergraduate degree in a specific science, you will often need to have A levels or equivalent in particular subjects. For example, if you want to apply for a degree in biology, you will need A level biology. 

However, if you only decide what you would like to do after your secondary education, some universities offer foundation year degrees, aimed at those who don’t have a relevant A level or equivalent qualification.

After completing a bachelor’s degree, many aspiring scientists choose to do a master’s degree, and many scientists eventually also obtain a doctorate, but how common this is depends on the field.

It is important to gain some hands-on experience during your studies to become a scientist, regardless of the speciality you choose. This is because in addition to knowledge and qualifications, scientists also need to develop skills such as problem-solving, effective communication and teamwork.

Some industries, such as data science or computer science , offer postgraduate job posts for people straight out of university. These are often designed as training posts, where you will complete a training programme rotating between different teams in the company before becoming a permanent employee.

Additionally, some companies offer their employees the opportunity to undertake a fully- or partially-funded masters or even a PhD while working.  

How long does it take to become a scientist?

The exact duration of training depends on the field of study you choose. However, for most scientist jobs , it will take at least three to four years to complete the required undergraduate degree. 

It is common to then take a year to complete a master’s degree, and many scientists also undertake a PhD which can last around three to five years.

So, depending on the route you choose, you could spend between three and 10 years in education. But, for example, if you do a PhD, you will be working independently as a research scientist during that time, and will be paid for your research.  

A day in the life of a scientist

Different scientists will spend their days in different work environments and may carry out a variety of different specific tasks. Nevertheless, the broad responsibilities are often similar for many scientists across different fields of study.

For example, most research scientists will need to do tasks like proposing projects, designing and carrying out experiments in a lab or out in the field, and writing up and presenting the findings.

Other types of scientists, like engineers or computer scientists, will also need to propose projects, but they will focus less on data collection and interpretation, and more on developing new technology .  

Scientist: Career options

S cientist s work around 40 hours a week. Depending on which field they work in and what kind of role they take on , they may need to work some evenings, weekends or bank holidays, and some might even work unsocial hours. For example, research scientists will often need to spend weekends doing administrative work , forensic scientists may be called out on weekends or during the night, and computer scientists may need to work out of hours to finish projects on time.

There are many directions your science career can take. These narrow down as you choose your scientific field and subspeciality.

For example, if you know you want to study life sciences, or more specifically be a scientist in a biology-related field, you could become anything from a molecular biologist , a zoologist or a wildlife biologist to a climate change scientist.

Similarly, if you would like to study physics or maths, you might become an astrophysicist, an applied mathematician , a statistician or even an engineer.

Within most academic-oriented science careers, the natural career progression is from academic research scientist to senior research fellow, and eventually professor. This progression will require an increasing level of independence and you will need to publish original research and lead research teams to become a professor. 

As a scientist, you may also work in a more industrial setting. For example, pharmacologists often work in large pharmaceutical companies, where they help to design and research new medication, or produce already established pharmaceuticals .

Other fields, such as physics, computer science or even medical science, may have less of a research focus as you progress, and more of an applied component. For instance, as a geneticist you might progress from researching molecular genetics to a career in medical genetics and advising on genetic conditions. 

Or, as a computer scientist, you might take on managerial roles as you become more senior and lead a team of junior computer scientists to develop new software or systems.

In summary, a career in science is broad and offers many opportunities, whichever field you choose.  

How much does a scientist earn in the UK and the US?

As a research scientist in the UK, you might earn between £17,688 and £43,000 depending on your level of expertise. However, this will vary between different scientific fields. 

In the US, the salary range for a scientist is large, starting from around $50,700 to $132,100 for the best paid roles. This will, as in the UK, vary depending on your expertise, specialisation and workplace.  

References:

• National Careers Service. Research Scientist. Available from: https://nationalcareers.service.gov.uk/job-profiles/research-scientist 
• Get Educated. How to become a scientist. Available from: https://www.geteducated.com/careers/how-to-become-a-scientist/#/ 
• Career explorer. Comprehensive list of science related careers and degrees. Available from: https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/scientist/#comprehensive-list-of-science-related-careers-and-degrees 
• Careers Wales. Scientist: How to become. Available from: https://careerswales.gov.wales/job-information/scientist/how-to-become 
• Career explorer. Scientist salary. Available from: https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/scientist/salary/

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Science and the scientific method: Definitions and examples

Here's a look at the foundation of doing science — the scientific method.

The scientific method

Hypothesis, theory and law, a brief history of science, additional resources, bibliography.

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It is also the body of knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in the universe. 

The word "science" is derived from the Latin word "scientia," which means knowledge based on demonstrable and reproducible data, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary . True to this definition, science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis, a process known as the scientific method. Science is based on fact, not opinion or preferences. The process of science is designed to challenge ideas through research. One important aspect of the scientific process is that it focuses only on the natural world, according to the University of California, Berkeley . Anything that is considered supernatural, or beyond physical reality, does not fit into the definition of science.

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement) that is designed to support or contradict a scientific theory .

"As a field biologist, my favorite part of the scientific method is being in the field collecting the data," Jaime Tanner, a professor of biology at Marlboro College, told Live Science. "But what really makes that fun is knowing that you are trying to answer an interesting question. So the first step in identifying questions and generating possible answers (hypotheses) is also very important and is a creative process. Then once you collect the data you analyze it to see if your hypothesis is supported or not."

The steps of the scientific method go something like this, according to Highline College :

• Make an observation or observations.
• Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what's been observed, and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
• Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
• Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between observations and theory. "Replication of methods and results is my favorite step in the scientific method," Moshe Pritsker, a former post-doctoral researcher at Harvard Medical School and CEO of JoVE, told Live Science. "The reproducibility of published experiments is the foundation of science. No reproducibility — no science."

Some key underpinnings to the scientific method:

• The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, according to North Carolina State University . Falsifiable means that there must be a possible negative answer to the hypothesis.
• Research must involve deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning is the process of using true premises to reach a logical true conclusion while inductive reasoning uses observations to infer an explanation for those observations.
• An experiment should include a dependent variable (which does not change) and an independent variable (which does change), according to the University of California, Santa Barbara .
• An experiment should include an experimental group and a control group. The control group is what the experimental group is compared against, according to Britannica .

The process of generating and testing a hypothesis forms the backbone of the scientific method. When an idea has been confirmed over many experiments, it can be called a scientific theory. While a theory provides an explanation for a phenomenon, a scientific law provides a description of a phenomenon, according to The University of Waikato . One example would be the law of conservation of energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics that says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. 

A law describes an observed phenomenon, but it doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it. "In science, laws are a starting place," said Peter Coppinger, an associate professor of biology and biomedical engineering at the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. "From there, scientists can then ask the questions, 'Why and how?'"

Laws are generally considered to be without exception, though some laws have been modified over time after further testing found discrepancies. For instance, Newton's laws of motion describe everything we've observed in the macroscopic world, but they break down at the subatomic level.

This does not mean theories are not meaningful. For a hypothesis to become a theory, scientists must conduct rigorous testing, typically across multiple disciplines by separate groups of scientists. Saying something is "just a theory" confuses the scientific definition of "theory" with the layperson's definition. To most people a theory is a hunch. In science, a theory is the framework for observations and facts, Tanner told Live Science.

The earliest evidence of science can be found as far back as records exist. Early tablets contain numerals and information about the solar system , which were derived by using careful observation, prediction and testing of those predictions. Science became decidedly more "scientific" over time, however.

1200s: Robert Grosseteste developed the framework for the proper methods of modern scientific experimentation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. His works included the principle that an inquiry must be based on measurable evidence that is confirmed through testing.

1400s: Leonardo da Vinci began his notebooks in pursuit of evidence that the human body is microcosmic. The artist, scientist and mathematician also gathered information about optics and hydrodynamics.

1500s: Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the understanding of the solar system with his discovery of heliocentrism. This is a model in which Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun, which is the center of the solar system.

1600s: Johannes Kepler built upon those observations with his laws of planetary motion. Galileo Galilei improved on a new invention, the telescope, and used it to study the sun and planets. The 1600s also saw advancements in the study of physics as Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion.

1700s: Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning is electrical. He also contributed to the study of oceanography and meteorology. The understanding of chemistry also evolved during this century as Antoine Lavoisier, dubbed the father of modern chemistry , developed the law of conservation of mass.

1800s: Milestones included Alessandro Volta's discoveries regarding electrochemical series, which led to the invention of the battery. John Dalton also introduced atomic theory, which stated that all matter is composed of atoms that combine to form molecules. The basis of modern study of genetics advanced as Gregor Mendel unveiled his laws of inheritance. Later in the century, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays , while George Ohm's law provided the basis for understanding how to harness electrical charges.

1900s: The discoveries of Albert Einstein , who is best known for his theory of relativity, dominated the beginning of the 20th century. Einstein's theory of relativity is actually two separate theories. His special theory of relativity, which he outlined in a 1905 paper, " The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies ," concluded that time must change according to the speed of a moving object relative to the frame of reference of an observer. His second theory of general relativity, which he published as " The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ," advanced the idea that matter causes space to curve.

In 1952, Jonas Salk developed the polio vaccine , which reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by nearly 90%, according to Britannica . The following year, James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA , which is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

2000s: The 21st century saw the first draft of the human genome completed, leading to a greater understanding of DNA. This advanced the study of genetics, its role in human biology and its use as a predictor of diseases and other disorders, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

• This video from City University of New York delves into the basics of what defines science.
• Learn about what makes science science in this book excerpt from Washington State University .
• This resource from the University of Michigan — Flint explains how to design your own scientific study.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Scientia. 2022. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientia

University of California, Berkeley, "Understanding Science: An Overview." 2022. ​​ https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/intro_01  

Highline College, "Scientific method." July 12, 2015. https://people.highline.edu/iglozman/classes/astronotes/scimeth.htm  

North Carolina State University, "Science Scripts." https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Black/science/science_scripts.html  

University of California, Santa Barbara. "What is an Independent variable?" October 31,2017. http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=6045  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Control group." May 14, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/control-group  

The University of Waikato, "Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and Laws." https://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/Theories.shtml  

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Robert Grosseteste. May 3, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grosseteste/  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Jonas Salk." October 21, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/ biography /Jonas-Salk

National Human Genome Research Institute, "​Phosphate Backbone." https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Phosphate-Backbone  

National Human Genome Research Institute, "What is the Human Genome Project?" https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/What  

‌ Live Science contributor Ashley Hamer updated this article on Jan. 16, 2022.

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What does a research scientist do and how do I become one?

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As a research scientist, you’ll plan and conduct experiments to help expand the canon of scientific knowledge. With limitless opportunities for discovery across a range of high-growth sectors and industries, being a research scientist is one of the most exciting career paths in STEM. 

What does a research scientist do, exactly.

The purpose of a research scientist role is to conduct lab-based trials and experiments.

Work is often divided between pure research, which advances our understanding of basic processes, and applied research, which uses the information gathered to meet targets such as creating new products, processes, or commercial applications.

Of course, your targets will depend on the specialism of your employer. Research scientists work across a variety of different fields, including biology, chemistry, medicine, computer science, environmental science, and even political science.

Responsibilities

Typical day-to-day responsibilities of a research scientist include:

• Creating research proposals
• Planning and conducting experiments
• Collecting samples
• Monitoring experiments
• Recording and analysing data
• Collaborating with other researchers and academia to develop new techniques and products
• Supervising junior staff
• Carrying out fieldwork and monitoring environmental factors
• Researching and writing published papers
• Staying up-to-date with the latest scientific developments

Work environment

As a research scientist, you’ll spend most of your week in a laboratory. These environments can vary depending on your specialism. For example, biology labs are designed to safely house and contain living specimens, while psychology labs may simply consist of a bank of computers.

Aside from lab work, certain aspects of your role (including writing up results or research papers) will be undertaken in an office environment. You may also be required to visit the labs or offices of other researchers or companies, especially if you are collaborating on the same project.

Working hours

Research scientists typically work 35 to 40 hours a week on a 9-to-5, full-time basis. On occasion, you may be required to work overtime or visit the laboratory on weekends to complete certain tasks. That said, most organisations offer flexible working arrangements. 

What skills are needed to be a research scientist?

Though research scientists come in all personality types, you’ll need to have an academic mindset and be naturally inquisitive. Research scientist skills include:

• A methodical approach to gathering and analysing data
• Meticulous attention to detail
• Critical thinking
• Advanced research skills
• Time management
• Strong communication and interpersonal skills
• The ability to work independently
• A collaborative mindset
• Stakeholder management
• Patience and tenacity

How to become a research scientist

As a minimum requirement, you’ll need to obtain a 2:1 bachelor’s degree or higher in a relevant field of science. Most research scientists also have a postgraduate qualification, such as an MSc, an MSci or MBiol. Relevant qualifications include:

• Biochemistry
• Biomedical science
• Environmental science
• Microbiology
• Natural science
• Pharmacology

While a PhD isn’t necessarily required, some employers prefer candidates that either have or are working towards a doctorate. Demonstrable experience of working in a laboratory environment will also improve your employment chances.

Tip: If you’re currently studying or have already attained a relevant degree, try to gain research experience in a lab environment. The best place to start is by expressing your interest to your university department, who may have some voluntary positions available. Alternatively, sending your CV/resume to hospitals and STEM companies will also increase your chances of gaining that vital experience.

How much do research scientists earn?

Like many roles in science, salaries for research scientists depend on your level of experience, your specialism, the employer, and, to a lesser extent, the location. It’s also worth bearing in mind that private-sector salaries tend to be higher than those in the public sector or academia.

In the UK, research scientist salaries range from £20,000 at the entry-level to over £70,000 for university professor senior research fellow roles. The average research scientist salary is £32,330. Most research assistants earn between £26,000 and £35,000.

According to Indeed, the average salary for a research scientist in the US is $111,444.

Please note that income figures are subject to economic conditions and are only intended as a guide.

Is research scientist a good career?

With science constantly opening up exciting new avenues of research, working as a research scientist provides secure employment and gives you the chance to make a real difference within STEM.

Indeed, the outlook for the role is positive: in the US alone, the vocation is expected to grow by 8% and produce over 10,000 job opportunities across the country by 2028 (Zippia). As one of the least likely jobs to be automated in the coming years, the role also offers stability in these turbulent times. 

Offering a strong earning potential and the opportunity to conduct cutting-edge research in a range of industries and locations, research scientist represents one of the most fulfilling career paths around.

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How to Conduct Scientific Research?

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines research as systematic and creative actions taken to increase knowledge about humans, culture, and society and to apply it in new areas of interest. Scientific research is the research performed by applying systematic and constructed scientific methods to obtain, analyze, and interpret data.

Scientific research is the neutral, systematic, planned, and multiple-step process that uses previously discovered facts to advance knowledge that does not exist in the literature. It can be classified as observational or experimental with respect to data collection techniques, descriptive or analytical with respect to causality, and prospective, retrospective, or cross-sectional with respect to time ( 1 ).

All scientific investigations start with a specific research question and the formulation of a hypothesis to answer this question. Hypothesis should be clear, specific, and directly aim to answer the research question. A strong and testable hypothesis is the fundamental part of the scientific research. The next step is testing the hypothesis using scientific method to approve or disapprove it.

Scientific method should be neutral, objective, rational, and as a result, should be able to approve or disapprove the hypothesis. The research plan should include the procedure to obtain data and evaluate the variables. It should ensure that analyzable data are obtained. It should also include plans on the statistical analysis to be performed. The number of subjects and controls needed to get valid statistical results should be calculated, and data should be obtained in appropriate numbers and methods. The researcher should be continuously observing and recording all data obtained.

Data should be analyzed with the most appropriate statistical methods and be rearranged to make more sense if needed. Unfortunately, results obtained via analyses are not always sufficiently clear. Multiple reevaluations of data, review of the literature, and interpretation of results in light of previous research are required. Only after the completion of these stages can a research be written and presented to the scientific society. A well-conducted and precisely written research should always be open to scientific criticism. It should also be kept in mind that research should be in line with ethical rules all through its stages.

Actually, psychiatric research has been developing rapidly, possibly even more than any other medical field, thus reflecting the utilization of new research methods and advanced treatment technologies. Nevertheless, basic research principles and ethical considerations keep their importance.

Ethics are standards used to differentiate acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Adhering to ethical standards in scientific research is noteworthy because of many different reasons. First, these standards promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote truth and minimize error. In addition, ethical standards promote values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. Many ethical standards in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data-sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Many ethical standards such as policies on research misconduct and conflicts of interest are necessary to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. Last but not the least, ethical standards of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety ( 2 ). In conclusion, for the good of science and humanity, research has the inevitable responsibility of precisely transferring the knowledge to new generations ( 3 ).

In medical research, all clinical investigations are obliged to comply with some ethical principles. These principles could be summarized as respect to humans, respect to the society, benefit, harmlessness, autonomy, and justice. Respect to humans indicates that all humans have the right to refuse to participate in an investigation or to withdraw their consent any time without any repercussions. Respect to society indicates that clinical research should seek answers to scientific questions using scientific methods and should benefit the society. Benefit indicates that research outcomes are supposed to provide solutions to a health problem. Harmlessness describes all necessary precautions that are taken to protect volunteers from potential harm. Autonomy indicates that participating in research is voluntary and with freewill. Justice indicates that subject selection is based on justice and special care is taken for special groups that could be easily traumatized ( 4 ).

In psychiatric studies, if the patient is not capable of giving consent, the relatives have the right to consent on behalf of the patient. This is based on the idea of providing benefit to the patient with discovery of new treatment methods via research. However, the relatives’ consent rights are under debate from an ethical point of view. On the other hand, research on those patients aim to directly get new knowledge about them, and it looks like an inevitable necessity. The only precaution that could be taken to overcome this ambivalence has been the scrupulous audit of the Research Ethic Committees. Still, there are many examples that show that this method is not always able to prevent patient abuse ( 5 ). Therefore, it is difficult to claim autonomy when psychiatric patients are studied, and psychiatric patients are considered among patients to require special care.

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As the need for highly trained scientists grows, a look at why people choose these careers

What leads people to a career in science?

It’s an important question because the road to a successful career in science – as with technology, engineering and mathematics, the other STEM fields – can be challenging, often requiring a Ph.D. or other postgraduate training. And once in their fields, there can be political and economic pressures with which to contend. The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects workforce shortfalls for many science fields, though the projected needs differ across the life, physical and natural sciences.

Some 55% of working Ph.D. scientists belonging to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) who we surveyed in 2014 said this was generally a good time for their scientific specialty, while 44% said it was a bad time. And while nearly half (47%) said it was a good or very good time to begin a career in their field, 53% said it was a bad time to start out in their field.

So, what draws people into these careers? Roughly one-third (32%) of working Ph.D. scientists said a main motivator for their career path was a lifelong interest in science and desire for intellectual challenge, according to the 2014 survey . 

Many of these scientists reported an interest and curiosity in science or the natural world starting in early childhood. For some 12% their curiosity was fostered by parents and other family members who brought them in contact with scientists and science labs, nature or science and technology museums. Others (27%) remembered effective mentoring and encouragement from teachers whether in elementary school, graduate school or somewhere in between. And some 17% talked about the importance of lab and field work, often at the high school and college levels, which spurred their interest in a science career.

Men and women in this group of working Ph.D. scientists mentioned similar kinds of influences on their career choice. Women were slightly more likely than men to say that lab and internship experiences played a significant part in guiding their career path (23% of women scientists vs. 14% of men scientists). And scientists of all ages tend to cite similar kinds of influences.

Here are some of their stories:

In second grade, I read a scientific explanation of something I experienced every day. That flash of insight stimulated an intense curiosity of how things work. I knew from then on that I would be a scientist. – Molecular biologist, man, age 60

[Meseleson-Stahl]

I found science interesting. Growing up, I had a chemistry set and telescope (later building my own), and because of these, read a lot about chemistry and astronomy. My father took me rock collecting and brought chemicals home for me to analyze. Those experiences led to a degree (BS and MS) in Physics and a Ph.D. and career in Geophysics . – Geophysicist, man, age 65

[vacuum flask]

My interest in science was first piqued as a seven-year-old observing a full moon through the telescope of a friend. A couple of years later, my interest in space and the possibility of space exploration was promoted by the start of the manned launches into space in the early 1960s, and in a written essay in fourth or fifth grade I even expressed interest in science as one of three possible career paths …. – Medical Physicist, man, age 63

My entire childhood was steeped in experiences in the natural world and in scientific observation/experimentation. Both my parents are scientists. One memory that stands out in particular is of a canoe trip to the boundary waters in northern Minnesota when I was about 12, where I saw carnivorous plants in the wild for the first time – beautiful, huge, floating mats of pitcher plants …. – Ecologist, woman, age 35

While many scientists mentioned childhood experiences facilitated by their families, some 6% said science media was particularly influential in their career path. These scientists mentioned a range of media including books such as Microbe Hunters; magazines such as National Geographic and Scientific American; TV programming on PBS and commercial stations such as NOVA, Carl Sagan’s Cosmos, Mr. Wizard and Bill Nye the Science Guy.

One scientist noted:

When I was a child, my exposure through media of what science was and what scientists did influenced my career decisions. My grade school education in science was very poor, which increased the importance of the media exposure. – Biotechnologist, woman, age 54

Scientists’ reflections often touched on multiple themes; some emphasized their curiosity about the world and others emphasized the role of people in their lives who fostered their interests. As one scientist put it: “I love puzzles and to me, science is the ultimate puzzle.”

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Cary Funk is director of science and society research at Pew Research Center .

Meg Hefferon is a former research analyst focusing on science and society research at the Pew Research Center .

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What Does A Research Scientist Do (including Their Typical Day at Work)

Alyssa Omandac November 9, 2020 Career , Overview

Salary, Job Description, How To Become One, and Quiz

Research Scientists

Research Scientists primarily conduct laboratory-based experiments and clinical trials. They also write research papers and reports based on the results of their lab work.

Table of contents

What they do, what is the job like, where they work, how to become one, should you become one.

Research Scientists design and complete experiments in laboratory settings. They work in almost every area of science from medical research and pharmacology to meteorology and geoscience. Becoming a Research Scientist often requires specialized knowledge of a scientific field. Research Scientists may earn Bachelor’s degrees, Master’s degrees, or even Doctoral degrees.

Most of the work of a Research Scientist is performed in a lab. They design, set up, and carry out the experiments needed to develop products, solve problems, or improve the health of people or the environment.

Plan and Conduct Experiments

Research Scientists plan experiments based on the needs of their employers. For example, a Research Scientist working for a pharmaceutical company may design clinical trials to test the effectiveness of new medicine.

Research Scientists help determine what factors to evaluate during the experiment, what equipment is required, and how long the experiment may take. Executives and other Scientists involved in the project may then review the details of the experiment before it is approved and scheduled.

The Research Scientist is then responsible for conducting the experiment and ensuring the integrity of the results. Depending on the seniority of the Scientist, they may supervise a team of Lab Technicians and Junior Research Scientists.

Collect Samples and Carry Out Fieldwork

Before conducting an experiment, Research Scientists may need to collect samples. Samples may come from humans, animals, materials, or plants, depending on the type of research and the industry. When conducting a clinical trial involving human subjects, Research Scientists may work with volunteers in a laboratory. When testing the impact of chemicals on the environment, they may travel to specific locations and collect samples from the field.

While Research Scientists may occasionally perform fieldwork, most of their work is still performed in the lab. Any fieldwork that is required may also be completed by Technicians and entry-level Researchers.

Analyze the Data Obtained During Experiments

After conducting an experiment, Research Scientists need to analyze the results and extract useful data. The information obtained may verify or disprove their original hypothesis. In some cases, the results of the testing may require Research Scientists to repeat the same experiment, such as when the data provides inclusive results.

Write Research Papers and Reports

Research Scientists often write detailed reports and condensed summaries of their findings. When working in academia, the reports are often published for peer review by other Research Scientists. When working in private industries, the results may be supplied to other scientists within the same organization while the summaries are provided to executives and decision-makers.

Continue Your Education

Research Scientists need to stay up to date with the latest developments in their scientific fields, which often involves attending lectures or continuing education (CE) courses. Completing CE courses is also a requirement for some of the certifications commonly held by Research Scientists.

A typical day starts with going over the experimental planning of the day, and then starting the experiments or data analysis, studying, or writing scientific papers. There is some flexibility and some level of control over your day. However, all experiments are very time-consuming and require a constant level of attention to detail, keeping track of your timings, and great planning. Almost every task is time-consuming, from planning the experiments, to doing them, redoing them, analyzing the data, and so on. It is common to be doing more than one experiment at a time and so sometimes the juggling can go wrong.

In the laminar flow hood

My research is focused on studying the molecular mechanisms in the invasion process of breast and lung cancer. In research, we each focus on a very narrow subject, on a specific group or even just a single protein, and try to determine the impact it has on different cellular processes. This helps us find new diagnostic tools, new treatments and potentially even cures.

I, personally, work with different techniques, so there is no specific routine, which is something I enjoy. But for instances, a day could be, starting in the morning with taking care of orders necessary for my research and replying to emails. Then I would go to a laminar flow hood to work with my cell cultures, either to maintain them or to perform experiments on them. After the experiment is done, I could extract protein from my cells, then do protein quantification and prepare the samples to run on what we call gel electrophoresis or Western Blot.

After this experiment is done, I would block and incubate the resulting membranes to evaluate the next day. Other times the experiment could be to fixate my cells and incubate with specific antibodies to visualize using a confocal microscope. Or I could be cloning my cells with specific genes and then tracking their effect using live imaging or some biochemical assay. Other times I will be receiving training in either some specific equipment or technique or in overall topics specific to my fields through webinars and conferences.

Working overtime is also very common and when working with living disease models (cell cultures, mouse models) working the weekends is also normal.

It’s also busy, hard work, and a lot of stress due to the constant stream of deadlines but also rewarding and exciting when you finally get some nice results and definitely always a nice challenge. The great part of doing research is to satisfy curiosity and the challenge of figuring out how to get the answers you seek.

A real-time PCR machine StepOne Plus

Stimulating job, flexible schedule, the possibility of making a huge contribution to the advancement of medicine.

Long hours, high levels of mental stress, instability in career progression.

You Solve Scientific Problems

No matter the industry, Research Scientists are problem-solvers. They get to solve issues and find answers to problems, making it a rewarding career.

You Help Make Things Better

The research completed by Research Scientists may help improve products and processes, which can have a positive impact on the health of people, animals, and even the environment.

You Enjoy Independence

Research Scientists often work with other scientists. However, you also have a lot of freedom to pursue topics of research that interest you. This is especially true when working in academia.

You May Have Travel Opportunities

Depending on the industry, your work may take you to interesting locations to collect samples for experiments.

You Work Long Hours

Research Scientists often work long days, especially when trying to meet deadlines for experiments.

You May Encounter Unexpected Outcomes

Experiments do not always produce the results that you want, which can be frustrating after working on a long project.

Research Scientists either work in academia, industry, or government jobs. Common academic employers include colleges and universities. Government employers include various regulatory agencies. Industry jobs for Research Scientists are available at pharmaceutical companies, food companies, materials companies, manufacturers, chemical companies, and utility providers.

Step 1: Study Science in High School

As Research Scientists require knowledge of science, high school students should study science extensively. Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and advanced placement (AP) science courses are all beneficial.

Step 2: Earn a Bachelor’s Degree

Research Scientists typically hold Bachelor’s degrees that are relevant to their chosen field, such as Pharmacology. Biology and Chemistry are also common majors.

Step 3: Earn a Master’s Degree

Many employers require Research Scientists to hold at least a Master’s degree.

Step 4: Find Entry-Level Work

Most Research Scientists start as Laboratory Technicians or Research Assistants before gaining the experience needed for this career.

Step 5: Obtain Certifications

As you gain work experience, you may qualify to obtain various voluntary certifications such as the professional certifications for clinical research available through the Association of Clinical Research Professionals (ACRP).

Best personality type for this career

People with this personality likes to work with ideas that require an extensive amount of thinking. They prefer work that requires them to solve problems mentally.

You can read more about these career personality types here .

Successful Research Scientists are highly focused individuals as the complex experiments that they conduct require superior attention to detail. Research Scientists should also be patient as analyzing samples and running tests are time-consuming processes. Having good communication skills is also useful for ensuring that others follow your instructions and understand the results of your experiments.

Take this quiz to see if this is the right career for you.

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Don’t know which career to pursue.

Take the career quiz to find careers that match your personality type.

Science Digest

What Do Scientists Do? The World of Scientific Research

May 1, 2021

There’s a lot of talk about science these days. But what is it? Why is it important? What do scientists do?

Science is a body of knowledge as well as the beginning of a process. We live and experience science in every aspect of our life. Starting from the moment, we wake up to an alarm clock to bed at night, our lives are entangled with science. 

Science encourages discoveries and inventions that improve the environment for all humans and animals. The study of the past, present, and future is enabled by science and its newest inventions. 

Scientists are constantly on the lookout for solutions that will lead the human race to a brighter future . The critical observations made by the scientists also answer questions to the whys’, who’s, and when’s often asked by people around the world. 

The History of Science

The history of science is the study of science development, which includes both social and natural science. Science systematically gives us knowledge about the universe and the world we live in . 

You can trace the earliest roots of science back to Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt between 3000-1200 BCE. Science, scientists, and mathematicians have existed even before the modern era. 

The ancient Egyptians discovered a numbering system with decimal characters and have introduced geometry into humankind. They also developed a calendar with twelve months, thirty days in each month, and three hundred and sixty-five days at the end of the year.

The ancient Mesopotamians also used science to manufacture glass, soap, pottery, faience from natural chemicals. The civilization studies and knew the movement of astronomical objects and have mentioned it in their scriptures on astrology. The Mesopotamians also possessed excellent knowledge in the fields of medicine. 

What Do Scientists Do?

The experts who research and examine various aspects of the physical world and beyond to improve the human race are known to be Scientists. Each scientist chooses a field of interest and invests their time in doing new researches. There are a few set rules and a few scientific techniques that every scientist follows for their discoveries. Sometimes, they discover new theories, even drifting from these techniques. 

Scientists worldwide are working towards a singular goal of improving the quality of life for the Earth’s inhabitants. These days, even multi-national companies hire scientists further to research the currently available products and further upgrades. 

Hospitals believe that medicine has a greater scope of scientific research for new and improved medication in modern times. As of 2020, one of its most recent examples is the development of the Coronavirus vaccine. 

The scientists attempt different pathways to achieve this singular goal as they continue to keep adding knowledge for discoveries for a better life in the future. 

According to specializations, kids can choose their path in science. Like a chemist, biochemist, biologist, marine biologist, molecular biologist, microbiologist, cytotechnologist, geologist, archaeologist, astronomer, etc.

These days’ scientists are also teaching the next generation in the classrooms and are not just found blocked-up in labs making discoveries. They are just like other ordinary people with extraordinary knowledge and a clear vision.                     

How Does Scientific Research Work?

Scientific researches are the detailed studies that are in theory before they have physically experimented. Scientific research is classified as:

• Descriptive research
• Analytical research

The classification is done based on data collection and the relationship between time and method of application. 

Descriptive Research

This type of research in which the participants examine the distribution of diseases in different places and at a particular time. It includes case reports and surveillance studies.

Analytical Research

The difference between analytical and descriptive research is the availability of a comparison group. These are classified as observational and interventional research.

The other type of research is Clinical Research . Clinical Research only works with the help of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a value of a population parameter that is based on sampling.

The main focus of scientific research is discovering laws and theories that can explain both natural and social phenomena and establish a scientific fact. This process helps in deriving predictions of logical consequences and also carries out experiments or observations.

Important Contributions by Scientists

Aristotle (384-322 bc).

Aristotle was known to be one of the greatest philosophers in history and a genuine scientist. He was a zoologist, biologist, and political scientist.

His theories in subjects like Metaphysics, Biology, Physics, Zoology, Economics, Logic, Aesthetics, Poetry, Psychology, Ethics, and many make him one of the greatest inventions. He estimated the size of the Earth, and he also explained the chain of life. 

Archimedes (287-212 BC)

Archimedes was the greatest mathematician ever, and he had a profound knowledge of physics, mathematics, and engineering. 

He also discovered the laws of density, fluid equilibrium, lever, and buoyancy. He introduced infinitesimals and also founded calculus.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642 AD)

Galileo is known as the father of modern science due to his discoveries in astronomy and physics. He was forced to study medicines by his father, but he changed his mind and studied mathematics.

He invented the first telescope and discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter. He also invented the law of the pendulum and discovered that the moon’s surface is not smooth.

Michael Faraday (1791-1867 AD)

Faraday is known for the discoveries about electromagnetic inductions and their rotations, field theory. He invented the electric motor and Faraday’s ring. He also published papers on the isolation of benzene from gas oils and the condensation of gases.

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727 AD)

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the most outstanding scientists and mathematicians of all time. He is an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and author known for his gravitation law. 

Newton explained the theory of gravity and gravitation with the help of calculus as there were no other principles for defining it. He also explained the tide theory, which is caused by the gravitational pull of the sun, moon, and Earth.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955 AD)

Albert Einstein remains to be one of the most outstanding revolutionary scientists in the world. His remarkable works in physics make him the father of modern physics and the general theory of relativity.

How to Get Involved in Science?

You can be a part of a scientific community. If you wish to become a scientist, you must know your area of interest and contribute to the same. You can join the organizations which support research work and make your contributions in the scientific field. 

In this journey, you may meet people worldwide who think alike and perhaps work towards achieving the same goal. Your research must be unique, and the results must be productive. 

Scientists around the world is helping humankind to expand our knowledge about the universe or the world. Discoveries are making the impossible possible, saving lives, improving the quality of life. 

The knowledge which is generated by science is valid, reliable, and very powerful. Ranging from young kids to adults, science is involved with our everyday lives. 

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What is a Research Scientist?

Learn about the role of Research Scientist, what they do on a daily basis, and what it's like to be one.

• What is a Research Scientist
• How to Become
• Certifications
• Tools & Software
• LinkedIn Guide
• Interview Questions
• Work-Life Balance
• Professional Goals
• Resume Examples
• Cover Letter Examples

Start Your Research Scientist Career with Teal

Definition of a Research Scientist

What does a research scientist do, key responsibilities of a research scientist.

• Designing and implementing rigorous experiments to test hypotheses and solve complex problems.
• Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data using statistical techniques and specialized software.
• Writing research papers, reports, and reviews for publication in scientific journals and presentations at conferences.
• Applying for funding and grants to support research projects and initiatives.
• Collaborating with interdisciplinary teams of scientists and professionals to enhance research quality and applicability.
• Staying current with the latest scientific advancements and literature in their field of expertise.
• Developing and testing new scientific methods and technologies to improve research efficiency.
• Mentoring and supervising junior researchers, technicians, and graduate students.
• Ensuring all research activities are conducted in compliance with ethical and regulatory standards.
• Reviewing and providing feedback on the work of peers to validate research findings and proposals.
• Communicating with stakeholders, including industry partners, government agencies, and academic institutions.
• Translating research discoveries into practical applications and products for industry or societal use.

Day to Day Activities for Research Scientist at Different Levels

Daily responsibilities for entry level research scientists.

• Conducting experiments and recording detailed observations
• Assisting with literature reviews and data collection
• Performing basic data analysis and interpretation
• Maintaining laboratory equipment and ensuring supplies are stocked
• Participating in lab meetings and presenting findings
• Complying with lab safety protocols and regulatory requirements
• Receiving training in research methodologies and best practices

Daily Responsibilities for Mid Level Research Scientists

• Designing and leading their own experiments or sub-projects
• Writing grant proposals and securing funding for research
• Authoring and co-authoring scientific papers and reports
• Presenting research findings at conferences and seminars
• Collaborating with cross-functional teams within and outside the organization
• Mentoring entry-level scientists and research assistants
• Contributing to the development of research strategies and objectives

Daily Responsibilities for Senior Research Scientists

• Leading and managing major research projects and collaborations
• Developing and directing research strategies and priorities
• Mentoring and supervising mid-level scientists and research teams
• Securing substantial funding and managing budgets for research activities
• Establishing partnerships with industry and academia
• Advising on policy and contributing to the broader scientific community
• Reviewing scientific manuscripts and serving on editorial boards

Types of Research Scientists

Theoretical research scientist, experimental research scientist, clinical research scientist, data research scientist, applied research scientist, environmental research scientist, what's it like to be a research scientist , research scientist work environment, research scientist working conditions, how hard is it to be a research scientist, is a research scientist a good career path, faqs about research scientists, how do research scientists collaborate with other teams within a company, what are some common challenges faced by research scientists, what does the typical career progression look like for research scientists.

How To Become a Research Scientist in 2024

Related Career Paths

Unearthing insights from data, driving strategic decisions with predictive analytics

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Unearthing insights and data to drive decision-making, shaping the future of research

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Transforming raw data into valuable insights, fueling business decisions and strategy

Transforming data into actionable insights, driving business decisions and growth

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How to build a scientific career

Early-career scientists face difficult decisions when building their career in research, and indeed about whether a career in research is right for them at all. to help with these decisions, the  nobel prize inspiration initiative  gives young scientists the opportunity to question nobel laureates about career paths. the laureate’s answers are varied, insightful, and sometimes unexpected..

How do I choose a scientific career path?

The first step towards a scientific career can be dauting, but the advice from laureates can be quite simple. For example, they are often keen to stress the importance of doing something you enjoy . Picking a good mentor is a common theme, as is confidence: don’t think that research is for someone else .

Bruce Beutler advises people not to agonise over their career, and to simply take forks in the road as they reach them. Likewise, Paul Nurse says you can’t map out your career , and suggests that young scientists should simply go for opportunities that interest them. In fact, Michael Brown believes there’s only one ‘make or break’ decision in your whole life: who your spouse is (if you have one at all)!

Ultimately, in the words of Roger Kornberg , if you are sure that a research career is for you “there will be no obstacle that you can’t overcome”.

In this video, Chemistry Laureate Martin Chalfie questions the common advice of ‘follow your passion’. Speaking from his own experience, he didn’t identify what his passion was until it appeared in front of him.

Watch more laureate videos about choosing a career path .

How should I choose a research topic?

The choice of research topic is an important challenge that scientists are faced with early on in their careers. Laureates have wide-ranging advice, and some of it can be surprising.

Tim Hunt advises people to choose a research problem they can solve in their lifetime . It should be difficult but doable in a reasonable timeframe, particularly because funding depends on demonstrating your progress.

You don’t instantly need to be able to see the application of you research though, and laureates often speak about the importance of curiosity-driven research. Barry Marshall, for example, encourages people to tackle a problem that interests them , and who knows what this new knowledge might lead to.

It’s also important to think about how much you will enjoy doing your research, and what you will learn. Brian Kobilka therefore tells people to choose projects that will expose them to new techniques and skills .

Not everyone will agree with your choice of research topic, in fact Michael Brown advises people to choose a topic that others think is boring . In this video, Chemistry Laureate Fraser Stoddart warns scientists to be prepared for criticism and suggests that early criticism in an indicator they are onto something creative.

Watch more laureate videos about choosing a research topic .

Should I stay in research?

Only a very small proportion of graduate students will go on to become professors, and there are many exciting careers available for those who choose not to stay in academia. Laureates have advice about what careers are available outside research, and how to decide whether research is for you.

A scientific training equips you with a valuable skill set. For example, scientists learn how to analyse problems and rely on evidence, as Paul Nurse points out .

There are endless  opportunities for putting a knowledge of science together with other kinds of careers, and examples include: public policy, patent law, publishing, education and teaching, medical writing, journalism, venture capital, and museum work.

There is certainly no reason for young scientists to feel restricted to an academic career path, and the biggest challenge is perhaps choosing which route to follow. In this video, Medicine Laureate May-Britt Moser gives advice on how to decide whether to follow a research career, and on the next step towards that goal.

Watch more laureate videos about career opportunities for scientists.

Should I work in academia or industry?

One common alternative to academic research is a career as a scientist in industry – there are many opportunities to do experimental work in a commercial setting.

Barry Marshall has experience of both academia and industry, creating commercial products from diagnostic tests and treatments for Helicobacter. He finds it a different experience to work in a commercial company compared to a university or research institute, particularly because success is judged in a different way. Whereas universities are looking for people who have brought in lots of funding, companies are looking for people who have produced a product, ideally with as little funding as possible. The product is your main focus , unlike in universities where you can switch between different ideas.

Randy Schekman is keen to point out the advantages of working in industry. Industry may be a better setting for people who just want to focus on research, for example, because scientists in universities spend a lot of time on teaching, grant writing and administration.

In this video, Medicine Laureate Michael Young stresses that the choice depends entirely on the preference of the scientist. He believes it is inevitable and important that different people are attracted to different career paths.

Watch more laureate videos about working in industry .

These videos were filmed at Nobel Prize Inspiration Initiative events delivered in partnership with AstraZeneca.

Discover more

How to get a job in science.

Applying for jobs can be daunting, but there are simple ways for early-career scientists to ensure their applications stand out. Through the , Nobel Laureates…

© Nobel Media. Photo: Alexander Mahmoud

Early-career scientists face difficult decisions when building their career in research, and indeed about whether a career in research is right for them at all.…

How hard do you need to work?

Hard work has been part of every laureate’s journey towards the Nobel Prize. Françoise Barré-Sinoussi spent time in the lab on the morning of her…

Elizabeth Blackburn speaks at a Nobel Prize Inspiration Initiative event

What is a research scientist and how to become one

A research scientist conducts scientific experiments and research to discover new knowledge or improve existing theories. They work in various fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and engineering. Research scientists conduct experiments, analyze data, and interpret findings to develop hypotheses and theories. They collaborate with other scientists to share knowledge and expertise, publish papers and articles, and present their research. Research scientists also contribute to the development of new technologies and applications that can benefit society.

How long does it takes to become a research scientist?

It typically takes 11-15 years to become a research scientist:

• Years 1-4: Obtaining a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field, such as biology, chemistry, or physics.
• Years 5-9: Pursuing a Doctorate degree in a relevant field, such as biochemistry or molecular biology.
• Years 10-12: Accumulating the necessary work experience, typically 2-4 years, in research and development, data analysis, or lab work.
• Years 13-15: Receiving on-site or on-the-job training, typically 1-2 years, in specific research methods or technologies.
• Salary $89,998
• Growth Rate 17%
• Jobs Number 93,013
• Job Satisfaction 3/5
• Complexity Level Advanced
• Most Common Skill Python
• Most Common Degree Bachelor's degree
• Best State California

What are the pros and cons of being a Research Scientist?

Opportunity to make significant contributions to scientific knowledge

Potential for high salary and job security

Possibility of travel to conferences and other research institutions

Personal and professional growth and development

Satisfaction of seeing your research translate into real-world applications

Long and irregular work hours, including nights and weekends

High competition for funding and positions

Pressure to publish and maintain productivity

Limited opportunities for upward mobility or promotion within academia

High levels of stress and pressure to meet deadlines and expectations

Research Scientist career paths

A research scientist can progress in their career by becoming a consultant, supervisor, or quality assurance manager. They can also transition into roles like a case manager, nursing director, or director of clinical operations. Additionally, a research scientist can become a scientist or senior scientist, and eventually a research and development manager or director. They can also become a laboratory manager, quality control manager, or quality control director.

Key steps to become a research scientist

Explore research scientist education requirements.

The educational requirements for a research scientist typically involve a high level of education. According to the data, 60.61% of research scientists hold a doctorate degree, while 31.44% have a master's degree. A bachelor's degree is less common, with only 7.95% of research scientists holding this level of education.

Dr. Kimberlee Mix , Provost Distinguished Professor of Biological Sciences at Loyola University New Orleans, advises that "Keep looking for opportunities to grow and learn. Pursuing an advanced degree may help with earning potential, but also consider online courses in bioinformatics and other certificate programs that will give you a competitive edge." This suggests that while a doctorate or master's degree is often necessary, ongoing education and professional development can also be beneficial for research scientists.

Most common research scientist degrees

Bachelor's

Master's

Start to develop specific research scientist skills

Research scientists will benefit from developing research skills in general, specifically learning quantitative and programming skills. They'll also be helped by developing their critical thinking skills. They'll need to be able to analyze data, and they'll need to be able to think about ethical analysis. According to Autumn Mathias Ph.D., LCSW , Associate Professor at Elms College, "The future of decision-making requires a greater need for tools and data availability, whether they enter the public, non-profit, or private sectors. Students would be well served to develop their quantitative and programming skills if they opt to go into a research-oriented role." Badri Roysam D.Sc., Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen University Professor and Chair of the Electrical & Computer Engineering Department at the University of Houston, also states that "The fundamentals of the discipline, and critical thinking skills will continue to be important."

Complete relevant research scientist training and internships

Research research scientist duties and responsibilities.

They perform various tasks, including conducting experiments, analyzing data, and collaborating with colleagues. They also develop new methods and technologies, such as machine learning and image processing approaches, and work on projects related to medical devices, software, and drug discovery. Additionally, they manage laboratory equipment, design and implement adaptive controllers, and create analytical methods for carbohydrate and organic chemical analysis. They also conduct statistical analyses and create reports, proposals, and quality assurance procedures. They work on large-scale national and international studies, conduct research on nutritionally-significant biomarkers, and develop applications for nutritional lipids in foods and beverages. They also participate in collaborations with universities and other organizations.

• Manage the development of innovative visualization and concept mapping of contest environment analysis challenges and analyst skill sets.
• Manage sample inventory via in-house laboratory information management system (LIMS) and implement additional systems for sample and chemical organization.
• Used real-time PCR and DNA sequencing to troubleshoot and validate SNP base and gene expression assays.
• Prepare clear technical presentations to NIH department heads in annual seminars.

Prepare your research scientist resume

When your background is strong enough, you can start writing your research scientist resume.

You can use Zippia's AI resume builder to make the resume writing process easier while also making sure that you include key information that hiring managers expect to see on a research scientist resume. You'll find resume tips and examples of skills, responsibilities, and summaries, all provided by Zippi, your career sidekick.

Choose From 10+ Customizable Research Scientist Resume templates

Apply for research scientist jobs

Now it's time to start searching for a research scientist job. Consider the tips below for a successful job search:

• Browse job boards for relevant postings
• Consult your professional network
• Reach out to companies you're interested in working for directly
• Watch out for job scams

Are you a Research Scientist?

Share your story for a free salary report.

Average research scientist salary

The average Research Scientist salary in the United States is $89,998 per year or $43 per hour. Research scientist salaries range between $58,000 and $137,000 per year.

What Am I Worth?

How do research scientists rate their job?

Based On 1 Ratings

Research Scientist reviews

Exploring more about reseaching field by building knowledge in a certain subject of research and growing the wisdom and knowledge.

The struggle of not breaking a certain research topic.

It's all about getting data, follow up on project, ensuring that jobs are done properly, write reports after a project is done. You travel if the job or project you're handling is out station.

Nothing really, it's just that sometimes getting data can be very difficult

What I like is that,you get to interact with different people from various communities.Relationships are formed in the process

Research Scientist FAQs

Do you need a ph.d. to be a research scientist, how long does it take to become a research scientist, what degree do you need to become a researcher, what does a research scientist do daily, search for research scientist jobs, research scientist jobs by state.

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Updated April 25, 2024

Editorial Staff

The Zippia Research Team has spent countless hours reviewing resumes, job postings, and government data to determine what goes into getting a job in each phase of life. Professional writers and data scientists comprise the Zippia Research Team.

Research Scientist Related Careers

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Scientists probe a space mystery: Why do people age faster during space travel?

Research finds bodies in space were stressed and showed dramatic signs of aging during the journey. but 95% of the indicators studied returned to normal within a few months..

Humanity's future may involve getting to a planet other than Earth ‒ but first people will have to survive the journey. That's why in a new series of papers scientists explore the impact of space travel on the human body from skin to kidneys to immune cells to genes.

Four civilian astronauts allowed themselves to be researched from top to bottom as they circled in low-Earth orbit for three days aboard the 2021 SpaceX Inspiration4 mission and then returned to their normal lives.

One of the most important observations was that although their bodies were stressed and showed dramatic signs of aging during the journey, 95% of the indicators studied returned to normal within a few months.

Radiation exposure apparently causes the acceleration of disease and damages cells "even in three to five days," Susan Bailey, a co-author on many of the studies and a radiation cancer biologist at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, said in a Monday video call with reporters.

Space news: Starship splashes down for first time in 4th test

Bailey and other scientists have studied astronauts before, most famously, identical twins Scott and Mark Kelly, during and after most of the 520 days Scott spent in space. ( Mark is now a senator from Arizona , choosing to run for political office after his wife, Congresswoman Gabby Giffords , now a gun control advocate , was shot in the head by a constituent.)

But this collection of studies, published Tuesday in Nature and related journals , shows the impact of space travel both on more people and also on a more diverse group, not just the exclusive people who can pass NASA's rigorous selection process.

Hayley Arceneaux , for instance, a physician assistant who served as the mission's medical director, was treated for cancer at age 10 and was one of the rare women in space. At 29, Arceneaux was also the youngest-ever space traveler.

Each of the four members of Inspiration4 represented a different decade of life, and began to provide the kind of diversity that will be crucial to understanding how space travel may impact people of different ages and health status and with different lived experiences, the researchers said.

"It really provides the foundation as we think ahead and more futuristically," Bailey said. The papers, she said, encouraged her and her peers to "think a little bit more about what it's really going to take for people to live in space for long periods of time, to thrive, to reproduce. How is all of that really going to happen?"

Bailey spent months studying the biology of the space travelers. But Monday's video conference was the first time she'd seen them face-to-face. "I'm familiar with your DNA," she told Arceneaux and fellow space traveler Chris Sembroski. "But it's nice to meet you."

Better understanding the damage that accumulates and how the body adapts to space travel will also lead researchers to treatments and fixes, said Bailey and the two other co-authors on the call, Christopher Mason, professor of genomics, physiology, and biophysics at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York, and Afshin Beheshti, an expert in bioinformatics at Blue Marble Space Institute of Science in Seattle.

In addition to age-related diseases, the papers revealed other problems space travelers can develop, like kidney stones. "Here we can treat that, but a kidney stone halfway to Mars, how are you going to treat that?" Beheshti wondered aloud. "That wasn't on the radar before" these papers.

"As we start to unravel some of this," Bailey added, "we'll improve not only our ability to deal with radiation exposure but also be addressing some of these age-related pathologies like cardiovascular disease that certainly could influence astronauts' performance en route to Mars."

Another insight: Women seem to recover faster from space damage than men, though Mason cautioned that more women need to be studied to better understand the effect and that faster recovery could come at the expense of higher long-term risk of breast and lung cancer from extended radiation exposure.

The lessons learned from space travelers could help folks on Earth, too, the researchers said.

Learning how to keep cells safe from radiation, for instance, might be transferable to help minimize damage to cancer patients undergoing radiation treatments, Mason said.

New protection measures could also be useful for people exposed to radiation at work or in case of a nuclear reactor disaster like the meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in Japan after the 2011 earthquake there.

Because space travel speeds up aging, learning how to reverse or slow that process could help "extend health-span for us mere earthlings as well," Bailey said. The new skin study, for example, suggests approaches that might be used to help people keep their skin looking younger longer.

"There's all kinds of things that could potentially benefit people on Earth," she said.

The Inspiration4 mission, which raised $250 million for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Memphis , Tennessee, also relied on some experimental technologies for recording medical information, including a handheld ultrasound imaging device, smartwatch wearables, a measurement device to check for eye alignment and new methods for profiling the immune system as well as other cells and molecules.

These devices and approaches could be useful for Earth-bound settings that are far from major urban medical centers, Mason said.

Relying on civilians rather than NASA astronauts also made it easier to study the space travelers, who signed waivers and aren't subject to government regulations, he said. Their data will be made available to other researchers.

Both Arceneaux and Sembroski, a data engineer who works for the space technologies company Blue Origin, said they loved their spaceflight and would do it again in a second if given the chance. But they also hope many others are given the same opportunity.

"We're not going to see the civilization in space that we want without people being willing to share that experience," Sembroski said about sharing his data for research. "It was fun to be part of this."

"Our mission had, not only a lot of heart behind it," Arceneaux added, "but we really wanted to make a scientific impact."

Arceneaux said she doesn't mind the mark left by the biopsy used to study how her skin reacted to space travel. "I love my space scar!" she said.

"Better than a tattoo," Bailey responded.

The best news from the research on both Kelly and the Inspiration4 travelers, Mason said, is that there's "no show-stopper. There's no reason we shouldn't be able to get to Mars and back."

Radiation exposure probably means people shouldn't be taking multiple trips to and from the red planet, he said. But "so far, from all we've observed, the body is successfully adapting to the space environment."

Karen Weintraub can be reached at [email protected].

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Scientific research isn’t just about laboratory work. With just a few quick photos or observations, anyone who is interested in working with others to improve their community can be a citizen scientist. 

Citizen science is a form of research that uses crowdsourced knowledge. This often involves community data-gathering for interpretation and use by researchers, which Stanford’s Our Voice  citizen science research initiative refers to as citizen science “for” or “with” the people.

By contrast, their work, which focuses on health equity, enables citizen science “by the people” through engaging community members not only in data collection but also in analysis and use of their collective findings. The Our Voice method emphasizes collaboration with community-engaged researchers and community-based organizations to support residents in becoming agents of local change during their projects and beyond.

The team has found that their approach elicits critical local wisdom (in the form of data) that may not be accessible through traditional research methods. In many cases, data from citizen science projects can also be leveraged by the community itself to inform changes that are both relevant and sustainable.

Here are tips from  Our Voice for engaging with and understanding citizen science:

1. Anyone can be a citizen scientist

Every person has valuable lived experiences that can inform research, educate others, and drive meaningful change. These lived experiences can include insights from daily activities, like picking up the kids from school or crossing a busy street.

Becoming a citizen scientist starts with recognizing that people already use observation in their everyday lives. An example is when you observe things that make it harder or easier to walk to your local community center. These observations, when combined with the observations of others, can help groups to identify high priority concerns that can be improved upon relatively easily.

Citizen science opportunities

Land Talk Land Talk is a citizen science and environmental history project that collects and presents conversations with observers about changes outdoors over time in places they know well. The observers are usually older people who describe changes in a place they have observed for a long time, at least 20 years. Volunteers submit audio and/or video of their conversation with an observer, along with writing about the themes discussed during the conversation, and photographs or drawings of the changes through time. The goal is to provide an opportunity for conversations between generations, and a chance to learn from observers about changes they have seen.

Content from: Education & STEM Outreach in the Office of Community Engagement

Abuzz: citizen-based mosquito monitoring system Worldwide, over 3 billion people are at risk of contracting mosquito-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, dengue, and Zika. A simple recording of a mosquito’s buzz on a cellphone could contribute to a global-scale mosquito tracking map that addresses the public health crisis rapidly spreading across continents with devastating consequences. All that’s required to participate is a cellphone to record and submit the buzz of a mosquito, which means almost anyone from around the world can take part in this work. Content from: Education & STEM Outreach in the Office of Community Engagement

Foldscope – the paper microscope Bioengineering Professor Manu Prakash and his students have designed a paper microscope – the Foldscope – that can be assembled easily and inexpensively. The Foldscope beta instrument has been distributed all over the world. There are many kits to choose from, including individual kits and the Basic Classroom Kit, which includes 20 Foldscopes. Each Foldscope comes with a cellphone attachment module, a nylon carrying pouch, and a set of reusable paper and tape slides. The kit costs $35 plus shipping.

Folding@Home Folding@Home is a distributed computing project. People from throughout the world download and run software to band together to make one of the largest supercomputers in the world to help calculate how proteins fold (or misfold). Every computer that participates brings the project closer to its goals.

Investigating ant colony searching Join a citizen science project to investigate how ants work together, without a plan, to explore new areas. Replicate a simple, easy experiment with inexpensive materials that was done in microgravity on the International Space Station. In addition to instructions for running the experiment, this website includes a lesson to help students explore ants and their behavior, ask scientific questions, collect and analyze data, and develop explanations about ant colonies.

2. No observation is too small

The Our Voice team advises citizen scientists to err on the side of capturing more data – even what may initially seem insignificant. The team has found that when citizen scientists share their findings with other residents and discuss them together, the result is often more than the sum of its parts.

Through group discussions and analysis of collective experiences around specific local environments and settings, community members can meet other like-minded individuals and work together to broaden community impact. Community change comes from uniting together, and this type of process can also support new understandings and group connections.

Part of the Cascades Butterfly Project citizen science team poses on Sauk Mountain in Washington state. | Park Ranger, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

3. It’s a win-win for individuals and their communities

Citizen scientists often report gaining new knowledge about their communities, new ways of activating change, and new connections that they can carry into the future. Our Voice projects have not only led to changes in local life, such as better traffic safety or improved health programming; they have also led to increased community cohesion, policy-level change, and individual-level changes in feelings of agency and connectedness. 

The Our Voice team also has found that after completing an Our Voice project, citizen scientists may generate ideas for additional projects to address other issues that they deem important to their community.

One example of this phenomenon comes from a San Mateo County Our Voice project called FEAST, Food Environment Assessment using the Stanford Tool , which was initiated in 2013 by Stanford postdoctoral fellows Jylana Sheats and Sandra Winter. The initial FEAST project focused on barriers to food access in older, culturally diverse seniors living in San Mateo County. Then, during the next several years, this group of seniors initiated several more citizen science projects on their own, which focused on additional health and well-being issues, including pedestrian safety and senior affordable housing.

People scanning the cliffs for mountain goats for the High Country Citizen Science Project at Glacier National Park. | GlacierNPS, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

4. Citizen science can contribute to better health care

The Our Voice team has found that citizen science can act as a “gateway” for communities to pinpoint important issues and identify relevant stakeholders to drive positive change. For example, the team has seen how this type of community-engaged citizen science can lead to improvements in health care delivery. 

A recent health clinic success story has been a project led by Holly Tabor of the Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics at Stanford Medicine. The project is part of  IDD-TRANSFORM , which strives to prioritize the perspectives and needs of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) across different aspects of health care. Through this work, individuals with IDD have been able to team up with caregivers and health care providers to collect data on what makes it harder or easier for people with IDD to have successful experiences with their health care provider or clinic.

Such efforts to bring together clinics and communities to advance a more comprehensive perspective on health is a priority area for  Stanford Medicine’s Department of Epidemiology & Population Health , where Professor Abby King’s Health Equity Action Research & Technology Solutions (HEARTS) Lab and Our Voice are located.

Related story

How citizens become agents of environmental change

5. Consider how involved you’d like to be

With projects in more than 25 countries, the Our Voice team notes that a key to their success is to let the community take the lead. 

This community-driven attitude allows a citizen science project to center the unique cultural contexts in which people live, as well as tailor their approaches to different levels of understanding of health equity. The Our Voice team also emphasizes the need for community-specific goals and methods to create effective and lasting change.

Often, citizen scientist data and the resulting analysis are handed over to people or groups in authority – what the Our Voice team refers to as citizen science “with the people,” which has led to important advances across a number of scientific fields. Our Voice works a bit differently by empowering community members to collectively analyze, interpret, and use their own data to drive change in partnership with decision-makers. That is what they mean by citizen science “by the people.” People interested in participating in citizen science should consider what kind of project they prefer, since all forms of citizen science are scientifically important and useful.

Tracking mosquitoes with your cellphone

6 . Citizen science works

Like other types of science, citizen science efforts should also be reviewed to assess how successful they are and can be. In the case of Our Voice ’s innovative research method, it has received recognition at the local, national, and international levels, and the team has been awarded several major grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to continue to evaluate the Our Voice method. Dozens of scientific publications have been generated from this participatory action research method, which can be found at the Our Voice website .

The team has been awarded a 2024 Stanford Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) seed grant to pilot the use of artificial intelligence as a tool for generating ideas for positive change in communities. They are also exploring new ways of visualizing and analyzing Our Voice data in combination with more traditional “big data” sets as well as information from wearable sensors.

Our Voice is always on the lookout for new ideas and issues that can advance both the science and community impacts of this method, which then can be shared with communities both locally and around the world through the team’s Our Voice Global Network. So, keep an eye out for an Our Voice project coming to a community near you!

For more information

The above information about citizen science is from Our Voice members Jasmine Nevarez, Zakaria Doueiri, Ann Banchoff, Ines Campero, and Abby King, and  Our Voice student interns.

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Every Single Cell in Your Body Could Be Conscious, Scientists Say. That Could Rewrite Everything We Know About Human Evolution

If trillions of tiny bits of consciousness are floating around inside you, it could change how we think about life.

The reason for such cooperation comes down to a cellular form of intelligence, says evolutionary biologist and physician William B. Miller, Ph.D. He’s co-author of the book, The Sentient Cell: The Cellular Foundations of Consciousness , published in January 2024, which proposes a radical new way of thinking about some of life’s tiniest components .

Miller is among a small but growing group of scientists who believe we should no longer think of cells as passive robots that automatically follow a code of instructions, carrying out orders from our genome like mindless drones. Instead, they say, the roughly 37 trillion cells that make up our own bodies are conscious —and that life and consciousness began at the same time.

It’s a revolutionary idea, Miller tells Popular Mechanics , but assuming cells have a form of consciousness can give us a better understanding of complex processes. These include cellular communication and decision-making, and even the motivation behind an embryonic cell specializing into a specific organ. While it’s not widely accepted among scientists, this concept of “ existential consciousness ” will profoundly transform the way we approach cellular bioengineering problems like tissue regeneration, provide a different perspective on finding cures for diseases like cancer , and even help us survive on Mars, Miller says.

Now, in a May 2024 paper published in the peer-reviewed journal Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Miller and his fellow authors argue that random chance did not govern the concept of natural selection; that’s what the 1850s naturalist Charles Darwin, known for establishing the theory of evolution, thought. Instead, the authors contend that a form of cellular consciousness actually drove life’s evolution —and it’s the reason behind all of life’s existence. CONSCIOUSNESS, AT THE LEVEL OF THE CELL , cannot produce a human being’s own, complex thoughts, feelings, and sensations; a cell doesn’t have the capacity for abstract thought. But here’s how it does work, says Miller: Imagine a typical situation—daylight in a cell’s environment hits the cell’s external membrane and passes through it. The cell measures that light signal internally, forming a piece of information about the light. “Because it has to analyze it internally, that becomes an experience as the cell analyzes the light to support the state it prefers to be in [to fulfill its function],” Miller says. While that example is of a bacterial cell, all cells absorb various data from their surroundings, analyze them, and make decisions about the actions they should take, such as producing a hormone, or moving in a particular direction, perhaps toward the light.

From early in life’s history, cells of all kinds have combined their skills to further a common goal—to keep on living and reproducing. “Cells have formed colonies. It’s very much like a city that we humans might engineer. It has nutrient channels, an outside and an inside, a collective metabolism,” Miller says. For example, microbes collaborate with each other. They’re codependent, trading resources as well as competing. “In order to make this ecology flourish, each of these cells is taking intelligent action. They’re communicating with one another, and both individually and collectively deploying resources. That’s problem solving and decision making. That’s cognitive action, and it’s one element of consciousness,” he says.

It’s still a hard concept to swallow—that bacteria and other microorganisms are conscious on any level. To animals like us, consciousness is due to a complex nervous system.

.css-2l0eat{font-family:UnitedSans,UnitedSans-roboto,UnitedSans-local,Helvetica,Arial,Sans-serif;font-size:1.625rem;line-height:1.2;margin:0rem;padding:0.9rem 1rem 1rem;}@media(max-width: 48rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:1.75rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 48rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:1.875rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 64rem){.css-2l0eat{font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1;}}.css-2l0eat b,.css-2l0eat strong{font-family:inherit;font-weight:bold;}.css-2l0eat em,.css-2l0eat i{font-style:italic;font-family:inherit;} “Every aspect of the consciousness that I’m experiencing is a simultaneous aggregation of the consciousnesses of all of my body cells and all of those microbes working in tandem, coordinating so seamlessly that I feel like I’m one individual.”

However, Miller and his fellow authors see this higher, human form of consciousness as a natural property our cells create—together with the more than 10 trillion essential microbes that are a part of our bodies. “Every aspect of the consciousness that I’m experiencing is a simultaneous aggregation of the consciousnesses of all of my body cells and all of those microbes working in tandem, coordinating so seamlessly that I feel like I’m one individual,” he says.

Before exploring that idea further, it’s important to understand one thing: We are holobionts , because we consist of our own host cells and the ones we live with in symbiosis, or mutual cooperation. In particular, we live in symbiosis with a bacterial, viral, and fungal population of cells. In other words, our cells and our microbes mutually benefit one another.

The evolutionary science of the hologenome —that we co-evolved with our microbiome—says that evolution led those first cells to continue forming different kinds of habitats in order to survive and thrive; hence, the development of plants, animals, and fungi. “We’re a constellation of habitats,” says Miller, who spent decades studying the human microbiome and has written several books on the hologenome . He compares human bodies to a successful engineering project for ever more complex groupings of diverse cells living together and adapting to changing environments over millions of years. A form of cellular consciousness has been with us since life first emerged, 3.5 billion years ago. They were able to multiply into abundant varieties of bacteria, amoeba, and then more complex organisms because of their particular awareness. Today, your brain, microbiome and the cells of your gut work together as a community of cells to create your sense of consciousness.

“We are a rich, wonderful, delightful environment for cells,” he says. “So, we bear a resemblance to the first biofilm [microbial colony]. …We are one end result, along with every other creature that can be seen—we are a particular solution to a set of biological cellular problems.”

The authors of The Sentient Cell aren’t alone in hypothesizing that our microbes, the bacteria and viruses in us, have a great deal to do with our consciousness. Various studies show that our own cells communicate with our microbiome, and that our brain, gut, and microbiome are deeply entangled, forming a complex system. Besides being responsible for our health, these complex interactions contribute to our higher level consciousness, according to a 2020 paper in the peer-reviewed Inquiries Journal .

HOWEVER, NOT ALL SCIENTISTS who study the biology of life are convinced that cells are conscious. Cells respond to both chemical and physical signals, including pressure from surrounding cells. The cells of a developing embryo know, for example, when their number has grown to 400. At this exact point, the group begins to separate into three axes that determine the body’s final orientation: front and back, left and right, up and down. They know how to differentiate themselves into the tissues that will become your organs and other parts. Cells are the architects of the organism, cell biologist Alfonso Martínez Arias, Ph.D., tells Popular Mechanics .

His work shows that a person’s genome is a toolbox for the cell to use as it may. Yet we cannot presume that a cell’s behavior is due to consciousness, says Martínez Arias, who spent 40 years at the University of Cambridge researching how a fertilized egg can become an individual with billions of specialized cells.

While cells exhibit behaviors that you could call a sort of intelligence—responding to other cells and their environment—the crux of the problem is that it’s hard to define consciousness, he says. “With cells, there is some kind of computation going on, with an output that can be predicted. …I think increasingly, there is evidence that cells have capacities that are not encoded in the genome.” For instance, the ability to pick and choose from the toolbox of genes that give us our ultimate characteristics. Through experiments, researchers have been able to study cell responses to different chemical and physical stimuli, such as exposing them to a chemical compound that would cause the cells to produce a different compound. “So we are able to communicate with them, but we do it badly. …But I think we are learning their alphabet, we’re learning their language,” Martínez Arias says. He hopes that continuing such investigations will lead us someday to knowing what makes cells tick.

Conventional resistance to labeling cells as “conscious” comes from defining consciousness from a human point of view, Miller believes. We compare our own consciousness to the capacity of other animals, such as the mosquito or the lion. “And the more you look, the more you realize that our form of consciousness, with its own intelligence, is different from other animals, [so our view is skewed].” A cell’s consciousness is more elemental, a simpler form of cognition, he says.

Here’s a practical reason to treat cells as conscious, Miller says: Once we realize that cells are “creative and intelligent problem-solving materials,” we can treat them as partners in designing better biomedical therapies and solutions. By studying their motivations and decision-making, we’ll find more ways to manipulate cells, such as interrupting their processes. For example, cancer cells communicate with each other and with non-cancer cells in the body. We are finding promising cures for some cancers that break down the communication cancer cells use in their efforts to propagate and form tumors. This type of directed immunotherapy leaves patients’ own healthy cells undamaged, unlike chemotherapy, or radiation, which damages healthy cells too.

We’re already taking advantage of cell behavior to engineer microbes that eat plastic. Such creative solutions in the future won’t be possible if we treat cells as robots without preferences, Miller says. We’ll even understand how to explore space better. For example, the radiation levels on a journey to Mars are too high to survive. One of the solutions could be figuring out a way to strengthen our cells against dangerous radiation. Miller believes a study of how cells themselves could engineer an adaptation to radiation would help.

Before joining Popular Mechanics , Manasee Wagh worked as a newspaper reporter, a science journalist, a tech writer, and a computer engineer. She’s always looking for ways to combine the three greatest joys in her life: science, travel, and food.

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Eyes in the Sky: Using Drones to Measure Sea Turtles

June 17, 2024

What do drones and toy turtles have in common? Scientists are using these tools to measure sea turtles in the wild without ever touching them.

Drones not only take great photographs—they can also be used to take measurements. In our case, we use them to measure the size of sea turtles seen in the wild. 

Photogrammetry is the process of getting reliable measurements from photographs. This technique has been used for more than 100 years, primarily to create maps from aerial photos. With advanced drone technology, biologists are using photogrammetry to measure  sea turtle species like leatherbacks, loggerheads, and Kemp’s ridleys. 

Collecting size information using photogrammetry helps us understand what age groups of different sea turtle species are using which areas, and when. For example, scientists from NOAA’s Southeast Fisheries Science Center recently used this method to measure juvenile green sea turtles in coastal Louisiana. At another site in North Carolina, we saw and measured adult and juvenile loggerhead sea turtles. This might suggest that different species of turtles occur within different regions. Collecting information on size and habitat use informs conservation management strategies and helps assess progress toward recovery. Another benefit: measurements can be made without having to capture and handle the turtles. This means more animals can be measured in a day and the turtles don’t even know we’re there. 

How Photogrammetry Works

Photogrammetry uses:

• Basic features of the drone’s camera (focal length and sensor width)
• Height or altitude the drone was flying when the picture was taken
• Image width of the picture in pixels

By combining this information, we can determine the ground sampling distance which is how much actual area is represented in each photo pixel. Special software is then used to measure the turtles’ length in pixels and multiply it by the ground sampling distance. It then converts the measurement to an estimate of the live turtle’s length. This allows us to estimate how big the turtle is without ever touching it. To ensure we get the best estimate possible, we assign two independent scientists to measure the turtles in the photographs.

Overcoming Challenges

Water clarity plays a big role in how easy it is to see the turtles below the surface. The clearer the water, the further below the surface we can see them. If the water is murky, we can only see the turtles within a few feet—or even inches—of the surface. A team of scientists from the  Southeast Fisheries Science Center and the  Southwest Fisheries Science Center are using photogrammetry to measure green turtles in both the murky waters of San Diego Bay and the clearer waters off the coast of Florida. 

To test the accuracy of this method, we temporarily placed toy sea turtles with known lengths in the water. We measured them from different altitudes using these photogrammetry techniques. Even when capturing images from 131 feet above the water, we were able to estimate the length of the smallest plastic turtle to within 0.4 inches of its actual size (9.6 inches). 

Looking from above, an object under water appears larger than it does in air due to light’s refractive index. That means we get the most accurate measurements when the turtles come up to breathe and their shell (or carapace) breaks the surface. The accuracy of a size measurement can also be affected by the angle of the turtle relative to the surface. We are continuing to conduct experiments with our turtle replicas to get a better understanding of these factors and to maximize the accuracy of our measurements. 

Research to Support Sea Turtle Protection

Six species of sea turtles are found in U.S. waters, all of which are listed and protected under the  Endangered Species Act . We conduct research to better understand the population status, spatial ecology, demography, and human threats to sea turtles. This helps to provide timely scientific data and advice for protecting sea turtle species in the Southeast region.

More Information

• Southeast Fisheries Science Center
• Marine Mammal and Turtle Division

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Why scientists fear a second Trump term, and what they are doing about it

Several federal agencies are working to safeguard research, including climate science, from future political meddling.

When the union representing nearly half of Environmental Protection Agency employees approved a new contract with the federal government this month, it included an unusual provision that had nothing to do with pay, benefits or workplace flexibility: protections from political meddling into their work.

The protections, which ensure workers can report any meddling without fear of “retribution, reprisal, or retaliation,” are “a way for us to get in front of a second Trump administration and protect our workers,” said Marie Owens Powell, an EPA gas station storage tank inspector and president of American Federation of Government Employees (AFGE) Council 238.

The agreement signals the extent to which career employees and Biden administration officials are racing to foil any efforts to interfere with climate science or weaken environmental agencies should former president Donald Trump win a second term. Trump and his allies, in contrast, argue that bloated federal agencies have hurt economic development nationwide and that the Biden administration has prioritized climate science at the expense of other priorities.

“One of the things that is so bad for us is the environmental agencies. They make it impossible to do anything,” the former president said in an interview with “Fox & Friends” that aired June 2, claiming that “they’ve stopped you from doing business in this country.”

The Trump administration sidelined, muted or forced out hundreds of scientists and misrepresented research on the coronavirus , reproduction and hurricane forecasting , environmental advocates said. Now as an example of what’s to come, they point to a blueprint called “Project 2025,” a plan for the next conservative administration drafted by right-wing think tanks in Washington.

The plan calls for a sweeping reorganization of the executive branch, one that would concentrate more power in Trump’s hands. At the EPA, it recommends eliminating the office of environmental justice , which was created in 2022 to address the pollution that disproportionately harms poor and minority communities.

Soon after President Biden took office, his administration began imposing scientific integrity policies across the federal government, setting rules that protect research from political interference or manipulation. Many such policies are in place — though research advocates say they aren’t durable because they aren’t enshrined in federal law, and could be undone with new executive actions.

At the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, where a 2020 investigation found that agency leaders violated its scientific integrity policy after Trump showed a doctored hurricane forecast map , stricter standards took effect in March. A similar policy will soon be extended to the Commerce Department, including to the political appointees whose violations were detailed in the 2020 probe.

At the EPA, the new scientific integrity provision is part of a four-year contract with the agency. The provision ensures that workers’ complaints will be assessed by an independent investigator, rather than a political appointee.

While any new president could quickly transform policies around scientific integrity through new executive orders, the union contract provision is one advocates had urged as a way to make the protections harder to undo without a legal fight.

Powell said the Trump administration especially targeted climate researchers at the agency. Trump has called global warming a “hoax,” and during his first year in office, his political appointees barred three EPA scientists from speaking about climate change at a conference in Rhode Island.

Mandy Gunasekara, who served as EPA chief of staff under Trump, rejected allegations that his administration tried to suppress climate science. She said this research is likely to continue regardless of who’s in the White House.

“Climate change will continue to be an important issue in a future conservative administration, but it’s not going to be the most important issue so that it displaces the agency fulfilling its full mission,” said Gunasekara, who wrote the chapter on the EPA in “Project 2025.”

There are nonetheless heavy anxieties within the EPA over the Project 2025 proposals, said Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta, a former EPA official who advised agency leaders this week at a regularly scheduled meeting on the transition to the next administration. She said she reminded them that proposals to cut staff, for example, would require the cooperation of Congress.

“A lot of things on the wish list can’t happen that easily,” said Orme-Zavaleta, who serves on the board of the Environmental Protection Network, a group of former EPA employees that works to support the agency and its mission.

EPA spokesman Remmington Belford said in an email that the agency is “pleased” with the contract provision and “committed to ensuring the agency has a strong foundation of science that is free from political interference and inappropriate influence.”

While helpful, the provision won’t be a panacea, said Tim Whitehouse, the executive director of Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility, a nonprofit advocacy group, which helped advise AFGE on the scientific integrity language.

“It will be impossible to fully Trump-proof any agency or protect any scientist if Trump wins a new term and either the House or Senate is in Republican control,” Whitehouse said. “Then there will be absolutely no meaningful oversight.”

Interior Department braces for more cuts

The Interior Department — which manages vast swaths of public land and federal waters and oversees everything from offshore oil drilling to endangered species protections — could come under intense scrutiny in a second Trump administration.

In the interview with “Fox & Friends,” Trump was asked about government programs that he would slash in a second term. “We’re going to do, like, Department of Interior,” he said in response.

It remains unclear whether Trump wants to eliminate the Interior Department or merely reduce its budget and staffing levels. Karoline Leavitt, a spokeswoman for Trump’s 2024 campaign, did not directly respond to a request for clarification.

Trump “cut red tape and gave the [oil and gas] industry more freedom to do what they do best — utilize the liquid gold under our feet to produce clean energy for America and the world — and he will do that again as soon as he gets back to the White House,” Leavitt said in an emailed statement.

Career employees exited the Interior Department in droves during Trump’s four years in office. At the end of his presidency, there were 4,900 fewer employees at the agency than at the beginning, according to data from the Office of Personnel Management.

The exodus was especially large at Interior’s Bureau of Land Management, which oversees roughly 245 million acres of public lands. After Trump briefly moved the BLM’s headquarters from Washington to Grand Junction, Colo., more than 87 percent of the affected employees either resigned or retired.

William Perry Pendley, who served as acting BLM director under Trump, defended the relocation, saying the vast majority of public lands are in the West.

“If you want to be involved with the stakeholders — the governors, the county commissioners, the local people — then you’ve got to be out West,” Pendley said, adding that Biden administration officials in Washington are “badly out of touch.”

In addition to the BLM move, in July 2017, then-Interior Secretary Ryan Zinke reassigned dozens of top career officials as part of a broader reorganization of the department. Joel Clement, a scientist and policy expert, was removed from his role as director of Interior’s Office of Policy Analysis and reassigned to an accounting position for which he had no experience.

In a whistleblower complaint with the U.S. Office of Special Counsel — and in an opinion piece in The Washington Post — Clement accused Zinke of illegally trying to force career staffers to quit.

“That incident was a case study in them going after the people who do the science,” Clement, who now works at a philanthropic foundation, said in an interview. Ultimately, Interior’s internal watchdog found no written communications from Zinke that supported the allegation.

In April, the Office of Personnel Management finalized a rule that will allow federal employees to keep their existing job protections and right to due process, including the right to appeal a reassignment or firing. The rule overturns a Trump directive, known as Schedule F, that allowed his administration to force out thousands of career employees by changing their status to at-will workers who could be fired without due process.

New federal law is needed, some say

NOAA leaders and observers said the agency is better equipped to withstand the sort of pressure scientists faced when Hurricane Dorian was approaching the U.S. coast in 2019, and Trump used a marker to extend the hurricane forecast cone to include Alabama.

His warning prompted a quick clarification from NOAA forecasters that Alabama was not, in fact, in the likely path of the storm, and then a statement from agency leaders reaffirming Trump’s incorrect assertion. An investigation found undue political influence led to the release of that statement, violating NOAA’s scientific integrity policy.

The agency has since updated that research policy — in January 2021 and again this March, said Cynthia Decker, NOAA’s scientific integrity officer.

The policy includes guidelines on how scientists should conduct themselves, and asks them to articulate their findings openly and clearly to the public. It establishes that “credible allegations of fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and interference with or undue influence on accurate public reporting of science” can result in “personnel actions” and even referral to the inspector general’s office.

An extension of those policies to cover the Commerce Department is expected in the coming months, Decker said. It would include a mechanism by which even political appointees could be subject to allegations that they violated the integrity policy, something that could lead to a review or investigation and potential discipline, Decker said.

These updates are important because they set “that moral and intellectual compass to remind people where the curbs are in the road,” said Craig McLean, a 40-year veteran of NOAA who served as the agency’s acting chief scientist during the Trump administration.

But as strong as the policies may be, they aren’t permanent, some critics note. Legislation introduced in the two most recent sessions of Congress would have codified a requirement that federal agencies adopt scientific integrity policies and could establish legal penalties for violating them.

With such a law in place, “the next president can’t say, ‘No, I don’t care,’” when violations of scientific integrity arise, said Andrew Rosenberg, a former NOAA official and a senior adviser at the Center for Ocean Leadership at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.

Daniel Weiner, director of the elections and government program at New York University’s Brennan Center for Justice, said government scientists will inevitably face pressures from on high.

“There are always going to be political concerns pushing back on the science,” Weiner said. “I would expect that regardless of who wins the election.”

Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction Preface

How science has revolutionized the understanding of drug addiction.

For much of the past century, scientists studying drugs and drug use labored in the shadows of powerful myths and misconceptions about the nature of addiction. When scientists began to study addictive behavior in the 1930s, people with an addiction were thought to be morally flawed and lacking in willpower. Those views shaped society’s responses to drug use, treating it as a moral failing rather than a health problem, which led to an emphasis on punishment rather than prevention and treatment.

Today, thanks to science, our views and our responses to addiction and the broader spectrum of substance use disorders have changed dramatically. Groundbreaking discoveries about the brain have revolutionized our understanding of compulsive drug use, enabling us to respond effectively to the problem.

As a result of scientific research, we know that addiction is a medical disorder that affects the brain and changes behavior. We have identified many of the biological and environmental risk factors and are beginning to search for the genetic variations that contribute to the development and progression of the disorder. Scientists use this knowledge to develop effective prevention and treatment approaches that reduce the toll drug use takes on individuals, families, and communities.

Despite these advances, we still do not fully understand why some people develop an addiction to drugs or how drugs change the brain to foster compulsive drug use. This booklet aims to fill that knowledge gap by providing scientific information about the disorder of drug addiction, including the many harmful consequences of drug use and the basic approaches that have been developed to prevent and treat substance use disorders.

At the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), we believe that increased understanding of the basics of addiction will empower people to make informed choices in their own lives, adopt science-based policies and programs that reduce drug use and addiction in their communities, and support scientific research that improves the Nation’s well-being.

Nora D. Volkow, M.D. Director National Institute on Drug Abuse