how many references for a phd thesis

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How many references did you have?

I am suddenly a bit shaken by seeing the size of some bibliographies so if you could tell me your field and the number of citations you have or expect to have I'd appreciate it.

EDIT: Just a very big thank you to all of you responding. It is bringing me relief like you wouldn't believe. x

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Number of references in a PhD thesis?

Im currently writing-up and my endnote says i have 356 references for my 80,000-word PhD. Just out of curiosity (and fear that i dont have enough!), how many have others cited by the time theyve reached the end? whats the average? (mine's a qualitative study, which may or may not make any difference).

I'm qualitative and, doing a rough calculation, my final thesis has around 280 references - so less than you! Now I hope I have enough!!

I'm doing an computer science PhD and my institution has a maximum of 50000 words (as opposed for 80000 for humanities). Looking at 5 example PhDs I have, they average about 130 (though one has 350). Its not about how many, but whether you have made your point. There is a danger that they might ask you a question on a reference that you might not have read.

It does vary a lot by topic. Mine is interdisciplinary and very heavy on the referencing - I'm trying to cut it back a bit from around 500. I really doubt I will remember much about them even if I've read them!

How weird.. I did a computer science one and mine came in at 87,000 - Max was 90,000... arts had 130,000 to play around with! I think I had about 350 references in total...

PC_Geek - the documentation states that references and appendices aren't counted - maybe that is why? I hope I'm right! I would be gutted to find that another 40000 words are expected! I think its because a lot of 'science' PhDs at my University (Bham) are experiment based, as opposed to humanities, so a lot of background work is expected to have taken place that wouldn't necessarily be written in full detail - eg I'm sure I have several tens of thousands of lines of code, but I wouldn't include that.

I've read somewhere that you are expected to reference 50 books and 150 articles. Good luck.

I am doing a qual too (heavy political theory), and it depends on your approach. I am focusing on four authors and how their work contrasts/complements so referencing is relatively high, but the number of works is actually quite low. I normally get only 100 pieces of work, but around 500 references.

'PC_Geek - the documentation states that references and appendices aren't counted - maybe that is why?' Different Unis, different rules... including my appendicies and references it comes to 98,500 I imagine yours will be more concise than mine.. mine was a lot of waffle

I just finished two chapters (1&2) and had 50 and 52 references in them.

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Tips for writing a PhD dissertation: FAQs answered

From how to choose a topic to writing the abstract and managing work-life balance through the years it takes to complete a doctorate, here we collect expert advice to get you through the PhD writing process

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Embarking on a PhD is “probably the most challenging task that a young scholar attempts to do”, write Mark Stephan Felix and Ian Smith in their practical guide to dissertation and thesis writing. After years of reading and research to answer a specific question or proposition, the candidate will submit about 80,000 words that explain their methods and results and demonstrate their unique contribution to knowledge. Here are the answers to frequently asked questions about writing a doctoral thesis or dissertation.

What’s the difference between a dissertation and a thesis?

Whatever the genre of the doctorate, a PhD must offer an original contribution to knowledge. The terms “dissertation” and “thesis” both refer to the long-form piece of work produced at the end of a research project and are often used interchangeably. Which one is used might depend on the country, discipline or university. In the UK, “thesis” is generally used for the work done for a PhD, while a “dissertation” is written for a master’s degree. The US did the same until the 1960s, says Oxbridge Essays, when the convention switched, and references appeared to a “master’s thesis” and “doctoral dissertation”. To complicate matters further, undergraduate long essays are also sometimes referred to as a thesis or dissertation.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines “thesis” as “a dissertation, especially by a candidate for a degree” and “dissertation” as “a detailed discourse on a subject, especially one submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a degree or diploma”.

• Ten platinum rules for PhD supervisors
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The title “doctor of philosophy”, incidentally, comes from the degree’s origins, write Dr Felix, an associate professor at Mahidol University in Thailand, and Dr Smith, retired associate professor of education at the University of Sydney , whose co-authored guide focuses on the social sciences. The PhD was first awarded in the 19th century by the philosophy departments of German universities, which at that time taught science, social science and liberal arts.

How long should a PhD thesis be?

A PhD thesis (or dissertation) is typically 60,000 to 120,000 words ( 100 to 300 pages in length ) organised into chapters, divisions and subdivisions (with roughly 10,000 words per chapter) – from introduction (with clear aims and objectives) to conclusion.

The structure of a dissertation will vary depending on discipline (humanities, social sciences and STEM all have their own conventions), location and institution. Examples and guides to structure proliferate online. The University of Salford , for example, lists: title page, declaration, acknowledgements, abstract, table of contents, lists of figures, tables and abbreviations (where needed), chapters, appendices and references.

A scientific-style thesis will likely need: introduction, literature review, materials and methods, results, discussion, bibliography and references.

As well as checking the overall criteria and expectations of your institution for your research, consult your school handbook for the required length and format (font, layout conventions and so on) for your dissertation.

A PhD takes three to four years to complete; this might extend to six to eight years for a part-time doctorate.

What are the steps for completing a PhD?

Before you get started in earnest , you’ll likely have found a potential supervisor, who will guide your PhD journey, and done a research proposal (which outlines what you plan to research and how) as part of your application, as well as a literature review of existing scholarship in the field, which may form part of your final submission.

In the UK, PhD candidates undertake original research and write the results in a thesis or dissertation, says author and vlogger Simon Clark , who posted videos to YouTube throughout his own PhD journey . Then they submit the thesis in hard copy and attend the viva voce (which is Latin for “living voice” and is also called an oral defence or doctoral defence) to convince the examiners that their work is original, understood and all their own. Afterwards, if necessary, they make changes and resubmit. If the changes are approved, the degree is awarded.

The steps are similar in Australia , although candidates are mostly assessed on their thesis only; some universities may include taught courses, and some use a viva voce. A PhD in Australia usually takes three years full time.

In the US, the PhD process begins with taught classes (similar to a taught master’s) and a comprehensive exam (called a “field exam” or “dissertation qualifying exam”) before the candidate embarks on their original research. The whole journey takes four to six years.

A PhD candidate will need three skills and attitudes to get through their doctoral studies, says Tara Brabazon , professor of cultural studies at Flinders University in Australia who has written extensively about the PhD journey :

• master the academic foundational skills (research, writing, ability to navigate different modalities)
• time-management skills and the ability to focus on reading and writing
• determined motivation to do a PhD.

How do I choose the topic for my PhD dissertation or thesis?

It’s important to find a topic that will sustain your interest for the years it will take to complete a PhD. “Finding a sustainable topic is the most important thing you [as a PhD student] would do,” says Dr Brabazon in a video for Times Higher Education . “Write down on a big piece of paper all the topics, all the ideas, all the questions that really interest you, and start to cross out all the ones that might just be a passing interest.” Also, she says, impose the “Who cares? Who gives a damn?” question to decide if the topic will be useful in a future academic career.

The availability of funding and scholarships is also often an important factor in this decision, says veteran PhD supervisor Richard Godwin, from Harper Adams University .

Define a gap in knowledge – and one that can be questioned, explored, researched and written about in the time available to you, says Gina Wisker, head of the Centre for Learning and Teaching at the University of Brighton. “Set some boundaries,” she advises. “Don’t try to ask everything related to your topic in every way.”

James Hartley, research professor in psychology at Keele University, says it can also be useful to think about topics that spark general interest. If you do pick something that taps into the zeitgeist, your findings are more likely to be noticed.

You also need to find someone else who is interested in it, too. For STEM candidates , this will probably be a case of joining a team of people working in a similar area where, ideally, scholarship funding is available. A centre for doctoral training (CDT) or doctoral training partnership (DTP) will advertise research projects. For those in the liberal arts and social sciences, it will be a matter of identifying a suitable supervisor .

Avoid topics that are too broad (hunger across a whole country, for example) or too narrow (hunger in a single street) to yield useful solutions of academic significance, write Mark Stephan Felix and Ian Smith. And ensure that you’re not repeating previous research or trying to solve a problem that has already been answered. A PhD thesis must be original.

What is a thesis proposal?

After you have read widely to refine your topic and ensure that it and your research methods are original, and discussed your project with a (potential) supervisor, you’re ready to write a thesis proposal , a document of 1,500 to 3,000 words that sets out the proposed direction of your research. In the UK, a research proposal is usually part of the application process for admission to a research degree. As with the final dissertation itself, format varies among disciplines, institutions and countries but will usually contain title page, aims, literature review, methodology, timetable and bibliography. Examples of research proposals are available online.

How to write an abstract for a dissertation or thesis

The abstract presents your thesis to the wider world – and as such may be its most important element , says the NUI Galway writing guide. It outlines the why, how, what and so what of the thesis . Unlike the introduction, which provides background but not research findings, the abstract summarises all sections of the dissertation in a concise, thorough, focused way and demonstrates how well the writer understands their material. Check word-length limits with your university – and stick to them. About 300 to 500 words is a rough guide ­– but it can be up to 1,000 words.

The abstract is also important for selection and indexing of your thesis, according to the University of Melbourne guide , so be sure to include searchable keywords.

It is the first thing to be read but the last element you should write. However, Pat Thomson , professor of education at the University of Nottingham , advises that it is not something to be tackled at the last minute.

How to write a stellar conclusion

As well as chapter conclusions, a thesis often has an overall conclusion to draw together the key points covered and to reflect on the unique contribution to knowledge. It can comment on future implications of the research and open up new ideas emanating from the work. It is shorter and more general than the discussion chapter , says online editing site Scribbr, and reiterates how the work answers the main question posed at the beginning of the thesis. The conclusion chapter also often discusses the limitations of the research (time, scope, word limit, access) in a constructive manner.

It can be useful to keep a collection of ideas as you go – in the online forum DoctoralWriting SIG , academic developer Claire Aitchison, of the University of South Australia , suggests using a “conclusions bank” for themes and inspirations, and using free-writing to keep this final section fresh. (Just when you feel you’ve run out of steam.) Avoid aggrandising or exaggerating the impact of your work. It should remind the reader what has been done, and why it matters.

How to format a bibliography (or where to find a reliable model)

Most universities use a preferred style of references , writes THE associate editor Ingrid Curl. Make sure you know what this is and follow it. “One of the most common errors in academic writing is to cite papers in the text that do not then appear in the bibliography. All references in your thesis need to be cross-checked with the bibliography before submission. Using a database during your research can save a great deal of time in the writing-up process.”

A bibliography contains not only works cited explicitly but also those that have informed or contributed to the research – and as such illustrates its scope; works are not limited to written publications but include sources such as film or visual art.

Examiners can start marking from the back of the script, writes Dr Brabazon. “Just as cooks are judged by their ingredients and implements, we judge doctoral students by the calibre of their sources,” she advises. She also says that candidates should be prepared to speak in an oral examination of the PhD about any texts included in their bibliography, especially if there is a disconnect between the thesis and the texts listed.

Can I use informal language in my PhD?

Don’t write like a stereotypical academic , say Kevin Haggerty, professor of sociology at the University of Alberta , and Aaron Doyle, associate professor in sociology at Carleton University , in their tongue-in-cheek guide to the PhD journey. “If you cannot write clearly and persuasively, everything about PhD study becomes harder.” Avoid jargon, exotic words, passive voice and long, convoluted sentences – and work on it consistently. “Writing is like playing guitar; it can improve only through consistent, concerted effort.”

Be deliberate and take care with your writing . “Write your first draft, leave it and then come back to it with a critical eye. Look objectively at the writing and read it closely for style and sense,” advises THE ’s Ms Curl. “Look out for common errors such as dangling modifiers, subject-verb disagreement and inconsistency. If you are too involved with the text to be able to take a step back and do this, then ask a friend or colleague to read it with a critical eye. Remember Hemingway’s advice: ‘Prose is architecture, not interior decoration.’ Clarity is key.”

How often should a PhD candidate meet with their supervisor?

Since the PhD supervisor provides a range of support and advice – including on research techniques, planning and submission – regular formal supervisions are essential, as is establishing a line of contact such as email if the candidate needs help or advice outside arranged times. The frequency varies according to university, discipline and individual scholars.

Once a week is ideal, says Dr Brabazon. She also advocates a two-hour initial meeting to establish the foundations of the candidate-supervisor relationship .

The University of Edinburgh guide to writing a thesis suggests that creating a timetable of supervisor meetings right at the beginning of the research process will allow candidates to ensure that their work stays on track throughout. The meetings are also the place to get regular feedback on draft chapters.

“A clear structure and a solid framework are vital for research,” writes Dr Godwin on THE Campus . Use your supervisor to establish this and provide a realistic view of what can be achieved. “It is vital to help students identify the true scientific merit, the practical significance of their work and its value to society.”

How to proofread your dissertation (what to look for)

Proofreading is the final step before printing and submission. Give yourself time to ensure that your work is the best it can be . Don’t leave proofreading to the last minute; ideally, break it up into a few close-reading sessions. Find a quiet place without distractions. A checklist can help ensure that all aspects are covered.

Proofing is often helped by a change of format – so it can be easier to read a printout rather than working off the screen – or by reading sections out of order. Fresh eyes are better at spotting typographical errors and inconsistencies, so leave time between writing and proofreading. Check with your university’s policies before asking another person to proofread your thesis for you.

As well as close details such as spelling and grammar, check that all sections are complete, all required elements are included , and nothing is repeated or redundant. Don’t forget to check headings and subheadings. Does the text flow from one section to another? Is the structure clear? Is the work a coherent whole with a clear line throughout?

Ensure consistency in, for example, UK v US spellings, capitalisation, format, numbers (digits or words, commas, units of measurement), contractions, italics and hyphenation. Spellchecks and online plagiarism checkers are also your friend.

How do you manage your time to complete a PhD dissertation?

Treat your PhD like a full-time job, that is, with an eight-hour working day. Within that, you’ll need to plan your time in a way that gives a sense of progress . Setbacks and periods where it feels as if you are treading water are all but inevitable, so keeping track of small wins is important, writes A Happy PhD blogger Luis P. Prieto.

Be specific with your goals – use the SMART acronym (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and timely).

And it’s never too soon to start writing – even if early drafts are overwritten and discarded.

“ Write little and write often . Many of us make the mistake of taking to writing as one would take to a sprint, in other words, with relatively short bursts of intense activity. Whilst this can prove productive, generally speaking it is not sustainable…In addition to sustaining your activity, writing little bits on a frequent basis ensures that you progress with your thinking. The comfort of remaining in abstract thought is common; writing forces us to concretise our thinking,” says Christian Gilliam, AHSS researcher developer at the University of Cambridge ’s Centre for Teaching and Learning.

Make time to write. “If you are more alert early in the day, find times that suit you in the morning; if you are a ‘night person’, block out some writing sessions in the evenings,” advises NUI Galway’s Dermot Burns, a lecturer in English and creative arts. Set targets, keep daily notes of experiment details that you will need in your thesis, don’t confuse writing with editing or revising – and always back up your work.

What work-life balance tips should I follow to complete my dissertation?

During your PhD programme, you may have opportunities to take part in professional development activities, such as teaching, attending academic conferences and publishing your work. Your research may include residencies, field trips or archive visits. This will require time-management skills as well as prioritising where you devote your energy and factoring in rest and relaxation. Organise your routine to suit your needs , and plan for steady and regular progress.

How to deal with setbacks while writing a thesis or dissertation

Have a contingency plan for delays or roadblocks such as unexpected results.

Accept that writing is messy, first drafts are imperfect, and writer’s block is inevitable, says Dr Burns. His tips for breaking it include relaxation to free your mind from clutter, writing a plan and drawing a mind map of key points for clarity. He also advises feedback, reflection and revision: “Progressing from a rough version of your thoughts to a superior and workable text takes time, effort, different perspectives and some expertise.”

“Academia can be a relentlessly brutal merry-go-round of rejection, rebuttal and failure,” writes Lorraine Hope , professor of applied cognitive psychology at the University of Portsmouth, on THE Campus. Resilience is important. Ensure that you and your supervisor have a relationship that supports open, frank, judgement-free communication.

If you would like advice and insight from academics and university staff delivered direct to your inbox each week, sign up for the Campus newsletter .

Authoring a PhD Thesis: How to Plan, Draft, Write and Finish a Doctoral Dissertation (2003), by Patrick Dunleavy

Writing Your Dissertation in Fifteen Minutes a Day: A Guide to Starting, Revising, and Finishing Your Doctoral Thesis (1998), by Joan Balker

Challenges in Writing Your Dissertation: Coping with the Emotional, Interpersonal, and Spiritual Struggles (2015), by Noelle Sterne

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How Many References Should a PhD Thesis Include?

Determining the appropriate number of references for a PhD thesis is a nuanced task that varies across disciplines, research scopes, and institutional guidelines. The role of references is crucial in establishing the credibility of the research, supporting arguments, and situating the study within the existing body of knowledge. This article delves into various factors and practices to help you navigate the complexities of referencing in a PhD thesis.

Key Takeaways

• The number of references in a PhD thesis varies significantly across different academic disciplines and research scopes.
• Institutional guidelines, including university policies and departmental recommendations, play a crucial role in determining the appropriate number of references.
• Balancing originality and citation is essential; too many references might overshadow your original contributions, while too few could undermine the credibility of your research.
• The relevance and quality of sources are more important than the sheer quantity of references.
• Effective referencing strategies, such as using reference management tools and regularly updating your literature review, can enhance the overall quality of your thesis.

The Role of References in a PhD Thesis

In a PhD thesis, references play a crucial role in establishing your credibility as a researcher. By citing authoritative sources, you demonstrate that your work is grounded in existing scholarship. This not only supports your arguments but also shows that you have engaged deeply with the relevant literature. Proper citation of sources is essential for a well-organized and credible thesis.

References are indispensable for supporting the arguments you present in your thesis. They provide the necessary evidence to back up your claims, making your research more convincing. Without adequate references, your arguments may appear unsubstantiated and weak. Therefore, it is vital to meticulously cite all sources that contribute to your research.

References help in situating your study within the broader context of existing research. By acknowledging the work of others, you can highlight the gaps your research aims to fill. This not only demonstrates your awareness of the field but also underscores the originality of your study. Proper referencing is a key component in the 5 essential steps to a successful thesis journey.

Disciplinary Variations in Referencing

When it comes to referencing in a PhD thesis, practices can vary significantly across different academic fields. Understanding these variations can help you align your work with disciplinary expectations and enhance the credibility of your research.

Humanities and Social Sciences

In the humanities and social sciences, referencing tends to be more extensive. This is because these fields often rely on a broad range of sources, including books, journal articles, and historical documents. Particular referencing styles are preferred by particular academic disciplines because they work better with the kind of texts that are most commonly used in these fields.

Natural Sciences and Engineering

In contrast, the natural sciences and engineering disciplines typically require fewer references. The focus here is often on recent journal articles and conference papers. The nature of the research in these fields means that the literature review is usually more concise, focusing on the most relevant and recent studies.

Interdisciplinary Research

Interdisciplinary research presents a unique challenge in terms of referencing. You need to draw from multiple fields, which can lead to a higher number of references. However, it's essential to maintain a balance to avoid overwhelming your thesis with citations. The key is to be selective and ensure that each reference adds significant value to your research.

Institutional Guidelines and Policies

When preparing your PhD thesis, it is essential to adhere to the guidelines set forth by your academic institution. These guidelines ensure that your work meets the required standards and maintains academic integrity. Understanding these guidelines can significantly impact the quality and acceptance of your thesis.

University Policies

University policies provide a broad framework for thesis preparation, including formatting, submission deadlines, and ethical considerations. Adhering to these policies is crucial for the successful completion of your thesis. Make sure to familiarize yourself with the specific requirements of your university, as they can vary significantly between institutions.

Departmental Recommendations

In addition to university-wide policies, individual departments may have their own recommendations and requirements. These can include preferred citation styles, specific structural elements, and additional review processes. Consulting your department's guidelines can provide valuable insights and help you align your work with departmental expectations.

Advisors' Expectations

Your thesis advisor plays a pivotal role in guiding your research and writing process. Their expectations can influence various aspects of your thesis, from the depth of your literature review to the methodological approaches you employ. Regularly communicating with your advisor and seeking their feedback can help ensure that your thesis meets both institutional and personal standards.

Balancing Originality and Citation

Balancing originality with the need for citation is a critical aspect of crafting an effective PhD thesis. While it's important to build on existing research, your thesis should also offer new insights or perspectives. Over-reliance on citations can make it appear that you are merely repeating others' work rather than contributing original thought. Therefore, it's essential to use references strategically to support your unique contributions without overshadowing them.

Quality vs. Quantity of References

Relevance of sources.

When considering the number of references to include in your PhD thesis, the relevance of each source is paramount. High-quality, relevant references lend credibility to your work and can make your arguments more persuasive. Conversely, poor or irrelevant references can undermine your research's validity. It's crucial to strike a balance between quantity and quality to avoid the pitfalls of over-referencing, which can dilute the impact of your key findings.

Impact on Thesis Quality

The quality of your references can significantly impact the overall quality of your research. While having a substantial number of references can demonstrate thorough research, the quality and relevance of the references are more important than the quantity. Overcitation or including irrelevant references can detract from the thesis quality. Instead, focus on citing sources that are directly relevant to your research. This approach not only strengthens your thesis but also ensures that each reference adds meaningful content to your work.

Avoiding Irrelevant References

Including too many references can make your thesis appear less original. It's essential to avoid overcitation by focusing on sources that are directly relevant to your research. The argument you make is more important than the number of sources. This approach not only strengthens your thesis but also ensures that each reference adds meaningful content to your work.

Common Pitfalls in Referencing

Over-reliance on literature.

One of the most common pitfalls in referencing is the over-reliance on a limited number of sources . This can undermine the depth and breadth of your research. It is crucial to diversify your references to provide a well-rounded perspective. Over-reliance on a few sources can also lead to a lack of originality in your work.

Inconsistent Citation Styles

Inconsistent citation styles can significantly affect the credibility of your thesis. It is essential to adhere to a specific citation style guide throughout your work. This not only ensures uniformity but also helps in maintaining academic integrity. Properly attributing ideas is crucial to avoid plagiarism.

Ignoring Recent Studies

Failing to include recent studies can make your research appear outdated. It is important to stay current with the latest developments in your field. Regularly updating your literature review is a good practice to ensure that your thesis reflects the most recent advancements and discussions.

Strategies for Effective Referencing

Effective referencing begins with meticulous organization. Accuracy and thoroughness are paramount in reference lists. Utilize a consistent style and format throughout your thesis to ensure clarity and professionalism. Consider creating a dedicated section in your thesis for references, and keep it updated as you progress.

Utilize reference management software like Zotero or EndNote to manage citations efficiently. These tools help you stay organized by keeping your research materials, notes, and drafts well-organized . By leveraging these tools and resources, you can ensure that your referencing is both accurate and efficient, ultimately enhancing the quality of your thesis.

A well-maintained literature review is crucial for effective referencing. Regularly update your literature review to incorporate the latest studies and findings. This not only keeps your research current but also demonstrates a thorough understanding of the evolving research landscape. Staying current with emerging trends in your field can significantly enhance the credibility of your thesis.

The Impact of Research Scope on Referencing

The breadth and depth of your research topic can significantly impact the number of references. A broader scope typically necessitates a larger number of references to cover various aspects comprehensively. Conversely, a more focused study might require fewer references.

The breadth and depth of your literature review will also determine the number of references. A comprehensive review covering multiple aspects of a topic will naturally include more references. Conversely, a focused review on a niche area may require fewer but more specific sources. Striking a balance between breadth and depth is essential to maintain the relevance and quality of your thesis.

Different academic fields have varying expectations regarding the number of references. For instance, a thesis in the humanities may require extensive referencing to situate the study within existing literature, while a thesis in the natural sciences might focus more on recent studies and empirical data. Understanding these field-specific requirements is crucial for crafting an effective Ph.D. thesis proposal .

Case Studies: Referencing Practices Across Disciplines

Adapting to evolving research landscapes.

In today's rapidly evolving research landscape , it is crucial to stay current with emerging trends and technologies. Incorporating digital sources into your thesis can significantly enhance the depth and breadth of your literature review. Digital sources, such as online journals, e-books, and databases, provide access to a vast array of information that was previously unavailable or difficult to obtain. This not only broadens your research scope but also ensures that your work is grounded in the most recent studies and findings.

Adapting to open access journals is another important aspect of modern research. Open access journals democratize knowledge by making research freely available to anyone with an internet connection. This can be particularly beneficial for PhD candidates, as it allows you to access a wider range of studies without the barrier of subscription fees. Moreover, publishing in open access journals can increase the visibility and impact of your own research.

Staying current with emerging trends is essential for maintaining the relevance and credibility of your thesis. This involves regularly updating your literature review and being aware of the latest developments in your field. Utilizing technology and software tools for efficient thesis writing can greatly aid in this process. Future trends focus on automation and AI, enhancing collaboration and organization for productive research practices.

The Future of Referencing in Academic Research

The future of referencing in academic research is being shaped by rapid technological advancements. Smart citations are becoming increasingly prevalent, leveraging machine learning models to identify and match in-text citations with the correct references. This not only enhances accuracy but also streamlines the referencing process, making it more efficient for researchers.

As the research landscape evolves, so do citation norms. Proper citation practices contribute to the integrity of the academic field, fostering an environment of collaboration and continuous learning. Researchers must stay updated with these changing norms to ensure their work remains relevant and credible.

For PhD candidates, adapting to these changes is crucial. By leveraging these tools and resources, you can ensure that your referencing is both accurate and efficient, ultimately enhancing the quality of your thesis. Staying current with emerging trends and incorporating digital sources will be essential in maintaining the rigor and relevance of your research.

The future of referencing in academic research is evolving rapidly, and staying ahead is crucial. At Research Rebels, we provide innovative solutions to help you navigate these changes with ease. Our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan is designed to alleviate your thesis anxiety and guide you through every stage of your research journey. Don't miss out on this opportunity to transform your academic experience. Visit our website to claim your special offer now and start your journey towards stress-free thesis writing!

In conclusion, determining the appropriate number of references for a PhD thesis is a multifaceted task that depends on various factors including the academic discipline, the scope of the research, and institutional guidelines. While some fields may require an extensive number of references to cover a broad spectrum of existing literature, others may necessitate fewer but more focused citations to highlight original contributions. It is imperative for doctoral candidates to strike a balance between adequately supporting their research with existing literature and showcasing their own scholarly contributions. Ultimately, the quality and relevance of the references are more significant than the sheer quantity, and careful consideration should be given to ensure that the references enhance rather than overshadow the original research.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many references should a phd thesis generally include.

The number of references in a PhD thesis can vary widely depending on the discipline, the nature of the research, and the scope of the literature review. Generally, a thesis can include anywhere from 100 to 300 references.

Does the number of references impact the quality of a PhD thesis?

While having a substantial number of references can demonstrate thorough research, the quality and relevance of the references are more important than the quantity. Overcitation or including irrelevant references can detract from the thesis quality.

Are there disciplinary norms for the number of references in a PhD thesis?

Yes, different disciplines have varying norms for the number of references. Humanities and social sciences may require more extensive referencing compared to natural sciences and engineering.

Is it possible to have too many references in a PhD thesis?

Yes, having too many references can sometimes indicate an over-reliance on existing literature and a lack of original contribution. It is important to strike a balance between citing enough sources to support your work and showcasing your own research findings.

What are some common pitfalls to avoid when referencing in a PhD thesis?

Common pitfalls include over-reliance on literature, inconsistent citation styles, and ignoring recent studies. It's important to ensure your references are relevant, up-to-date, and consistently formatted.

How can I manage my references effectively?

Using reference management tools like EndNote, Mendeley, or Zotero can help you organize your references efficiently. Regularly updating your literature review and keeping track of your sources can also be beneficial.

Do more references indicate a higher quality PhD thesis?

Not necessarily. The quality and relevance of the references are more important than the quantity. A well-researched thesis with fewer but highly relevant references can be more impactful than one with numerous but less pertinent sources.

What should I consider when balancing originality and citation in my thesis?

It's important to ensure that your original contributions are not overshadowed by citations. While you need to support your arguments with existing literature, make sure to highlight your unique findings and perspectives.

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What is a thesis?

What is a dissertation, getting started, staying on track.

A thesis is a long-term project that you work on over the course of a semester or a year. Theses have a very wide variety of styles and content, so we encourage you to look at prior examples and work closely with faculty to develop yours. 

Before you begin, make sure that you are familiar with the dissertation genre—what it is for and what it looks like.

Generally speaking, a dissertation’s purpose is to prove that you have the expertise necessary to fulfill your doctoral-degree requirements by showing depth of knowledge and independent thinking.

The form of a dissertation may vary by discipline. Be sure to follow the specific guidelines of your department.

• PhD This site directs candidates to the GSAS website about dissertations , with links to checklists,  planning, formatting, acknowledgments, submission, and publishing options. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus . Consult with your committee chair about specific requirements and standards for your dissertation.
• DDES This document covers planning, patent filing, submission guidelines, publishing options, formatting guidelines, sample pages, citation guidelines, and a list of common errors to avoid. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus .
• Scholarly Pursuits (GSAS) This searchable booklet from Harvard GSAS is a comprehensive guide to writing dissertations, dissertation-fellowship applications, academic journal articles, and academic job documents.

Finding an original topic can be a daunting and overwhelming task. These key concepts can help you focus and save time.

Finding a topic for your thesis or dissertation should start with a research question that excites or at least interests you. A rigorous, engaging, and original project will require continuous curiosity about your topic, about your own thoughts on the topic, and about what other scholars have said on your topic. Avoid getting boxed in by thinking you know what you want to say from the beginning; let your research and your writing evolve as you explore and fine-tune your focus through constant questioning and exploration.

Get a sense of the broader picture before you narrow your focus and attempt to frame an argument. Read, skim, and otherwise familiarize yourself with what other scholars have done in areas related to your proposed topic. Briefly explore topics tangentially related to yours to broaden your perspective and increase your chance of finding a unique angle to pursue.

Critical Reading

Critical reading is the opposite of passive reading. Instead of merely reading for information to absorb, critical reading also involves careful, sustained thinking about what you are reading. This process may include analyzing the author’s motives and assumptions, asking what might be left out of the discussion, considering what you agree with or disagree with in the author’s statements and why you agree or disagree, and exploring connections or contradictions between scholarly arguments. Here is a resource to help hone your critical-reading skills:

http://writing.umn.edu/sws/assets/pdf/quicktips/criticalread.pdf

Conversation

Your thesis or dissertation will incorporate some ideas from other scholars whose work you researched. By reading critically and following your curiosity, you will develop your own ideas and claims, and these contributions are the core of your project. You will also acknowledge the work of scholars who came before you, and you must accurately and fairly attribute this work and define your place within the larger discussion. Make sure that you know how to quote, summarize, paraphrase ,  integrate , and cite secondary sources to avoid plagiarism and to show the depth and breadth of your knowledge.

A thesis is a long-term, large project that involves both research and writing; it is easy to lose focus, motivation, and momentum. Here are suggestions for achieving the result you want in the time you have.

The dissertation is probably the largest project you have undertaken, and a lot of the work is self-directed. The project can feel daunting or even overwhelming unless you break it down into manageable pieces and create a timeline for completing each smaller task. Be realistic but also challenge yourself, and be forgiving of yourself if you miss a self-imposed deadline here and there.

Your program will also have specific deadlines for different requirements, including establishing a committee, submitting a prospectus, completing the dissertation, defending the dissertation, and submitting your work. Consult your department’s website for these dates and incorporate them into the timeline for your work.

Accountability

Sometimes self-imposed deadlines do not feel urgent unless there is accountability to someone beyond yourself. To increase your motivation to complete tasks on schedule, set dates with your committee chair to submit pre-determined pieces of a chapter. You can also arrange with a fellow doctoral student to check on each other’s progress. Research and writing can be lonely, so it is also nice to share that journey with someone and support each other through the process.

Common Pitfalls

The most common challenges for students writing a dissertation are writer’s block, information-overload, and the compulsion to keep researching forever.

There are many strategies for avoiding writer’s block, such as freewriting, outlining, taking a walk, starting in the middle, and creating an ideal work environment for your particular learning style. Pay attention to what helps you and try different things until you find what works.

Efficient researching techniques are essential to avoiding information-overload. Here are a couple of resources about strategies for finding sources and quickly obtaining essential information from them.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_literature/writing_in_literature_detailed_discussion/reading_criticism.html

https://students.dartmouth.edu/academic-skills/learning-resources/learning-strategies/reading-techniques

Finally, remember that there is always more to learn and your dissertation cannot incorporate everything. Follow your curiosity but also set limits on the scope of your work. It helps to create a folder entitled “future projects” for topics and sources that interest you but that do not fit neatly into the dissertation. Also remember that future scholars will build off of your work, so leave something for them to do.

Browsing through theses and dissertations of the past can help to get a sense of your options and gain inspiration but be careful to use current guidelines and refer to your committee instead of relying on these examples for form or formatting.

DASH Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard.

HOLLIS Harvard Library’s catalog provides access to ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global .

MIT Architecture has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Rhode Island School of Design has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

University of South Florida has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Harvard GSD has a list of projects, including theses and professors’ research.

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• Choosing References for a PhD Application

Written by Ben Taylor

As part of your application for doctoral study you may be asked to provide up to three academic referees.

The references they provide can make or break your PhD application and are essential to giving you the best chance of being successful. You should therefore think carefully about who your referees will be.

This page explains how reference letters for PhD applications work, with advice on choosing referees and requesting references from them.

On this page

What do referees do.

Applying for doctoral study can be competitive and universities often receive a substantial number of submissions. As a result, they are not able to meet every applicant in person.

References give an impression of you as a potential PhD researcher whilst both reinforcing your personal statement and academic history, and adding more.

A PhD reference letter should:

• Provide a personal and expert opinion on your suitability to undertake postgraduate study
• Evidence and confirm your qualifications, skills and abilities
• Show who you are as a researcher: what your interests are, where your strengths lie, and what your goals are
• Offer knowledgeable and experienced insight into how you and your research project would fit within the university and its research culture

The information provided by your referees could also help corroborate other aspects of your application, or inform some of the questions at your interview .

The importance of PhD references

It can be tempting to overlook references as you focus on the parts of a PhD application that require more direct input from you, but to do so would be a mistake.

References are as important to your PhD application as your personal statement , research proposal and academic history.

They can not only strengthen your application by supporting the information you provide but they can also make up for any potential weaknesses in your academic profile.

Who should you choose as your PhD referee?

Choosing the right referees for you and your project is an important part of the application process. Referees that you might consider are:

• Your Masters supervisor - they will have a good idea of you as a person, your research interests, and your skills and abilities
• Other members of academic staff who have taught you and read and marked your work
• Academic staff from your department or university who you may not know well personally but whose work fits with your research interests
• Your personal tutor (if separate from the people above)
• An employer can be a valuable referee if you’re looking to research in an area that is similar to your employment

Academics usually have strong networks within their fields. This means there is a good chance that your referee will be known to your potential supervisor (and vice versa).

Selecting a referee who works in your subject area can therefore be a good way of signalling that your research has a place within a specific field.

When choosing referees you should think about who can offer a knowledgeable and personal understanding of your goals, interests, and abilities as a researcher.

A reference is as much (if not more) about why and how you research as it is about what you research.

The other ingredients of a successful PhD application

Your referees are important, but so are other elements of your PhD application . Our guides cover personal statements, research proposals, eligibility criteria and more.

How should you ask for a reference letter?

Don’t leave your referee with a surprise reference request in their inbox. Make contact with them (by email, phone, or in person) before submitting your application and let them know that you would like to put them down as a referee.

Most academics will empathise with someone looking to pursue their interests through postgraduate study and will be willing to write a reference.

However, busy schedules inevitably mean missed or forgotten emails or a lack of hours in the day to write your reference at short notice. This isn’t just about etiquette; it is also about giving your referees enough time to do you justice.

Assisting your referees

There are a few things you can do to make life easier for your referees - and help them produce a better reference for you.

Even if you know your referees well, you should arrange to meet with them in person. This will allow you to discuss why you want to pursue your research to doctorate level and what your goals are.

This will give them a good sense of your motivations for studying for a PhD and you may also find it helpful to articulate to another academic your reasons for pursuing a doctorate.

Likewise, if using an employer as a referee is appropriate for your study, talk to them about why you want to transition from employment to postgraduate research. This can be particularly valuable if an employer isn't immediately familiar with your academic subject or the details of PhD study.

If you are approaching academic staff who may not know you or your research very well, help them to write you a strong reference by offering them a sample of some your best written work and your personal statement.

The value of your references

Above all else, don't underestimate the importance of references to the rest of your PhD application.

Whoever you choose - and however you approach them - your references will help to demonstrate to a selection panel that you have the skills, tenacity, and knowledge to pursue your research through PhD study.

Think carefully and choose the right referees for you and your project, give them plenty of time and help them to write you the best possible reference by providing a clear picture of yourself as a researcher.

This article was written for FindAPhD by Sabine Grimshaw . At the time of writing, Sabine was completing her PhD at the University of Leeds & the Imperial War Museum. Click here to search our database of PhDs .

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Our guide explains how to contact a potential PhD supervisor to discuss your proposal or ideas with them before applying.

A checklist of the things you'll need to do when making an international PhD application, from meeting the entry requirements to sorting out your visa.

What documents you need for a complete study abroad application, what they are and what they should and should not include.

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In-Text References, Footnotes, Endnotes, Tables & Figures in PhD Theses

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Oct 5, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

1.2.6 In-Text References, Footnotes and/or Endnotes

References to the sources cited and/or quoted in a thesis should appear throughout the thesis. Depending on the discipline, university and department guidelines and the requirements of the individual thesis, in-text citations may take the form of numerical references, be based on the last names of authors (usually along with publication dates) or appear in footnotes or endnotes. Footnotes and endnotes can also be used to provide a wide variety of material beyond bibliographical references, such as summaries of the scholarship on a topic, suggestions for further reading, alternative or contradictory editions and arguments, and further details on anything discussed in the main text.

Both kinds of notes are usually indicated by superscript Arabic numerals, with the numbering often beginning again at the start of each chapter, and the notes themselves are generally set in a slightly smaller font than that of the main text of a thesis. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant pages, but endnotes can appear either at the end of each chapter or in the final matter of the thesis. For more information on footnotes, endnotes and in-text references, see Sections 1.4 and 3.4 as well as Chapter 7.

1.3 Tables and Figures

The tables and figures included in a thesis will often appear in the main body of the thesis with each one placed as close as possible to the discussion of it in the text, or to the report or description it enhances or illustrates. This is not always the case, however: some universities, departments, thesis committees and doctoral candidates will want tables and figures placed at the end of the thesis (or the tables and figures for each chapter placed at the end of that chapter), which simplifies the layout of the text itself and is particularly appropriate for especially long tables or large figures.

In some cases, certain tables and figures might be embedded in the main body of the thesis while others will be tacked on at the end. As a general rule, each table or figure should be able to stand on its own, which is to say that all the information necessary to understand the table or figure without recourse to other parts of the thesis should be provided in the context of the table or figure. For guidance on designing, incorporating and listing tables and figures, see Sections 1.1.8 and 1.1.9 and Sections 4.4.1 and 4.6.

1.3.1 Tables

Tables consist of columns and rows and are used to present data in a visually effective way that more readily allows for comprehension, calculation and/or comparison than describing the same data in text could. Tables should be numbered, usually with Arabic numerals (Roman numerals or letters are much rarer), in the order in which they are first mentioned in the thesis (see Section 4.6.1 for advice on numbering tables that appear in appendices), and each table should bear a title or main heading that indicates exactly what the table shows.

Each table must be referred to in the text by its number along with some indication of what the reader will find in the table, and the tables themselves should appear in their order of mention whether they are embedded in the text or placed at the end of a chapter or the end of the thesis as a whole. Headings on columns and rows within a table define the data presented and, if necessary, notes at the bottom explain aspects that might otherwise be unclear to readers, such as abbreviations and probability values. There may be specific university or department guidelines for the use and layout of tables, but, generally speaking, clarity, accuracy and consistency are the keys to well-designed tables.

1.3.2 Figures

Figures take many forms including charts, graphs, plots, boxes, photographs, drawings and maps that illustrate or clarify aspects of the research and results presented in a thesis. Like tables, figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals (more rarely Roman numerals or letters) in the order in which they are first mentioned in the thesis (see Section 4.6.1 for advice on numbering figures that appear in appendices), and each figure should bear a caption describing exactly what the figure shows. Each figure should also be referred to in the text by its number along with some indication of what the reader will find in the figure, and the figures themselves should appear in their order of mention, whether they are embedded in the text or placed at the end of a chapter or the end of the thesis as a whole.

Labelling within a figure identifies aspects of the illustration, a key can be used to provide scales and define tints, and explanatory notes for abbreviations and the like can be included in either the caption or a legend. University or department requirements should always be consulted for specific guidance on the use and format of figures, but as a general rule, an attractive appearance clearly incorporating all the information needed to enable the reader’s comprehension of its significance is central to the design of a successful figure.

1.4 Final and Supplementary Matter

1.4.1 Appendices

Appendices (occasionally called appendixes or annexes) are not required in a thesis, but they may certainly be used if necessary. Material that supports or is closely related to the information provided in the main body of a thesis but too long or detailed to be included there or in notes, or material relevant to more than one chapter or section of a thesis is usually placed in an appendix unless university or department requirements do not allow appendices. Appendices sometimes appear in a slightly smaller font than the main text of a thesis and are often labelled with uppercase letters (‘A,’ ‘B,’ ‘C,’ etc.) rather than numbers, but Arabic or Roman numerals are also acceptable. 

Each appendix should be referred to by its letter or number in the thesis along with some indication of what the reader will find in the appendix, and the appendices themselves should be arranged according to the order of mention. Appendices always appear in the final matter and generally precede any endnotes as well as the reference list, but in some fields the appendices will be the last items in a thesis. For more information on appendices, see Sections 3.5.3 and 4.6.1.

1.4.2 Endnotes

If endnotes are used instead of footnotes for references in the main text of a thesis, for supplementary material or for a combination of both, they appear at the end of the thesis before the list of references or at the end of each chapter. If they are placed at the end of each chapter, the layout clearly indicates to which chapter the notes apply, but if they appear at the end of the thesis, headings within the endnotes should indicate to which chapter each group of notes apply. Endnotes often use a font slightly smaller than that of the main text of the thesis and are usually indicated by superscript Arabic numerals, but if both footnotes and endnotes are necessary (the first for supplementary material, for instance, and the second for textual notes), different indicators should be used for the two kinds of notes (superscript Arabic numerals for footnotes, for example, and bracketed Arabic numerals for endnotes). For more information on endnotes, see Section 1.2.6 above and Sections 3.4 and 7.2.3 below.

1.4.3 List of References, List of Works Cited or Bibliography

Every thesis requires a list of the sources used while writing the thesis, usually even if full bibliographical references are provided in footnotes or endnotes. A list of references or works cited normally contains only those sources actually cited in the thesis, whereas a bibliography can also contain any additional sources consulted. The list is usually arranged either alphabetically (by the last names of authors) or numerically, depending on the referencing system used, although it can also be subdivided into sections with headings such as ‘Primary Sources,’ ‘Secondary Literature’ and ‘Randomised Controlled Trials.’ Disciplines and departments tend to prefer specific referencing systems and styles, so do check any relevant guidelines and follow them carefully. Accuracy and thoroughness are paramount in reference lists, and, as much as possible, the style and content of the references should remain consistent throughout the list. For more information on lists of references, see Section 3.5.4 and Chapter 7 below.

PRS Tip: If you find that you are having difficulties designing an appropriate structure for your thesis, your supervisor and perhaps other members of your thesis committee should be able to help you determine the topics, chapters, sections and, more generally, material that are required for your discipline and department. Your department may have guidelines or templates outlining the structure of doctoral theses that will prove helpful, so do check into this, and if not, looking at successful theses that have recently been completed in your department to determine how they are organised can provide sound examples. You may also find it helpful, however, to send an early draft of your thesis or proposal chapters to PRS for proofreading. PRS not only uses professional proofreaders who specialise in a wide range of academic and scientific areas, but can also provide proofreaders who work primarily on doctoral theses. Such proofreaders are well versed in what theses in different disciplines should contain and how they should be arranged, and they are also able to read your work within the broad context of the many doctoral theses they encounter each month. Their advice should not, of course, take precedence over that of your supervisor and committee members, who are experts in your area of study and usually also examiners of your thesis, but the objective perspective of a professional proofreader who is familiar with academic and scientific writing and alert to details of all kinds can be immensely helpful. You can also send along with your work any instructions you may have been given regarding the structure and organisation of your thesis so that your proofreader can help you tailor your thesis with precision.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

Interested in Proofreading your PhD Thesis? Get in Touch with us

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Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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How Many References in a Research Paper?

Junior researchers frequently wonder how many references should be included in their research papers. The common response? “As many as you need.” What exactly does that mean? While we admit there are very few hard-set rules regarding this issue, in this article, we will try to provide more concrete guidelines that will help you assess whether you have enough references in your paper.

Before we do so, let us briefly explain why references matter and whether the number of references you include can project certain perceptions about the quality of your work. There is such a thing as having too many or too few.

Why are research paper references and citations necessary?

References show that you have carefully reviewed the relevant literature and are now contributing something  novel  to the academic community. You establish authority and credibility when you can critically assess other literature and distinguish your findings from previous works (if any exist). We emphasize “critically assess” in the last sentence because references are only as good as you apply them to your research. Therefore, the famous adage “quality over quantity” is the key to deciding how many references are sufficient.

Likewise, citing your references within the research paper itself (in the form of academic citations ) is crucial in any academic work that makes assertations based on external studies. Failing to cite your sources can result in plagiarism, which even if accidental can still have some devastating consequences for academic researchers hoping to publish their work or finish graduate school.

Number of Sources Used Can Impact Perceptions of Quality

We would be remiss if we didn’t tell you that being at either extreme (having too few or too many references) can reflect poorly on your intellectual aptitude and your study’s validity. Here’s why:

• If you don’t have enough references, particularly on a topic familiar to a wide audience, readers may think that you haven’t done enough research into existing literature. Surely someone else has thought about related topics or used similar techniques. If you’re sloppy in conducting your diligence, readers will wonder whether your paper is worth reading. What’s novel and valuable about your paper? Were you just as sloppy with conducting your study? The answers to these questions need to be evident.
• Additionally, readers might be concerned that you may have plagiarized by failing to properly cite information. Unless you’re John Nash, who cited only two texts in his seminal  26-page PhD thesis  (one of which was to his prior work), ensure that you’ve properly researched the relevant papers and included appropriate citations! Especially, make sure that you have found, read, and included all the latest publications on your topic before finalizing and submitting your own paper—if the drafting process took some time, new literature might have come out in the meantime, and you don’t want to give the editor the impression that you are not on top of the newest developments.
• If you have too many references, readers may wonder if you did any original research at all. Unless you’re writing a literature review, your paper’s primary focus should be on your investigation and findings. Don’t bury your hard work under strings of citations and discussion regarding other works. Show your readers what you’ve discovered and how the new information you present fits into or departs from the academic community’s current understanding of your topic.

Additionally, let us highlight the difference between the number of references versus citations. References are the source materials; therefore, each reference should be listed only once in your references section. Citations are meant to identify the source of the information you use in your paper. You can cite a reference multiple times. Therefore, the number of citations you have is typically larger than the number of references an average paper includes. The opposite situation should never happen!

Key Factors Influencing the Number of References You Use

The following are some of the many factors that may influence the number of references you use:

• The number of references required for a paper will depend largely on your work’s purpose . For example, literature and systematic reviews are surveys of existing studies. Therefore, their reference lists will be more exhaustive than those of research papers whose primary focus is the current authors’ findings. Indeed, if you examine many journals’ author guidelines , you’ll note that journals have a higher maximum reference limit for review articles than original research papers.
• The length of your reference list will also depend on your research paper’s subject matter . For example, if you are writing about a field that is less studied (such as a subfield of neuroparasitology) you may discover that there aren’t many papers to cite. Similarly, newer fields will have fewer published papers that can be referenced. If you find yourself in this situation, review the references used by relevant current literature and see if you can expand your research, and thus your reference list, with valuable content from there.
• Another factor will be your  institution or journal’s requirements . If you are preparing a dissertation or thesis, double-check your department’s requirements. While rare, they may have specific limits. More commonly, journals restrict the number of references due to printing constraints.
• It may happen that you don’t have  access to certain literature  that could have served as a reference. In such a situation, you may wish to look for an institution that may be able to provide you access to that literature for the purposes of reviewing the content or contact one of the authors directly and ask for a copy.
• Given that more papers are being published than ever before in most fields, it is likely that reference lists will grow longer simply because there are more data and discussions of existing data available to cite . Keep track of changes to the size of reference lists in publications related to your field.
• Finally, a paper’s length bears some correlation to the number of references.

So how many references should be included?

Below, we provide tips on how to decide if you have enough resources. We also provide some general reminders on how to effectively use references. After all, references are meant to enhance your paper while still maintaining your research as the focal point.

Use academic journals as a guide

• One way to gauge how many references you should have is to survey academic journals for your article type in your field. Review their author guidelines for limits on the number of references for your article type, and make sure your reference list complies with those journal restrictions.
• Read recent articles relevant to your topic; check how many references other authors have included in their papers for the same article type as yours, and how frequently those works were cited per page.
• Keep in mind that the above methods will give you an estimate of how many references you should include overall but will not tell you how many citations you’ll need per page. The latter is impossible to state simply because certain sections may have no citations at all (the results section , for example).

Statistics regarding the number of references and citations

To give you a general idea, the following are some estimates from a couple of studies that examined the citation characteristics of articles published in various disciplines.

According to  Milojević’s study  encompassing research in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, robotics, ecology, and economics, the highest and average number of references per article page were as follows:

• Ecology: highest, ~58; average reference per page, 6;
• Math and robotics: highest, ~28; average reference per page, <1; and
• Economics: highest, ~ 32; average reference per page, >1 but <2.

The above findings were based on data compiled from the first 20 years of the author’s research. Since then some fields have increased the number of references. Thus, make sure to examine your target journal’s most recent and relevant publications for a better idea of how many references to include based on the specific type of article you plan to write.

In another study by Falagas et al. (2013),  medical journals averaged  29 references for articles that were 7.88 pages long (as printed in journals).

Finally, although the sample size was small (63 journals), Gali Halevi observed the following citation trends of a broader range of disciplines.

• The average number of references per article was the highest for the social sciences, physics, and astronomy, and arts & humanities (roughly 54 references per article).
• On the other hand, health professions and earth and planetary sciences had the fewest references per article at an average of 8 and 17 references, respectively.
• Math and engineering averaged at roughly 29 references per article.
• Biochemistry, genetics and molecular and other biological sciences averaged at 51.
• Hard and natural sciences more frequently cited recent literature while social sciences and math were likely to include older sources.

Note that the Halevi study is limited in size, fails to factor in article type and does little to account for variances across different fields and journals. For example, it is possible that more review articles could have been reviewed for certain fields than others. With that said, we provide the above information to provide a rough estimate.

At the end of the day, please keep in mind the requirements of your institution or target journal and the general trends for your specific article type (by examining the most recent relevant publications).

For additional information regarding journal restrictions on the number of references, read this article on ways to grow your publication list .

Some Dos and Don’ts for Reference Citation

• Don’t repeat references within a reference list.
• Don’t repeatedly cite yourself. Make sure to balance your discussion with external literature citations.
• Be careful about citing old references. The rule of thumb is to go back at most five to six years. Exceptions to this rule should be reserved for “seminal” works relevant to explaining what prompted your research. Roughly 85% of all cited works should be less than five years old.
• Be careful not to cite several references in one place  without  discussing the relevance of each work to your research. In other words, don’t say, “We referred to previous studies in this field (1-7)” unless you later explain how each of reference #s 1-7 apply to your discussion.
• Confirm the quality of the work you cite. Are there any ethical issues regarding the paper that would disqualify it as a good source? Do your references come from reputable sources such as respected journals rather than random blogs and website links? Remember that your analysis is only as good as the verifiable information you use to conduct your research.
• One of the main purposes of citing existing literature is to show the “knowledge gap” regarding your topic. Therefore, make sure the works you reference naturally lead readers to wonder about the research question you address in your paper. To explain further, think about your favorite fictional story. A successfully written story only reveals the background information needed for the reader to follow along in the story. You’ll rarely see an author waste time writing about how the main character stubbed his toe one day while going to work unless that event relates to an important aspect of the story. Similarly, the references you cite should support the story building you create in your research paper.
• Don’t completely ignore the paper that could disprove your hypothesis. You want to show objectivity and that you took a balanced and unbiased approach to conducting your research. Mention the potentially conflicting evidence and explain why you believe it is flawed or inapplicable to your research.
• In qualitative research papers, you may have fewer references.
• Anything you cite in your paper should be listed in the references section (or reference list). Anything listed as a reference should have been quoted or paraphrased in the text. If either rule is violated, something is wrong.
• Finally, remember that a paper will typically have more citations in the Introduction section and Discussion section than in other parts.

Wordvice Academic Resources

If you need help with paraphrasing text from the sources you cite to avoid plagiarism, with different citation styles , or with finding the perfect journal to submit your paper to, then have a look at our collection of articles on the Wordvice academic resources website . We also recommend our professional English editing and proofreading services , including paper editing and academic editing services to ensure that your writing is free of errors before submitting your manuscript to a journal.

Citation guides

All you need to know about citations

How to cite a PhD thesis in Harvard

To cite a PhD thesis in a reference entry in Harvard style include the following elements:

• Author(s) of the PhD thesis: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J.) of up to three authors with the last name preceded by 'and'. For four authors or more include the first name followed by et al., unless your institution requires referencing of all named authors.
• Year of submission: Give the year in round brackets.
• Title of the PhD thesis: Give the title as presented in the source. Only the first letter of the first word and proper nouns are capitalized.
• Degree description: Type of degree.
• Degree-awarding institution: Give the name of the institution.

Here is the basic format for a reference list entry of a PhD thesis in Harvard style:

Author(s) of the PhD thesis . ( Year of submission ) Title of the PhD thesis . Degree description . Degree-awarding institution .

Take a look at our reference list examples that demonstrate the Harvard style guidelines in action:

A PhD thesis with one author

Confait, M. F . ( 2018 ) Maximising the contributions of PHD graduates to national development: the case of the Seychelles . PhD thesis . Edith Cowan University .

An unpublished PhD thesis

Bowkett, D . ( 2015 ) Investigating the ligandability of plant homeodomains . Unpublished PhD thesis . University of Oxford .

This citation style guide is based on the Cite Them Right (10 th edition) Harvard referencing guide.

More useful guides

• Harvard Referencing: Theses
• Referencing with Harvard: Thesis or dissertation
• Citing and referencing: Theses/Dissertations

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• AMA: how to cite an annual report
• APA: how to cite a book
• Harvard: how to cite a mobile app

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PhD Thesis: Topics, Example, Process, Tips, How to Write?

Muhammad Hasim Sheikh Aug 24, 2024 1K Reads

PhD Thesis or PhD Dissertation is an important component in the process of getting a doctorate. If you are pursuing PhD or deciding to pursue it, it will be mandatory for you to prepare and submit your PhD Thesis.

All the details and information collected during the PhD research are presented in the form of a PhD Thesis. It is a detailed description of the research process of research outcomes that can contribute to the original field of knowledge in the particular field.

The PhD candidates prepare the PhD Thesis to showcase their research findings. A PhD Thesis is the backbone of the doctoral degree and plays an important role in showcasing the research ability and competency in conducting independent and original research.

A PhD Thesis not only demonstrates the research competency of the candidates but also exhibits their expertise, critical thinking, and research skills. The preparation of a PhD Thesis is a very difficult and challenging task and you need to take the utmost precautions while preparing it.

Here in this blog, we will discuss all the procedures adopted while preparing a detailed PhD and high-quality PhD Thesis:

What is the need for PhD Thesis Preparation?

The preparation of a PhD Thesis is crucial as it represents the cumulative research work and outcomes. The PhD Thesis provides a detailed description of the comprehensive research in the particular field. If you are a PhD Scholar, it will be mandatory for you to prepare a PhD Thesis to complete your degree.

It acts as proof of document of your research and findings while pursuing the PhD program. A PhD Thesis also guides the new PhD scholars for reference. Newly enrolled PhD scholars who have just begun their research work can refer to the previous research works conducted by a different researcher in the field to begin his journey.

PhD Thesis is a document that also provides a pathway to new research scholars in the field. The PhD thesis preparation involves organizing and assembling the research findings in a coherent structure. This allows you to refine ideas, identify gaps in the research, and ensure that the arguments are logically presented.

Additionally, you will be able to develop essential skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and effective communication that are highly valuable in both academic and professional settings. 

Beginning of the PhD Thesis Writing

PhD Thesis writing begins after completion of the PhD coursework. Every PhD Scholar has to go through a PhD coursework. PhD coursework is offered in the initial years to provide a strong foundation in the research aptitude in the given field.

Once the coursework is completed, a comprehensive exam is conducted to examine and evaluate the ability of the scholars to conduct original research. Generally, the examination is conducted in the 3rd year of the PhD program. Once the examinations are concluded for the coursework, PhD scholars can start working on their PhD Thesis/Dissertation.

Process and Structure of PhD Thesis Writing

Writing a PhD Thesis is a daunting task and one has to go through a prolonged process. It involves several stages and PhD scholars need to through all the stages to prepare a highly inclusive Thesis.

Here is the detailed process and structure of the PhD Thesis:

• Cover Page:  The PhD Thesis writing begins with the preparation of the cover page. The cover page includes the title of the research topic, the name of the university, the name of the scholar, and the supervisor. Generally,  the cover page of the thesis is designed to catch the attention of the viewers.
• Preface: The cover page is followed by the Preface of the PhD Thesis. The Preface is written by the PhD scholars. In the preface of the thesis, they explain the reasons for taking up a particular research topic and their experiences while conducting the research and writing the PhD Thesis. Generally, the preface is written after writing the thesis but arranged after the cover page. 
• Acknowledgment: After writing the Preface of the thesis, PhD scholars begin with the acknowledgment page. Generally, the acknowledgment page of the thesis recognizes all those people who have contributed and given their support in conducting the research. PhD scholars acknowledge the contribution of all the people who have professionally and personally helped in the research. 
• Introduction: In the Introduction, PhD scholars introduce their research topic and explain how this study contributes to the original knowledge of the field. The introduction in the PhD Thesis is a summary of all the key objectives of the research and an explanation of why the particular research is needed. 
• Literature Review: The literature Review in the PhD Thesis is a summary of all the works done by previous researchers and academicians in the same field or field relevant to the topic. In the literature review, all the scholarly works whether books, research journals, research papers, or previous research thesis related to the subject are cited in the PhD Thesis.  A literature review is done to support the current research by analyzing the previous works done on the same subject. 
• Research Chapters: Research Chapters are the crux of the PhD Thesis. In this stage, the PhD Thesis is divided into various chapters. The research conducted by the PhD scholars is recorded in detail in this section. Research Chapters broadly explain the methodology, hypothesis, and original research. The research chapter includes the process of conducting the research on a particular area and the explanation of the research questions. 
• Conclusion: After writing all the research chapters in the PhD Thesis, the conclusion of the research is added. The conclusion is the final chapter of the PhD Thesis Writing that concludes all the research edvideces and findings to reach to a final result. The conclusion also includes the possibilities of further research in the same field and its application to enhance the knowledge of the particular subject. 
• Bibliography and Appendices: The bibliography is written at the end of the PhD Thesis. The Bibliography lists all sources such as books, journals, research papers, thesis, etc used in the PhD Thesis writing. It is written in alphabetical order and includes the author's name, title, publication year, etc. The PhD Scholar may be required to provide supplementary materials that aren't essential to the PhD Thesis in the form of appendices.

What is the Length of the PhDThesis/Dissertation?

The length of the PhD Thesis (or dissertation) greatly depends on the field of the study. Generally, the length of the PhD Thesis ranges between 60,000 to 1,20,000 words which can curated in 150 pages to 300 pages. The average length of the PhD Thesis is around 80,000 words.In general, the length of the PhD Thesis in Engineering and Sciences is shorter than that of Humanities and Social Sciences.

The average length of a PhD Thesis in different disciplines is explained in the table below:

How to Write Up PhD Thesis 

Once all the research related to the relevant topics and subjects has been conducted and all the data and results are collected, you can start with your PhD Thesis Writing.

This period is also known as the Writing Up period. The writing-up stage in a PhD Thesis starts when the original research has already been completed.

In this stage, you only focus on the PhD Thesis Writing and do not conduct any additional research. 

In research related to Humanities and Social sciences, you may already have a large amount of chapter drafts and papers which makes writing up easy. You only need to redraft and assemble these chapter drafts and research papers to formulate a PhD Thesis.

However, writing a PhD Thesis for a Science and Engineering subject may be different. If you are conducting research in these fields, a major part of your research depends on collecting and analyzing data.

Writing Up a PhD Thesis in Science and Engineering fields may require findings and conclusions from the data collected. 

Regardless of the subject and process of PhD Thesis Writing, it should be able to reflect your findings which can be applied in the particular discipline to enhance knowledge. 

Role of PhD Thesis Feedback

Feedback from the supervisor while writing the PhD Thesis plays a crucial role. It helps in formulating a well-organized and highly structured PhD Thesis. You must seek constant feedback from your supervisor on your chapter drafts while writing the PhD Thesis. 

When the thesis writing is in progress, comments and feedback from the supervisor who has significant research experience will ensure that the research is going in the right direction. You must regularly attend the supervisory meeting and present your chapter drafts for review.

Your PhD supervisor will be more than happy to help and guide you through your PhD Thesis Writing. However, PhD supervisor is not responsible for grammatical mistakes. You must ensure that your thesis is free from grammatical errors.

Levels of Plagiarism in PhD Thesis 

While writing the PhD Thesis, you must ensure that your thesis is free from plagiarism. The PhD Thesis must contain your original research and not be copied from anywhere. Plagiarism in a PhD Thesis is considered a serious academic offense and can lead to severe consequences.

If you are giving references to works from other authors, you must give proper citations. Paraphrasing and rephrasing of other’s work must be duly acknowledged. In PhD Thesis Writing, plagiarism is defined on various levels.

Here are the different levels of plagiarism in PhD Thesis Writing:

Penalty for Plagiarism in PhD Thesis/Dissertation 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) takes plagiarism very seriously and sets the penalty standards for different levels of plagiarism.

Here is the punishment for Plagiarism in the PhD Thesis:

Finishing PhD Thesis and Final Submission 

Once you are done with the final draft of the PhD Thesis, you will need to send it to your supervisor. The supervisor will go through the thesis and after reviewing it, approve it for final submission.

Once your supervisor has approved you thesis, submit it for the examination. The Departmental Research Committee (DRC) will examine the PhD Thesis and you will have to appear for the Grand PhD Viva. In this Viva, you will need to defend your research findings and conclusions in the PhD Thesis. 

PhD Thesis submission is done in physical form and you will have to take a printout of the thesis. You should always take multiple printouts of the thesis to avoid any printing mistakes and glitches. At the time of final submission, generally, multiple copies of the thesis are required which makes it more important.

PhD Viva is conducted within 3 months of thesis submission. Once the viva has been completed, the examiners will let you know whether or not you need to make any changes to your PhD Thesis. 

These could be 3 outcomes after thesis submission and viva. All are mentioned below:

If you asked for a correction, you will have to fix the errors and re-submit the PhD thesis again. The re-submission of PhD is usually done digitally.

FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)

⭐ what is a phd thesis.

A PhD Thesis is a well-structured and well-organized piece of original research that every PhD scholar has to prepare and submit to get their doctorate. 

⭐ Is PhD Viva mandatory after the final submission of the PhD Thesis?

Yes, PhD Viva is mandatory for every PhD Candidate once they have made the final submission of their thesis. In PhD Viva, candidates defend their research and findings before the departmental research committee. 

⭐ What is the ideal length of a PhD Thesis?

There is no ideal length for a PhD Thesis. However, the length of the PhD thesis is greatly influenced by the disciplines of the research. The length of PhD in Engineering and Sciences is comparatively less than that of PhD in Humanities and Social Sciences. The PhD thesis ranges between 60,000 words to 1,20,000 words. 

⭐ What percentage of Plagiarism is allowed for a PhD Thesis?

The University Grants Commission (UGC) allows a maximum of 10 percent plagiarism in the PhD Thesis. The candidates whose thesis plagiarism falls within 10% are not penalized. 

⭐ What is the penalty for Level 2 Plagiarism?

Level 2 plagiarism means that the PhD Thesis has a similarity above 40% to 60%. For this level of plagiarism, the PhD candidate will be asked to withdraw the manuscript and debarred from the annual increment for one year. The supervisor of such PhD scholar will also be penalized with a ban on any PhD supervision for 2 years. 

⭐ What is the Penalty for Level 3 Plagiarism?

Level 3 plagiarism exhibits a similarity above 60% in the PhD Thesis. The PhD Scholars will be asked to withdraw their manuscript and they will be prohibited to annual increments for 2 consecutive years. The supervisor will not be allowed to supervise any new Master’s and  PhD Thesis/dissertation for 3 consecutive years. 

By Muhammad Hasim Sheikh

10 Years of Experience / Storyteller / Research-driven Writer

As an Academic Content Writer and Content strategist, I have great experience in crafting high-quality, research-based content across diverse subjects. My academic background with a doctorate in business Management allows me to create informative and engaging academic materials for students, educators, and institutions. I have expertise in developing well-researched course materials, academic blog

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Published Dissertation or Thesis References

This page contains reference examples for published dissertations or theses.

Kabir, J. M. (2016). Factors influencing customer satisfaction at a fast food hamburger chain: The relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Publication No. 10169573) [Doctoral dissertation, Wilmington University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Miranda, C. (2019). Exploring the lived experiences of foster youth who obtained graduate level degrees: Self-efficacy, resilience, and the impact on identity development (Publication No. 27542827) [Doctoral dissertation, Pepperdine University]. PQDT Open. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/2309521814.html?FMT=AI

Zambrano-Vazquez, L. (2016). The interaction of state and trait worry on response monitoring in those with worry and obsessive-compulsive symptoms [Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona]. UA Campus Repository. https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/620615

• Parenthetical citations : (Kabir, 2016; Miranda, 2019; Zambrano-Vazquez, 2016)
• Narrative citations : Kabir (2016), Miranda (2019), and Zambrano-Vazquez (2016)
• A dissertation or thesis is considered published when it is available from a database such as ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global or PDQT Open, an institutional repository, or an archive.
• If the database assigns publication numbers to dissertations and theses, include the publication number in parentheses after the title of the dissertation or thesis without italics.
• Include the description “Doctoral dissertation” or “Master’s thesis” followed by a comma and the name of the institution that awarded the degree. Place this information in square brackets after the dissertation or thesis title and any publication number.
• In the source element of the reference, provide the name of the database, repository, or archive.
• The same format can be adapted for other published theses, including undergraduate theses, by changing the wording of the bracketed description as appropriate (e.g., “Undergraduate honors thesis”).
• Include a URL for the dissertation or thesis if the URL will resolve for readers (as shown in the Miranda and Zambrano-Vazquez examples).
• If the database or archive requires users to log in before they can view the dissertation or thesis, meaning the URL will not work for readers, end the reference with the database name (as in the Kabir example).

Published dissertation or thesis references are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 10.6 and the Concise Guide Section 10.5

How long is a PhD dissertation? [Data by field]

The final piece of the PhD journey is the PhD dissertation. It takes many years to accumulate enough original and new data to fill out a dissertation to the satisfaction of experts in your field. Interestingly, the PhD dissertation length and content vary significantly based on the field you are studying and the publishing conventions.

A PhD can be anywhere from 50 pages to over 450 pages long. This equates to between about 20,000 words to 100,000 words. Most PhD theses are between 60,000 and 80,000 words long excluding contents, citations and references.

A PhD thesis contains different sections including an introduction, methods, results and discussion, conclusions, further work, and references. Each one of these different sections will vary in length depending on the field of study and your particular topic.

Ultimately, a PhD dissertation should contain as many pages and words as it takes to communicate the results of your multi-year investigation.

It is very rewarding to see your thesis come together as you are writing day after day. When I was writing my PhD dissertation I wrote the sections separately and my heart filled with joy when I finally put them all together and compile them into a single PDF document.

Counting the pages should not be the way to determine a PhD dissertation’s value but it certainly helps when your thesis is starting to look substantial in thickness.

How many pages should a PhD dissertation be?

A PhD dissertation should contain as many pages and words as it takes to outline the current state of your field and provide adequate background information, present your results, and provide confidence in your conclusions. A PhD dissertation will also contain figures, graphs, schematics, and other large pictorial items that can easily inflate the page count.

Here is a boxplot summary of many different fields of study and the number of pages of a typical PhD dissertation in the field. It has been created by Marcus Beck from all of the dissertations at the University of Minnesota.

Typically, the mathematical sciences, economics, and biostatistics theses and dissertations tend to be shorter because they rely on mathematical formulas to provide proof of their results rather than diagrams and long explanations.

On the other end of the scale, English, communication studies, political science, history and anthropology are often the largest theses in terms of pages and word count because of the number of words it takes to provide proof and depth of their results.

At the end of the day, it is important that your thesis gets signed off by your review committee and other experts in the field. Your supervisor will be the main judge of whether or not your dissertation is capable of satisfying the requirements of a PhD in your field.

If you want to know more about how long a Masters’s thesis and PhD dissertation is you can check out my other articles:

• How Long is a Masters Thesis? [Your writing guide]
• How long is a Thesis or dissertation? [the data]

Can a PhD dissertation be too long?

A PhD thesis should contain enough evidence and discussion to report on the most significant findings of your PhD research.

A PhD dissertation should not contain everything that you have done during your PhD. It should only include the data and information required to convince your PhD examining body that wraps up and tells the full story of particular lines of investigation.

Including random results, thoughts, or superfluous explanation can result in a dissertation that is unfocused. I have heard of music PhD is being described as too verbose and physical sciences PhD dissertations as being unfocused.

Therefore, a PhD thesis can be too long if the information it contains does not form a full and cohesive story.

One of my colleagues during their PhD removed an entire chapter from the thesis after writing it as the supervisor said that it needed more experiments to be a full story. They did not want to spend the next six months gathering the data and simply removed the chapter altogether.

How short can PhD dissertation be?

The shortest PhD dissertations are typically found in mathematics.

George Bernard Danzig was an American mathematical scientist who made contributions to industrial engineering and many other mathematical-related fields. An interesting miscommunication led to 1 of the shortest PhD theses ever.

In 1939 his professor wrote two problems on the blackboard and Danzig thought they were homeless assignments. He stated that they were harder than usual but handed in solutions to the surprise of the professor.

They were, in fact, open mathematical problems in statistics.

His professor said to bind the solution to the two problems together and submit them as his thesis – the total thesis length = 14 pages.

Obviously, most PhD theses and dissertations will be so much longer than that!

My PhD dissertation was 256 pages long. It was full of schematics, diagrams, and tables to demonstrate and communicate my findings.

I would say that most people’s PhD thesis experience will be closer to mine than Prof George Bernard Danzig’s.

Why PhD dissertations are typically so long

PhD dissertations are often over 200 pages long.

One of the primary reasons they are so long is that it is a single document that summarises many years of hard work. Also, summarising the research field to date and making sure that all of your references and citations are included so you avoid plagiarism will bolster the word count of the thesis dramatically.

Here are all of the reasons PhD dissertations tend to be so long.

Many years of work

PhD theses or dissertations contain many years of research and analysis.

In many of my YouTube videos I recommend that a PhD student work towards their PhD thesis by doing at least three hours of focused work every work day.

This amount of work quickly adds up.

Of course, not every bit of work makes it into the PhD dissertation but a lot of it does. It can be difficult to work out what to include or leave out of your thesis.

As a PhD student, I perfected the art of turning one experiment into many different types of grafts and schematics to fully explore the limits of my data. The graphs can take up a lot of space in your PhD thesis and, therefore, bolster the page count significantly.

In depth literature review

One of the most substantial parts of a PhD dissertation is the literature review.

The literature review can take up a huge portion of the early part of your PhD dissertation depending on the amount of data and publications in your field.

Writing an in-depth literature review requires just as much meticulous data analysis and searching as the central part of your dissertation.

Figures and schematics

Some fields end up producing a lot of figures and schematics.

My thesis had many full-page figures of atomic force microscopy experiments with much more explanation on subsequent pages.

As they say, a picture paints a thousand words and a dissertation can really benefit from having many schematics to highlight the important aspects of your findings.

References and citations

The recommended PhD dissertation word count from an institution or university does not include citations, references, or other thesis parts such as summary of abbreviations, table of figures, et cetera.

However, these components of your dissertation can take up many pages and add to the overall thickness of your PhD dissertation.

University formatting rules

University formatting rules will also dictate how you many pages your words take up.

I often get roasted on my YouTube channel for having doublespaced lines and wide margins. Unfortunately, this layout was dictated by my university before printing.

PhD dissertations often end up going into long-term storage and therefore, need to adhere to archival and standardised formatting rules.

Deep in the depths of the University of Newcastle, there is a copy of my thesis on a shelf. The formatting and binding rules mean that my thesis looks like everyone else’s.

Universities will often have their own requirements for PhD dissertation cover colour, quality, and type of paper. Even the quality of the paper can change the thickness of the PhD dissertation significantly.

PhD by publication

It is becoming increasingly common to submit a number of peer-reviewed papers bound together with supplementary information in between instead of a PhD dissertation.

The benefits of this to the researcher and university are:

• More early career peer-reviewed journals for career advancement
• an easier review process – they have already been peer-reviewed
• an early focus on publishing means better research outcomes for the researcher, supervisor, and Department.
• No mad rush at the end to finish a thesis
• continually writing peer-reviewed papers throughout your PhD helps with timely analysis and communication of results

Even though this option has been available to PhD students for a number of years, I have only known a handful of students actually submit their PhD via publication.

Nonetheless, having this option will suit some research fields better than others and lead to a more productive PhD.

Wrapping up

This article has been through everything you need to know about the length of a PhD dissertation and the common lengths of PhD dissertations for various fields.

Ultimately, there is no predefined length of a PhD .

A PhD thesis is as long as it needs to be to convince your examiners that you have contributed significantly enough to an academic field to be awarded the title of Dr of philosophy.

Mathematical and analytical theses tend to be shorter and can be as short as 50 pages (with one of the shortest being only 14 pages long). At the other end of the spectrum, PhD students in anthropology and history tend to produce the longest dissertations.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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Is referencing another PhD dissertation or Master's thesis a reasonable practice in a Master's thesis?

Not much literature can be found on what I'm working on and it's all by the people I work with. Am I able to reference their work/text in my thesis or I should just stick to referencing material published in journals and conferences, however remote they might be and just get away with whatever's not published and not back them up?

• research-process

• Also see this question Can you cite other master's theses when writing your own? –  gman Commented May 22, 2015 at 10:21
• 3 Why would you think it wouldn't be okay? If the information is available there, why not use it? –  curiousdannii Commented May 22, 2015 at 13:52
• 3 If you use someone's previous work, you must cite it. No exceptions. It is completely irrelevant whether that previous work appears in a journal, conference proceedings, PhD dissertation, technical report, arXiv preprint, working paper, lecture notes, newspaper article, TED talk, StackExchange comment, or cocktail napkin. –  JeffE Commented May 22, 2015 at 14:42
• 1 I cited three PhD dissertations and two Masters dissertations as part of my Masters dissertation. Reference it like you'd reference any other publication. In fact, I also cited a lecturer's powerpoint slides. Actually, now that I think about it, I cited my own previous work at one point too. Every source is valid so long as you reference it. That's not to say that every source necessarily carries weight, of course. You have to evaluate the source. But from a citation point of view, it's all good. –  Jonathon Cowley-Thom Commented May 22, 2015 at 15:01

5 Answers 5

Yes, you are able to reference their work in your text, as long as you make clear in the bibliography what type of document (master thesis, PhD thesis, Institution) it is.

However, i would not consider it to be ideal if your work critically depends on such references in the sense that a central assumption or starting point in your thesis breaks down if the reference provides false or incomplete results. Particularly in the case of master theses / dissertations it is not generally clear whether and to which extent they are peer-reviewed and what their overall trustworthiness is. With (accepted!) PhD theses things are better, as these normally go through a review process. Furthermore, for PhD theses i would expect that their main points have been published somewhere (conference or journal) and then you clearly should prefer these publications.

• 3 +1. I have cited MSc theses in journal papers and that was not a problem either. As you say it was not something the paper critically depended on ; in my case it was to raise a point in the Discussion section. –  user8458 Commented May 22, 2015 at 6:30
• 6 There's a reasonable argument to be made that it's unwise to depend critically on anything you can't verify - including things in peer-reviewed papers, which have been known to be wrong. Ultimately, peer review is just as much a human activity as anything else, and is prone to error - the best that can be said of a peer-reviewed paper is that it has been checked by somebody of unknown experience for an unknown amount of time. In many cases, people put a lot of effort into peer review, but that's not always the case, and even when it is, errors creep in. You're well-advised to check yourself. –  Stuart Golodetz Commented May 22, 2015 at 8:12

This is really an addendum to the two previous answers, but nevertheless it is still answer-worthy IMO .

It is mostly true that with PhD theses, the crux of the stuff is generally published in journals etc. so that those count as more reliable sources (I dare say primary sources). However, it is not necessarily true that this will always be so. For instance, I am aware that at least in Theoretical Physics, University of Bielefeld is an example of an institution where it is not mandatory to have the stuff written in the thesis published. Theses are judged for what they contain and whether or not that represents an original contribution to the subject. I am using this only as an example, the general statement is - it is possible for a PhD thesis to contain original stuff which is otherwise unpublished. And at any rate, it is possible to have stuff written more elaborately than in the published papers (mine is an example). (Occasionally, this might also be because some letters journals have stringent limits on word counts and/or pages, so people shrink stuff there and feed out many more details in the thesis).

Thus, there is no harm in citing a PhD thesis, provided you mention that it is what it is.

• 1 "not mandatory to have the stuff written in the thesis published" - in particular, all the stuff. In fact, at my university it is mandatory to publish some parts of your research before writing your doctoral thesis, but at the same time, it is also mandatory that the doctoral thesis contains more than just the sum of all previous publications. –  O. R. Mapper Commented May 22, 2015 at 8:03

If others have completed theses or dissertations related to the topic you are studying, I would definitely cite them. While writing my MA thesis, there were very few peer-reviewed publications available in the particular region I was working in but there were a number of recently completed theses and dissertations. Some of these were excellent and provided great data to support my own arguments, while others were of lower quality and were not cited. As long as you're critical of the content and argument of these documents you should be fine.

As with most referencing questions, you have to consider what you're depending on them for. If it's a matter of "further details on the previous experiment", a thesis is likely to go into much more depth than a paper and is the best you're likely to get. If it's "so-and-so proved that..." you should really be looking for something peer-reviewed. Most cases will fall in between, and then you need to use your judgement and be clear what you're citing.

you shouldn't quote a master's Thesis because they are typically not published. only published work should be cited in a research work. If it hasn't been published no one is responsible for the Content

• And if they are published? Your whole argument builds on this (false IMHO) assumption. –  Mayou36 Commented Jul 2, 2019 at 7:06

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Thesis or dissertation

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To be made up of:

• Year of submission (in round brackets).
• Title of thesis (in italics).
• Degree statement.
• Degree-awarding body.
• Available at: URL.
• (Accessed: date).

In-text citation: 

(Smith, 2019)

Reference List:  

Smith, E. R. C. (2019). Conduits of invasive species into the UK: the angling route? Ph. D. Thesis. University College London. Available at: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10072700 (Accessed: 20 May 2021).

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