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Spanish Grammar All Learners Should Know

Does Spanish grammar make you sweat?

Do you want to construct and understand native-sounding sentences ?

If so, I’m here to help!

In this guide, you’ll find 18 essential Spanish grammar rules , covering everything from Spanish gender and pluralization to sentence structure and verbs!

1. Feminine and Masculine Nouns

2. noun pluralization, 3. adjective gender and pluralization.

• 4. Using Tú vs. Usted
• 5. Ser vs. Estar

6. Spanish Contractions

7. spanish conjunctions.

• 8. Por vs. Para

9. Spanish Sentence Structure

10. spanish verb conjugation, 11. asking questions in spanish, 12. direct and indirect object pronouns.

• 13. Conjugating Gustar (To Like)

14. Verbs of Change

15. the imperfect vs. preterite tense, 16. irregular spanish verbs, 17. reflexive verbs, 18. stem-changing verbs, and one more thing….

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Nouns in Spanish are either feminine or masculine. We use the article el   for masculine nouns and la  for feminine nouns .

This is easy when it comes to people and living creatures. You’d call a male professor el profesor , and a female one, la profesora , for example. You call a male cat el gato , and a female one, la gata .

But what about cars, books, tables and chairs? How do we know if they’re masculine or feminine?

Answer: Look at the last letter of the word. 

In most cases (but definitely not all!) feminine and masculine words have specific endings. Let’s take a look at them:

Feminine word endings:

Masculine word endings:

As you probably guessed, though, there are (quite a few) exceptions to these rules, but they’re still accurate enough to make the right guess around 70% of the time. You can explore this concept further with these guides on Spanish gender rules and indefinite and definite articles .

Like English, making nouns plural in Spanish is straightforward—you simply need to change two things: change el  to los or la  to las , then change the noun to its plural form according to these rules:

After familiarizing yourself with these examples, bookmark our guide on Spanish pluralization to boost your confidence on this simple subject even more.

Adjectives describe nouns, and in Spanish, they must match their nouns in both number and gender.

If the noun is feminine and singular, then the adjective should be feminine and singular. If the noun is masculine and plural, then the adjective should be masculine and plural. Catch the drift?

Take the adjective rojo (red) as an example. Notice how the adjective changes as it follows the gender and number of its target noun:

El libr o rojo — The red book (masculine, singular)

Las manzan as rojas — The red apples (feminine, plural)

Gender and pluralization agreement is the first step, but to master adjectives completely (such as knowing where they come in a sentence), check out this complete guide on Spanish adjectives .

4. Using Tú  vs. Usted

Unlike English, Spanish conjugates verbs according to level of formality. There are two second-person pronouns: tú and usted . They both mean “you,” but tú  is informal and usted  is formal.

You’d use  tú in casual situations, like talking to friends, family, people younger than you, people with the same social status as you (such as coworkers) and the like.

Usted is used in formal situations such as business meetings, job interviews, meeting someone for the first time and people of authority.

Because there are two different pronouns, verbs are conjugated differently depending on which is used.

Usted follows the same conjugation rules as  ella and  él , whereas  tú has its own.

For example:

If you’re still not 100% confident in your ability to determine which pronoun to use, you’ll find this guide on  tú  and usted helpful.

In the end, knowing which pronoun to use is extremely context-dependent. Which means the more you immerse yourself in Spanish, the easier it’ll get. It can be nerve-wracking in real-life scenarios, but this is why I always recommend consuming a hefty amount of native Spanish media from home.

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5. Ser vs.  Estar

Unlike in English, in Spanish there are  two ways of saying “to be”: ser and estar . 

Not only are these both irregular verbs, but using one instead of the other can drastically change the meaning of a sentence. So how do you know which to use when?

Ser is used to identify or describe people and things. As such, you’ll use it when talking about jobs, nationality, belonging and more.

Nosotros somos muy guapos. — We are very handsome.

Soy camarero. — I am a waiter.

Mi primo es de Venezuela. — My cousin is from Venezuela.

On the other hand, e star is used when you want to express location, feelings and states/conditions (something temporary). Like in these sentences:

Estoy en la escuela. — I am at school.

Ellos están cansados. — They are tired.

Sometimes, adjectives can be used with both ser and estar . The difference is that when used with estar it’s more temporary, and with  ser, more stable.

Here’s a selection of some of the most important ones:

Spanish contractions combine words to make talking easier , smoother and faster. Think of the English words “it’s,” “wasn’t” and “they’re.”

Thus, using them in your own sentences will make you sound more like a native, and learning them will help you understand natural Spanish conversations and media!

There are two main contractions in Spanish: al and del .

A  +  el  =  al

De + el  =  del

Juan subió  al tren. — Juan got on the train.

Es el carro del vecino. — It’s the neighbor’s car.

These sentences are much easier to say than if the contractions weren’t used ( a el tren and  de el vecino ).

Once you’ve got a grip on these, learn and practice more by reading this guide on Spanish contractions .

Conjunctions link other words, phrases and clauses together .

In Spanish, the two most important conjunctions to know as a beginner are y (and) and o  (or).

Sometimes, you’ll see these words change slightly.

Padre y hijo → Padre e hijo   (father and son)

Cruel y inhumano → Cruel  e inhumano   (cruel and inhumane)

Try pronouncing them without the conjunction changes, and you’ll understand why native speakers wisely changed the y  to e !

• If o is followed by a word that begins with or sounds like o , it becomes u .

Sujeto o objeto → Sujeto  u objeto   (subject or object)

Ayer o hoy → Ayer  u hoy   (yesterday or today)

There are also a handful of other conjunctions, such as porque (because) and como (as/because), which are useful to know. So once you’re comfortable with y and  o , learn the rest with this post on Spanish conjunctions .

8. Por  vs. Para

In general, prepositions are easy to understand in Spanish because they practically work in the same way in English. However, two Spanish prepositions are easily confused since they both mean “for” in English: por and para .

Here are some guidelines to avoid confusing these terms:

Use por for the following purposes:

Use para for the following purposes:

There’s much more to por and  para than what I’ve covered here—such as a list of phrases that take on their own meanings when  por or  para proceeds them. You can read more about using por vs.  para here .

Spanish uses the subject—verb—object (SVO) pattern, just like English.

For example, the phrase “She reads a book” in Spanish is Ella lee un libro. The subject ( ella ) comes first, the verb ( leer ) comes second and the object ( libro ) is last.

As you reach upper-beginner and intermediate levels, though, you’ll start to see the occasional verb-subject pattern. For example, these sentences all mean “Juanita works at home”:

Juanita trabaja en casa .

Trabaja Juanita en casa .

En casa trabaja Juanita.

Trabaja en casa Juanita.

Another important word order rule to know is that adjectives come  after the object. For example:

El vestido   rojo . — The red dress.

El país grande . — The big country.

La chica guapa . — The good-looking girl.

When you’re ready to dive deeper, here’s a bookmark-worthy guide on Spanish sentence structure that’ll take you to the next level.

There are three types of verbs in Spanish, each grouped according to their endings:

The verb examples you just saw are in their infinitive form —they end in  r and their endings haven’t changed.

But when using verbs in a sentence, you’ll most likely need to conjugate it—this means you’ll need to take off the ending ( -ar, -er or  -ir ) and replace it with another.

Which ending you choose depends on the pronoun that comes before the verb ( yo, tú, él/ella/usted, nosotros, vosotros   or  ellos/ellas/ustedes ) and the tense.

For now, I’ll focus on the present tense. Here are the corresponding endings for each pronoun:

You can see that the endings for -er and – ir verbs are different to endings for verbs that end in -ar . But the good news is, they’re almost identical to each other apart from the  nosotros and  vosotros forms.

To see these conjugations in action, let’s look at the verb hablar (to talk) and see how it changes based on the pronoun:

Now let’s see what some -er and -ir verbs look like when conjugated, using aprender (to learn) and  vivir (to live) as examples:

Of course, there’s way more to Spanish verbs than this brief rundown. Many tenses are beginner and intermediate-friendly, while others you won’t learn until you reach advanced Spanish grammar .

But now that you know the present tense and the subject pronouns , check out this in-depth post on how to conjugate Spanish verbs when you’re ready to conquer the next.

To turn a statement into a question in Spanish is pretty simple: You can either end the sentence with a questioning tone or place the pronoun after the verb.

¿ Tú puedes ayudarme? — Can you help me? ¿Puedes tú ayudarme? — Can you help me?

¿ Ella baila bien? — Does she dance well? ¿Baila ella bien? — Does she dance well?

We also use Spanish question words (also known as the interrogative pronouns) to find out specific information. These are:

For the full rundown, check out this guide to Spanish question words .

Using direct and indirect pronouns alone is quite straightforward.

The direct object pronoun replaces the direct object, and answers the questions “who” and “what.”

While the indirect object pronoun replaces the indirect object and answers the questions “to whom” and “for whom.”

Before looking at some examples, let’s meet the object pronouns.

Now let’s look at the following sentence:

Antonio envía cartas . — Antonio sends letters.

If we ask “What does Antonio send?” the answer is cartas . Thus, cartas (or, “letters”) is the direct object.

According to the table above, the direct object pronoun for the third person feminine plural is las. So if you want to say “Antonio sends  them ” instead of “Antonio sends  letters ,” you’d replace  cartas with  las , like this:

Antonio las envía. — Antonio sends them.

Now imagine the following sentence:

Antonio envía cartas a María . — Antonio sends letters to María.

To whom does Antonio send letters? To María ( a María ).

María is your indirect object, which according to the table will be substituted by le (third person feminine singular):

Antonio le envía cartas. — Antonio sends letters to her.

There are a few specific rules for using direct and indirect object pronouns, but once you’ve practiced, they’ll roll off your tongue naturally.

After familiarizing yourself with these examples, check out these guides on direct and indirect object pronouns in Spanish to take it up a notch!

13. Conjugating Gustar  (To Like)

The verb gustar  (to like) can be tricky for some Spanish learners because it requires the use of an indirect object pronoun and isn’t conjugated like most verbs .

Instead of conjugating  gustar according to the pronoun, you’ll attach the correct indirect object pronoun at the front.

The basic formula is:

Me/te/le/nos/os/les +  gusta/gustan + object

If the object is singular, use gusta . If it’s plural, use gustan .

Me gustan los perros. — I like dogs.

A él le gustan las películas españolas. — He likes Spanish movies.

Me gusta esta camisa. — I like this shirt.

Te gusta aprender español. — You like learning Spanish.

Check out this post on the verb gustar once you’ve got down the basics.

Los verbos de cambio— or verbs of change —is a group of verbs that mean something like “to become.”

Each should be used in a specific context, though. The most important are:

• Ponerse . Used for involuntary, uncontrollable reactions

Me pongo nervioso. — I get nervous.

• Volverse . Used for sudden and profound changes, often negative

Él se vuelve loco. — He goes crazy/is going crazy.

• Hacerse .   Used for changes that have been accomplished thanks to one’s own effort and for ideological choices

Se ha hecho rico. — He has become rich.

Se ha hecho judío. — He has become a Jew.

• Quedarse . Used mainly for physical ailments and life-changing events

Mi amigo se ha quedado sordo. — My friend went completely deaf.

María se ha quedado embarazada. — María has gotten pregnant.

As you may already know, there are two simple past tenses in Spanish: the imperfect and the preterite.

The good news is that the imperfect is quite easy to learn. The bad news is that the preterite can give you a headache sometimes, especially if you’re dealing with irregular verbs.

Generally, use the preterite when talking about completed actions that started and finished in the past.

You’ll normally have a definite beginning and end of the action, although they don’t necessarily need to appear in the sentence. For example:

El niño se  comió  una manzana. — The boy ate an apple.

Ayer yo visité  a mi abuela. — I visited my grandma yesterday.

On the other hand, use the imperfect when the action was not completed, was repeated or was habitual.

A cool trick is to think any time you’d say “I/you/he/etc. used to…” in English, you’d use the imperfect tense in Spanish.

Let’s look at two examples:

El niño se comía   una manzana. — The boy was eating an apple.

De pequeño, visitaba  a mi abuela cada domingo. — I used to visit grandma every Sunday when I was a child.

You can find out more about these two tenses with this complete guide on the preterite and imperfect .

Spanish irregular verbs are verbs which don’t follow the standard conjugation patterns.

Examples include words like  tengo (I have),  conozco  (I know someone),  hago (I do) and more.

Often only the first person singular is irregular, making them fairly easy to memorize. But a few—I’m looking at you,  ser and  estar —take different forms for all the pronouns ( yo, tú, él/ella/usted, nosotros, vosotros, ellos/ellas/ustedes ).

Here are a few examples of common irregular verbs in Spanish:

After you’ve learned these, check out this in-depth guide on irregular verbs to master them fully.

A verb is reflexive when the subject is  doing something to itself —such as showering, washing, relaxing, going to bed, putting on clothes, etc.

You know a verb is reflexive when an indirect pronoun is either attached to it or in front of it.

As a refresher, the indirect pronouns are:

• Me (instead of  yo )
• Te (instead of  tú )
• Se (instead of  él/ella/usted  and  ellos/ellas/ustedes)
• Nos (instead of  nosotros )
• Os (instead of  vosotros )

Take a look at these common Spanish reflexive verbs and how they’re used in sentences:

Spanish stem-changing verbs also don’t follow the typical conjugation rules . They’re not the same as irregular verbs, though—instead, one or two letters in the stem change when conjugated.

Most verb changes apply to the yo, tú, él/ella/usted  and  ellos/ellas/ustedes forms, and there are three main types:

For example, the verb empezar  (to start) is an e → ie stem-changing verb, repetir (to repeat) is e → i and poder   (to be able to) is  o → ue .

Take a look at how these stem-changing verbs are conjugated in the present tense:

And now you’re ready to go!

There may be times when you feel lost when studying Spanish grammar terms (which is natural!), but with these 18 simple rules, you’ll be well on your way to native-sounding Spanish.

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1 Translation result for assignment in Spanish

Assignment noun.

Example sentences of assignment noun

• • The students were given a homework assignment .
• • The reporter's assignment is to interview the candidate.
• • The reporter is here on an assignment .
• • The reporter is here on assignment .
• • The article discusses the recent assignment of senators to some of the more powerful committees.
• • her assignment to the embassy in India
• • the computer's assignment of a number to each image
• • She asked if she could change her seating assignment .

Synonyms of assignment noun

• Tenga en cuenta la pronunciación. La g no se pronuncia y la i se pronuncia /ai/.

Detailed synonyms for assignment noun

Reverse translation for assignment, 9% of nglish's users have already made it to list 2 (basic level)., think you can join them.

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How to Say “Assignment” in Spanish: Formal and Informal Ways

Learning how to say “assignment” in Spanish can be useful when navigating various situations, whether you’re a student, a professional, or simply looking to expand your language skills. In this guide, we’ll explore the formal and informal ways of expressing “assignment” in Spanish, along with some regional variations. We’ll provide tips, examples, and explanations to help you grasp the nuances of the language. So, let’s dive in and enrich our vocabulary!

Table of Contents

Formal Ways to Say “Assignment” in Spanish

When it comes to formal situations, such as business meetings or academic discussions, it’s essential to use the appropriate language. Here are some formal ways to say “assignment” in Spanish:

• Tarea – This is the most common and versatile word for “assignment” in formal Spanish. It can refer to both school assignments and professional tasks. For example, “I have a new assignment” translates to “Tengo una nueva tarea” in Spanish.
• Encargo – This term is generally used in professional contexts to refer to assignments, tasks, or responsibilities given to someone. For instance, “He handed me an important assignment” can be translated as “Me entregó un encargo importante.”
• Misión – When referring to a significant task or mission, “misión” can be an appropriate term. For example, “Completing this assignment is our mission” can be translated as “Completar esta misión es nuestra misión” in Spanish.

Gender Agreement Tip:

In Spanish, the nouns “tarea,” “encargo,” and “misión” have gender, so you need to use the appropriate article and adjective form to match the noun’s gender. For instance, “a new assignment” is “una nueva tarea” (feminine) while “an important mission” is “una misión importante” (feminine as well).

Informal Ways to Say “Assignment” in Spanish

When speaking informally among friends, family, or in casual settings, expressions for “assignment” in Spanish become more colloquial. Below are a few informal alternatives:

• Tarea – While “tarea” was mentioned as a formal term, it is also commonly used in informal contexts. Consider using it during casual conversations, whether referring to a school assignment or a task. For instance, “I have so much homework to do” translates to “Tengo muchas tareas que hacer” in Spanish.
• Curro – This term is more regionally specific to Spain and is quite informal. It’s derived from “curro” meaning “work” and can be used to refer to assignments. An example of using this term is “I have a lot of curro to finish” which can be translated as “Tengo mucho curro por terminar” in Spanish.

Regional Variations

In regions throughout the Spanish-speaking world, different phrases or slang words may be used to refer to an “assignment.” While the formal and informal terms listed above are generally recognized in most Spanish-speaking countries, here’s a variation commonly heard in Latin America:

Deber – In some Latin American countries, “deber” is a commonly used verb that can mean “to owe” or “to have to.” It can also be used to convey the meaning of “assignment.” For example, “I have an assignment due tomorrow” can be translated as “Tengo un deber para mañana” in Spanish.

Examples Using Various Expressions

Let’s take a look at some examples that demonstrate the usage of the different expressions for “assignment” in Spanish:

• “Please complete the assignment by Friday.” = “Por favor, complete la tarea para el viernes.”
• “The manager assigned me an important task.” = “El gerente me asignó una tarea importante.”
• “As part of the project, each team member has specific assignments.” = “Como parte del proyecto, cada miembro del equipo tiene tareas específicas.”
• “I forgot to do my homework.” = “Olvidé hacer mi tarea.”
• “We have a group project to work on together.” = “Tenemos un trabajo en grupo para hacer juntos.”
• “Hey, can you help me with this task?” = “Oye, ¿me puedes ayudar con esta tarea?”

Regional Variation:

• “I owe you an assignment, I’ll send it to you tomorrow.” = “Te debo un deber, te lo enviaré mañana.”
• “We have a lot of ‘deberes’ for next week.” = “Tenemos muchos ‘deberes’ para la próxima semana.”

Congratulations! You now have a wide range of expressions to use when referring to “assignment” in Spanish, both formally and informally. Remember to adapt your vocabulary based on the context and the Spanish-speaking region you are in. Keep practicing, expanding your linguistic repertoire, and enjoy your journey to becoming fluent in Spanish! ¡Buena suerte!

Related Guides:

• How to Say Homework Assignment in Spanish: A Comprehensive Guide
• How to Say “Hindi Assignment” in Hindi: Formal and Informal Ways
• How to Say No to a Job Assignment
• How to Say No to a Work Assignment: A Comprehensive Guide
• How to Say No to an Assignment
• How to Say No to an Assignment at Work
• Guide: How to Apologize for a Late Submission of an Assignment
• How to Say Thank You for an Assignment

About The Author

Colin Kieran

Translation of "assignment" into Spanish

tarea, cesión, asignación are the top translations of "assignment" into Spanish. Sample translated sentence: He gave us such a long assignment that we protested. ↔ Nos asignó una tarea tan extensa que protestamos.

the act of assigning, or an assigned task [..]

English-Spanish dictionary

position to which someone is assigned [..]

He gave us such a long assignment that we protested.

Nos asignó una tarea tan extensa que protestamos.

Subsequent assignments , provided that any prior assignment is governed by this Convention.

A toda cesión subsiguiente, siempre y cuando una cesión anterior se rija por la presente Convención.

A process-related task that is delegated to a particular user.

Seek the guidance of the Spirit as you decide whom you should ask to fulfill this assignment .

Busque la guía del Espíritu al decidir a quiénes pedirá que cumplan esta asignación .

Less frequent translations

• nombramiento
• designación
• adscripción
• destinación
• distribución
• el nombramiento
• el traspaso
• la asignación
• los deberes
• comisión de servicio

Show algorithmically generated translations

Automatic translations of " assignment " into Spanish

Phrases similar to "assignment" with translations into spanish.

• peripheral assignment table
• English assignment trabajo de inglés
• credit-assignment system sistema de asignación de créditos
• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers Corporación para la Asignación de Nombres y Números en Internet · ICANN
• assigned flight path trayectoria de vuelo asignada
• assign operator operador de asignación
• he was assigned to the purchasing department lo asignaron al departamento de compras
• excess of emission over assigned amount exceso de emisión con respecto a la cantidad atribuida

Translations of "assignment" into Spanish in sentences, translation memory

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Lesson Topics

• Show All | Collapse All
• 1. Gender of Nouns I
• 2. Gender of Nouns II
• 3. Numbers: 1-10
• 4. Plural Forms of Nouns
• 5. Def. & Indef. Articles
• 6. The Verb Form "hay"
• 7. Subject Pronouns
• 8. Reg. Verbs I
• 9. Reg. Verbs II
• 10. Reg. Verbs III
• 11. Adjectives I
• 12. Adjectives II
• 13. Days of the Week
• 14. Numbers: 11-30
• 15. Ser and Estar I
• 16. Ser and Estar II
• 17. Ser and Estar III
• 18. Ser and Estar IV
• 19. Negation
• 20. Questions
• 21. Poss. Adjectives
• 22. Tener, venir
• 23. Tener que / Hay que
• 24. Exp. with "Tener"
• 25. Weather Expressions
• 26. The Personal "a"
• 27. Contractions
• 28. Stem-Changing Verbs: o:ue
• 29. Stem-Changing Verbs: e:ie
• 30. Stem-changing verbs: e:i
• 31. Estar, Ir, Dar
• 32. "Ir a" + infinitive
• 33. Acabar de
• 34. Volver a
• 35. Ordinal Numbers
• 36. Months, Seasons, and Dates
• 37. Comparisons of Inequality
• 38. Comparisons of Equality
• 39. Superlatives
• 40. Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions
• 41. Dir. Object Pronouns I
• 42. Dir. Object Pronouns II
• 43. Dir. Object Pronouns III
• 44. Ind. Object Pronouns I
• 45. Ind. Object Pronouns II
• 46. Ind. Object Pronouns III
• 47. DO and IO Pronouns Together
• 48. Verbs Like Gustar
• 49. Present Progressive
• 50. Verbs with Irregular 1st Persons
• 51. Saber vs Conocer / Pedir vs Preguntar
• 52. Numbers: 31-1000
• 53. Telling Time
• 54. Por and Para
• 55. Irreg. Comparatives
• 56. Demonstratives
• 57. Time Expressions With Hacer
• 58. Possessive Pronouns
• 59. Reflexive Verbs I
• 60. Reflexive Verbs II
• 61. Definite Article II
• 62. Pret. vs Imp. I
• 63. Preterite I
• 64. Imperfect I
• 65. Preterite II
• 66. Imperfect II
• 67. Pret. vs Imp. II
• 68. Preterite III
• 69. Imperfect III
• 70. Preterite IV
• 71. Preterite V
• 72. Preterite VI
• 73. Pret. vs Imp. III
• 74. Pret. vs Imp. Review
• 75. "Hace ..." to mean "ago"
• 76. Formation of Adverbs
• 77. Subjunctive I: Introduction
• 78. Subjunctive II: Conjugating regular and stem-changing verbs
• 79. Subjunctive III: Verbs that change orthographically
• 80. Subjunctive IV: Irregular verbs
• 81. Subjunctive V: Desire
• 82. Subjunctive VI: Ignorance, doubt
• 83. Subjunctive VII: Impersonal Expressions
• 84. Subjunctive VIII: Actions not yet completed
• 85. Rel. Pronouns - que
• 86. Rel. Pronouns - quien
• 87. Rel. Pronouns - el que and lo que
• 88. Rel. Adjective - cuyo
• 89. Rel. Pronouns and Adjectives - Review
• 90. Formal Commands
• 91. Inform. Commands - tú
• 92. Irreg. Commands - tú
• 93. Using Object Pronouns with Commands
• 94. Commands Review I
• 95. Informal Commands - vosotros
• 96. 1st Person Commands - nosotros
• 97. Indirect Commands
• 98. Commands Review II
• 100. Past Participle
• 101. Present Perfect
• 102. Past Perfect
• 103. Future Perfect
• 104. Conditional
• 105. Imperfect Subjunctive I
• 106. Imperfect Subjunctive II
• 107. Imperfect Subjunctive III
• 108. Rules of Accentuation

Spanish Grammar

Find topics in left sidebar in top menu . Frankly, when most people think of “grammar” they don’t get very excited. But grammar can teach you something in minutes that might take days to figure out by immersion alone.

Grammar is your friend!

We believe in grammar, and we include it in our method. But let’s be honest. Studying Spanish grammar will not make you fluent. To reach a conversational level you need a complete course like the one provided by our app, Camino .

These days, it is popular in some circles to claim that there is no need to learn grammar. The thinking goes something like this:

• I didn’t learn grammar as a child, and yet I still learned to speak. Therefore, I do not need to study grammar as an adult.

This sort of thinking ignores the fact that as an adult you have a higher mental capacity, and learning some grammar is easy and will be a big help to you.

Grammar is not the goal.

For most people, the goal is not to become a grammar expert—the goal is to be able to speak Spanish conversationally. To do that, you need a complete conversation course.

Camino is the only course that is fully integrated with the material on this website. By combining Spanish grammar exercises with real conversational practice, you will much more quickly reach a level where you can communicate effectively.

And for most people, communication is the primary goal.

Spanish I: Beginning Spanish Language and Culture

(16 reviews)

Matthew Dean, Humboldt State University

Copyright Year: 2020

ISBN 13: 9781947112421

Publisher: Humboldt State University Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Slav Gratchev, Professor, Marshall University on 11/21/21

It does cover all essential areas that we normally require students to learn: University, family, at home, shopping, and leisure. The selection of vocabulary is appropriate but could be more rigorous. In my opinion it is good but too general;... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

It does cover all essential areas that we normally require students to learn: University, family, at home, shopping, and leisure. The selection of vocabulary is appropriate but could be more rigorous. In my opinion it is good but too general; could be more specific. The strong side of the book is good explanations (with examples) provided by the author when the new topic is presented. A lot of attention given to commonly used phrases, which is good.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book is well-written. The content when presented is error-free and totally unbiased. There is a significant number of graphs that help to understand the material better than just lengthy and wordy explanations.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The context is universal, and the book will be relevant for a long period of time. The study of university activities, house chores, leisure time activities are universal at all times.

Clarity rating: 4

Text is written in a simple but academic language. The material is explained well, not excessively wordy but enough to present a new grammatical topic to students. All this is well supported by examples.

Consistency rating: 5

The whole book is well thought through; every section is presented in the same manner; the author does not experiment but rather carefully adhere to academic standards in terms of usage of the book's framework. The book cannot be called "revolutionary" but it is, perhaps good because it is reliable and dependable source of knowledge for Spanish I students.

Modularity rating: 3

Text is divided into sections that are perfect in size. At the same time, all these sections can re rearranged, if necessary, added or reduced after the first semester when the instructor tries the text and knows what is more important, or less.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

This is a strongest part of this book. Students learn most important information first - university life, that they presumably, just started. Then they go back to their family stuff, then to their house. It is a perfect organization of the required topics.

Interface rating: 4

The book is not overloaded with unnecessary number of images and charts. It is more focused on the grammar, on the vocabulary than on other external distributors that are, as a rule, useless for students.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The book does not have any grammatical errors which is important.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

It could be richer in presenting a cultural component but, at the same time, this book is more grammatical, more traditional. It focuses students on language study more than just a culture.

This book is an excellent substitute for our traditional commercial book Exploraciones that is very expensive. With this book students basically cover the same material and do not need to pay for the book. Highly recommended.

Reviewed by Ida Day, Assistant Professor of Spanish, Marshall University on 11/20/21

Spanish I: Beginning Spanish Language and Culture by Matthew Dean (Humboldt State University) is a comprehensive introduction to the study of Spanish. It is organized in 5 thematic chapters (university, family, home, shopping, and hobbies) that... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Spanish I: Beginning Spanish Language and Culture by Matthew Dean (Humboldt State University) is a comprehensive introduction to the study of Spanish. It is organized in 5 thematic chapters (university, family, home, shopping, and hobbies) that offer fundamental vocabulary and grammar for the students who have never studied Spanish before. Each chapter clearly introduces the topic and provides a variety of activities for individual practice at home and interpersonal practice in class. The digital copy of the book includes audio files.

I have not found any errors. The content is accurate and cultural information unbiased.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The content of the textbook is up-to-date. The cultural information included is selected in such a way that it will not be obsolete in the near future, for example "Spanish last names", "Cultures of Mexico", "Spanish-speaking countries". In fact, there is not a lot of cultural reading sections in the book - the focus is more on vocabulary and grammar. The text is also allows the instructors to add/modify material, for example to use relevant videos.

Clarity rating: 5

It is written in a clear language, very accessible for the beginners. The learning objectives are clearly stated, the division of sections is consistent. The clarity of the text makes it easier to use for both instructors and students.

The textbook is consistent and provides a clear pattern to study. Each chapter/section provides explanations for each activity, so even if the instructor decides to skip some sections, it is easy to resume the lesson at whatever place.

Modularity rating: 4

Chapters are too long (5 chapters – each divided in 8 sections), however the instructor could easily reorganize the material, and skip some sections. The entire book is 329 pages - it is too much material for the first semester of Spanish, but the content of the textbook is not enough for the first two semesters (SPN 101 and SPN 102). The instructor should select the relevant sections that he/she can teach in SPN 101.

The learning objectives for each chapter are clearly stated and summarized, which makes the textbook is easy to use for the students and the instructors. The presentation of topics is consistent in each section. The writing exercises are included in the textbook (spaces are provided), and students can write in the book (they do not need to have an additional exercise book). The grammar explanations are easily comprehensible and followed by extensive practice activities.

Interface rating: 5

I have not detected navigation problems or any distortions. The content and presentation are comprehensible and transparent.

The text provides relevant grammar, easy explanations, lots of examples, and practice activities/exercises. There is no need for the instructor to provide additional grammar practice.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

There are not many sections focusing on cultural topics, however the cultural issues are present throughout the book (in all practice activities and examples). I find the content relevant. It allows the instructor to focus on linguistic aspects of language teaching, and select his/her own cultural material (for example videos).

I consider implementing this text for SPN 101. It provides ample grammar practice and detailed explanations.

Reviewed by Deanna Mihaly, Assistant Professor, Virginia State University on 7/26/21

The textbook covers the usual array of topics for a Spanish I course. The organization is stellar - with clear Table of Contents and ease of navigation. read more

The textbook covers the usual array of topics for a Spanish I course. The organization is stellar - with clear Table of Contents and ease of navigation.

The grammar and vocabulary topics are accurate.

The content in the text itself includes grammatical information organized into charts with narrative explanations. The exercises are easy to work with and use many contextualized fill-in-the-blank responses. Some links are provided to current articles and videos on-line. The links are excellent and relevant, but there are not many of them. The text creator promises a web site soon with many more features of this type.

Students will appreciate the very clear presentation of topics. The basic material can be enhanced with personalized videos by the individual course instructors, and/or with classroom sessions on the topics.

The text has a consistent design and framework. Each of the 5 chapters has 8 sections, There are three sets of materials for each section: PARA ESTUDIAR EN CASA, PARA PRACTICAR EN CASA, and PARA PARTICIPAR EN CLASE. It's a good resource, especially for a hybrid course.

Modularity rating: 5

The division into chapters and sections is well-conceived and easy to follow. The content may be a little too expansive in each chapter for an introductory level course. I would recommend instructors customize the content to suit their own course design.

The vocabulary and grammar topics integrate well with one another, and the cultural selections fit the larger themes.

The text is accessible as a pdf file with live links to some online content. There are no clickable or fillable activities, something that's appealing to students for practice activities. This text offers practice exercises, but they are necessarily in an interactive on-line format. It's a great resource to replace a classroom text or a traditional workbook.

This text is highly accurate and cleanly edited.

The general Hispanic cultural segments are good, but the representation of diverse people and cultures could be improved.

This text is a great resource that replaces a traditional text or eBook for a course. It can also be used as a workbook guide for students to submit homework assignments. This does not replace interactive material that can be completed fully on-line, but it is very useful for Spanish students wanting to have a comprehensive, accurate, and well-organized set of materials for class. The ability to modify content is appealing and makes the text more flexible. Students may opt to print a copy for a nominal fee, or they can use the free pdf file with live links to web-based content. I definitely recommend this text for Elementary Spanish!

Reviewed by Raúl Gutiérrez, Associate Professor of Latinx Studies and Spanish, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

The instructions for the activities and grammar explanations are quite long. It is better to have short and concise grammar explanations. read more

The instructions for the activities and grammar explanations are quite long. It is better to have short and concise grammar explanations.

Everything is accurate and error free.

The topics and information is relevant to Spanish language teaching.

The instructions could be accessible to students.

Good and consistent use of terminology and framework.

The chapters are too long for a beginning Spanish class.

The book uses a common and logical topics and sections.

No issues encountered

No grammatical errors.

The cultural content is inclusive for a Spanish language class.

Reviewed by Kirsten Agla, Adjunct Professor, Massasoit Community College on 5/29/21

No glossary or index but there is a table of contents and the sections are very well organized. It is easy to find what you are looking for. read more

No glossary or index but there is a table of contents and the sections are very well organized. It is easy to find what you are looking for.

Content is accurate.

The questions about the book itself and organization, titled " Sections and Parts of the chapters", is superfluous. Content in itself is timeless and even includes modern linguistic things like the use of "@" in latin@.

All grammar topics covered are explained well and can be understood easily by the professor, but students may need extra examples or a more basic explanation first.

Very consistent format.

Nice, straight forward activities with each lesson.

Organization makes sense and follows a natural progression.

Logical and plain interface.

Grammar is fine.

Good, but could use more content on Latin America. It is very Spain focused.

Overall a solid textbook with lots of workbook activities for students, I would definitely use this book and supplement it with videos, conversation, readings, etc. A great guide with brief explanations/lessons for a variety of basic topics. Other Spanish textbooks are more immersive and have instructions for activities in Spanish, whereas this is a very English heavy textbook. The lack of images is understandable but makes the book less visually exciting.

Reviewed by Alandra Giron, Associate Professor, Thomas Nelson Community College on 5/26/21

This book does a great job at covering vocabulary and grammatical structures for a beginner level Spanish course. However, the preterite and mandatos sections near the end of the book are often taught in higher level courses. There is no index or... read more

This book does a great job at covering vocabulary and grammatical structures for a beginner level Spanish course. However, the preterite and mandatos sections near the end of the book are often taught in higher level courses. There is no index or glossary. I would recommend adding one so students can quickly search for a topic when reviewing material. It would be ideal to have more culture, speaking, and listening activities embedded into the book.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

There are a few typos throughout the book that could affect student pronunciation. Overall, the content in this book is accurate and unbiased.

The book primarily teaches vocabulary and grammar for a beginner level Spanish course. All of the information provided is necessary to begin learning Spanish, and therefore, the text will not be obsolete within a short period of time. Some of the cultural information and the assignments that use examples of key people may become obsolete over time, but those will be easy to update and won't affect the overall goal of the text.

The book is written in English. The text is clear and concise. Student level was considered when writing this book. Explanations, especially of grammar, are written at a level understandable for any college student.

The book is well designed. An explanation of the book's layout is provided at the beginning and that layout remains consistent throughout the text. After completing the first lesson and chapter, students will easily know what to expect and how to proceed in the course.

Each chapter is broken down into eight sections. The author did an excellent job using subheadings to divide the material. It would be easy for an instructor to assign certain sections from the text so that it aligns with his/her learning objectives and course material.

The organization of this text is quite impressive! There are five chapters that are broken down into eight sections. The sections are further broken down by sections titled "to study at home, practice at home, and practice in class". The material flows easily from section to section, building off of each other until the culmination of a chapter. The capstone project at the end of each chapter is ideal to assess students on the material.

The PDF is easy to open and the presentation is not distraction. The table of contents has links that take you to the beginning of each chapter. There were numerous audio recordings that did not work for me. However, links to outside materials worked fine.

No grammatical errors were noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

None of the grammar is culturally insensitive or offensive. That said, there is not a lot of culture in the text. It would have been nice to see more images as well as incorporating culture into the grammar sections. I believe some of the articles in Spanish that are used in the cultural sections are more advanced than beginner level and would be difficult for them to read/comprehend.

The author did an outstanding job creating this text. It is organized and easy to follow. The grammar explanations are concise and the assignments build in difficulty. It is lacking in some areas, such as culture and listening/speaking type activities, but it would be easy for an instructor to add additional resources in these areas to ensure students are learning all language skills.

Reviewed by Melinda Heiner, Spanish Instructor, Community College of Aurora on 5/17/21

The textbook is very well organized and divided into 5 clear units. The opening page of each unit explicitly states the learning objectives. However, there is no general overview of the grammar topics given at the beginning of the text (in the... read more

The textbook is very well organized and divided into 5 clear units. The opening page of each unit explicitly states the learning objectives. However, there is no general overview of the grammar topics given at the beginning of the text (in the index). Rather, they are spread throughout the text and require the need to flip through the various chapters. The book does not have a glossary.

The content in the textbook is accurate and unbiased.

The text does not include pictures, photos, or other items that could quickly become obsolete. The culture topics and explanations of colloquialisms provided throughout the units do not refer to contemporary topics that will quickly change. The grammar content is very solid, and the activities could be used easily for several years.

The book is written very clearly from a U.S. English grammar perspective. It is accessible and will easily reinforce grammar rules as well as help students make connections between U.S. English and Spanish grammar.

This textbook is very consistent in approach. Each Unit is divided into 8 sections by learning objective. Each learning objective section is divided in the same manner, a flip class approach (Para estudiar en casa), then a practice section (Para practicar en casa), and finally an interactive production type practice for class (Para practicar en clase). This format was clear and offered the same format throughout the text.

The text is clearly divided into smaller sections within the units. It would be very possible to assign different sections. I would caution that this could be somewhat tricky because many of the production activities rely on previous knowledge of vocabulary and concepts. So, some rework would be needed if making drastic changes in the order of learning units.

This textbook does a very nice job within each learning objective to offer the students adequate explanation and practice before producing and applying the concepts in class. It is well scaffolded throughout and allows the students to build knowledge and confidence in the language as well as build up to the bigger capstone projects at the end of the units.

Interface rating: 3

In the online version (PDF), some of the recordings would not work. Other links easily connected but would open in a new window causing issues in moving between the resources and the text. The subcategories listed on each unit’s opening page links directly to that section, making it very easy to maneuver the online resources. The printed version, however, does not provide access to recordings. Thus, students will have to pay close attention to both the text and online features in order to follow each unit’s skill practice.

There are a couple typos, but no errors that would impact the understanding of the content.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The text offers minimal culture. The culture topics do not use examples that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, or backgrounds. This may have been intentional to keep the text very generalized; however, it does a disservice of representing the rich cultural and varied ethnicities in the Spanish speaking world. There is one video which should be replaced with a more authentic representation of the cultures of the Americas. Some of the photos used in the video do not authentically represent the cultures of the Spanish speaking countries.

I feel like this text offers a nice skeletal base to use for building a course. The grammar explanations are clear and concise, and the practice activities are easy to understand. I feel like any teacher would have to infuse more lively photographs and deeper culture exploration to really make the course connect to the students.

Reviewed by Catalina Villar, Lecturer, Howard University on 5/10/21

Effective index and/or glossary was available at the beginning of each section (or unit). It may be useful to consolidate all these into one "central" index that shows everything from all sections all at once. When teaching throughout the semester... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

Effective index and/or glossary was available at the beginning of each section (or unit). It may be useful to consolidate all these into one "central" index that shows everything from all sections all at once. When teaching throughout the semester I always want to be able to find my place at a glance if I need to give the students reference to something learned several weeks earlier. This becomes even more critical when using only screens and electronic materials. (I give a 1 for only this concept) The content is appropriate for a first level Spanish that wishes to cover only the present, beginning of the preterit, imperative and perifrastic future. (I give a 5 for only this concept.) 5+1=6 divided by 2 = 3

Some minor mistakes (spelling or typos) that can easily be corrected with a thorough proof-reading. No reason to consider bias (no examples of stereotypes or prejudiced assumptions by gender, race/ethnicity, age, sexual preference/identity, ideology, religion, etc.) From this point of view the book is almost "asceptic"; but it does not necessarily pretend to discuss any of these social constructs or sets of beliefs, therefore it is not a problem.

Yes, quite "neutral" so it can be considered "timeless."

Good explanations of grammar concepts accesible to non-grammarians or someone without extensive linguistics knowledge. This is particularly useful in the context of teaching to students educated in the US system, as my experience shows me that very few students have been taught grammatical structure in the English mother tongue.

Yes, the structure and design is well organized and consistent throughout the book.

The only problem with division by modularity in this case is how the individual instructors in different teaching centers will consider using this book. That is not a problem inherent to the book itself, but will need to be resolved by each instructor willing to consider its use. For example: the order of content is easily shuffled if the instructor prefers to do the present progressive immediately after teaching the present tense of "estar" or divide it in some other way.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The organization of the book clearly follows the logic of the author and their teaching style/experience/objectives. This is true of all textbooks; but the instructor willing to use this book needs to become familiar and enter into the logic of the author to effectively use this book. It was hard for me to judge from just the review; I had to work at it to understand the logic and render justice to this review. I would definitely need to work much much much more to adapt it for my classroom.

Interface rating: 1

The audio files (for pronunciation sections) were not available to me. The newspaper article or video files linked were available without problem but did open in the same window. When it was time to "return" to the page in the book were I was studying I could only use the return arrow from my browser and it brought me to the beginning of the document, so I had to make sure I took note of my page before departing so I could jump there again. These two problems should be fixed.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

The book is trying to walk a very fine line between the flipped classroom and avoid heavy grammar content (which experience tells us is "boring" to most students). However, some of the video links (for example the one on greetings) work exclusively from the English without any grammar explanation. This could be justified as a practical approach and can work effectively for students; it does leave the grammar explanation to the instructor who may choose to cover it or not at their discretion.

I give a 3 as a "neutral" value: the book is neither sensitive nor insensitive. I did not see any content directly related to any cultural images or concept that could be construed either way.

The changes this textbook needs are not major and could be easily implemented. It should be exciting to see Dr. Dean complete the rest of grammatical concepts of Spanish introduction (presumably with a second part to this text.)

Reviewed by Edgar Vargas, Lead Professor for World Languages, Community College of Aurora on 4/20/21

The content is understandable for the students and instructors. It has clear instructions and explanations. It covers the first basic topics in grammar and vocabulary. The textbook does not have some important content such as readings, videos, and... read more

The content is understandable for the students and instructors. It has clear instructions and explanations. It covers the first basic topics in grammar and vocabulary. The textbook does not have some important content such as readings, videos, and listening activities. In addition, it lacks cultural topics.

There are a few typos that I notice but in general, the book is well written and has accurate information.

The book has some of the most important for beginners studying Spanish. However, instructors would need to add some extra resources because the book alone is not enough, especially it is needed more listening activities and topics related to current events.

The explanations are written in English. It would be helpful to have at the beginning of the book some explanation of basic grammar terms such as verbs, conjugation, and other grammar expressions. I will also add more drawings for visual learners.

The organization of the book is consistent. The vocabulary and chapters are structured clearly and all the sections have a review and a project.

The textbook is organized into 5 chapters and each one of these chapters is divided into parts that are easy to use. The table of content provides information about where to find specific information.

The book is well organized and clear. From the beginning, one can see that the book is divided into 5 chapters with 8 sections. It also follows a flipped classroom technique in which students are prepared before coming to the classroom and then they practice with the instructors during the time of the lesson.

The book is on PDF and it has some videos and listening activities. Students will require to have an internet connection to be able to use the links that the book provides. On the other hand, some of the links are not working.

It is well written and it has few typos.

The book includes some cultural information that is not culturally offensive. However, I would include more information about the various countries that speak Spanish including the United States, and their characteristics.

The book can be used correctly by adding a lot of extra resources. It requires a lot of cultural information about the Hispanic countries that can help to motivate students to learn the language. Instructors also should add a lot of visuals, videos, and listening activities because they are important for the students to be able to acquire the language.

Reviewed by Claudia Vestal, Spanish Instructor, Emory and Henry College on 4/14/21

For both teachers and students, the content, would be easy to understand. read more

For both teachers and students, the content, would be easy to understand.

There are a couple of spelling mistakes,

Grammar and Vocabulary are relevant for this level.

All instructions are in English.

Students will follow easily the format.

Yes, the textbook activities are numbered so the instructor can easily divide the content.

The topics are presented from easier to harder to understand. There are activities that help the reader review and reinforce grammar topics.

Display features don´t distract or confuse the reader. Excellent presentation.

Well done. The use of acronyms, short explanations, examples when needed will make it easier for the reader to understand and retain.

I would like to have more cultural content for my classes.

The PDF is searchable. Well done.

Reviewed by Jane Hardy, Associate Professor of Spanish, Wabash College on 2/28/21

The book is very thorough in covering beginning topics of grammar and vocabulary. There are also very well-conceived and comprehensive student projects at the end of each chapter. However, the text is lacking in comprehensible input (readings,... read more

The book is very thorough in covering beginning topics of grammar and vocabulary. There are also very well-conceived and comprehensive student projects at the end of each chapter. However, the text is lacking in comprehensible input (readings, audio recordings, videos) and has very little cultural content. Each chapter begins with a complete list of learning objectives, but there is no glossary.

I noticed a couple of minor typos, but otherwise all of the content was accurate and error-free. I didn't detect any particular bias.

Since the book focuses on grammar and vocabulary, there isn't much content that will become obsolete quickly. There are a few exceptions, such as the inclusion of President Trump in a Chapter 1 spelling activity; mentions of Brad Pitt, Taylor Swift, and Jennifer Lawrence in Chapter 1; and a list of athletes in Chapter 5. However, these could very easily be updated.

Grammar is explained very clearly in a way that should be accessible to college undergraduates. However, the text doesn't contain any images that could be used to illustrate new vocabulary and clarify meaning. For example, pictures or drawings would be helpful to clarify a pair of dialogues in Chapter 1 in which a student is talking about him/herself in one dialogue, while in the second dialogue a professor and student are talking about someone else. As another example, images and floor plans would be helpful to identify house and furniture vocabulary in Chapter 3. In every chapter, there are activities for which students are instructed to read aloud or practice pronunciation at home, yet there aren't any recordings to provide models for students. These activities are likely to be futile for beginning Spanish learners to do at home. In Chapter 3, students are directed to 4 articles on El País, which are interesting authentic materials, but they are much too difficult to be accessible to a beginning Spanish student.

The textbook follows a highly consistent structure throughout. I noticed two inconsistencies in vocabulary (the use of both el pijama and la pijama, and the use of both la pluma and el bolígrafo), but these are very minor and could actually serve as effective examples of regional variation.

The text is especially strong in this area. There are five chapters, each of which is divided into eight sections; and each section is further divided into subsections--following a flipped-classroom model--"Para estudiar en casa," "Para practicar en casa," and "Para practicar en clase."

The text is well-organized, and topics are presented in a way that is consistent with other beginning Spanish textbooks.

There are links to videos and articles in El País that work just fine. However, there are links to audio recordings in Chapter 1 that don't work, and there are instructions in Chapter 5 to "listen to the model," but without a links to recordings. A minor annoyance is that when you follow a link to an external page and then return to the textbook, it takes you back to the first page rather than to the page you had been reading.

Other than a few minor typos, I didn't find any grammatical errors.

The text has very little cultural content, and there isn't anything that I found insensitive or offensive. At the same time, the lack of cultural content (and the lack of photographs) is a missed opportunity for the inclusion of the wide diversity of races and ethnicities that make up the Spanish-speaking world. One important exception is the cultural note in Section 1.4.b. of gender-neutral language, such as "ell@s" and "latin@os."

This textbook offers very clear explanations of beginning Spanish grammar and incorporates relevant and useful beginning vocabulary. There is a plethora of exercises and activities that move from controlled to open-ended practice, including excellent end-of-chapter projects that require synthesis of each chapter's topics. This would be an excellent text for an instructor who wishes to focus on these areas. Beyond grammar and vocabulary, an instructor would likely need to supplement the text with additional cultural materials as well as comprehensible input in the form of readings, graphics, or audio and video recordings.

Reviewed by Maria Aldana Rogers, Adjunct Spanish Instructor, Lane Community College on 1/20/21

In my opinion the content of Spanish I: Beginning Spanish Language and Culture covers the grammatical structures and vocabulary for the first two terms of the first year at college level. Spanish I is divided in five chapters and presents similar... read more

In my opinion the content of Spanish I: Beginning Spanish Language and Culture covers the grammatical structures and vocabulary for the first two terms of the first year at college level. Spanish I is divided in five chapters and presents similar topics to other Spanish textbooks. Each chapter has eight sections and each one has different topics, clear and concise explanations for the grammatical points and also activities to practice. Spanish I doesn’t have a vocabulary list for each section or chapter nor an index with all the topics covered along with their page number. As the text progresses there are more vocabulary words. The main table of contents lists only the theme of the five chapters and their page and there are very few images in the textbook. Also, I have been able to watch some videos, but I could not listen to the audios, despite several attempts. Finally, this book introduces very few topics from the culture of the Spanish-speaking world to first-year Spanish students.

I think that the content is accurate and I didn’t find errors. I just believe there is a confusion in Pg. 99 (To learn the present tense conjugation of the verb estar) because it mentions that only the ending for nosotros and vosotros are the same as regular - ar verbs and the other forms are irregular.

There is an activity with January 2021 that will be obsolete in a few days. Also in the video “Spanish in the world” (2013) some data is not updated, such as the number of people whose native language is Spanish. However, there are also videos that are relevant today such as the "Greetings in Spanish" (2017). The textbook Spanish I has some pertinent short cultural notes, like the one that mentions the use of the symbol “@” to express "gender-neutral version", as in nosotr@s or ell@s and the one about hugs and kisses with greetings in the Spanish-speaking world. I believe in general the content is “up-to-date”, and the materials that are going to become irrelevant can be replaced by others as time passes by the instructors.

The explanations of the grammar points, the instructions, the notes in each section are clear and concise and are in English. I believe the content of the textbook shows the author's experience as a Spanish instructor. The book follows the “flipped classroom approach”, so the practice of the grammar points in class is important to clarify any doubt.

The organization and terminology of the book are consistent across all chapters, which is an advantage for the students and the instructors. There are five chapters and every chapter is divided in eight sections. There are learning objectives for each section and each one is labeled with a letter. Each section is divided into three parts: “Para estudiar en casa”, “Para practicar en casa and “Para practicar en clase”, using the flipped classroom approach, so students learn the content and complete some activities at home, to practice later with their classmates during class time. Every section is consistent, starts with the learning objectives, an introduction, explanations, notes, the activities to practice and a self-evaluation. All the chapters and their sections have the same consistency.

As mentioned before, Spanish I is divided into five chapters and each chapter into smaller reading eight sections with different topics and grammar structures and with its own set of Learning Objectives that can help students to become more aware of their own learning process. The chapters, and the section titles in each chapter are clickable and the titles, subtitles and activities are consistent. Also each section is divided into three parts with different colors.

The topics in the Spanish I textbook are presented logically. At the beginning, some vocabulary words and grammar points are introduced to start building a good foundation to learn the Spanish language. However, I believe a list of vocabulary words for every section would help the students to follow the content more easily. More complex concepts are being introduced in the following sections.

The book is on PDF and instructors and students can download it. It requires internet to watch the videos. As I mentioned before there are symbols of audios that didn’t work for me after many attempts. There is no distortions of charts. Spanish I has very few images and doesn’t have grammar charts at the end. It would be great to have more images and grammar charts.

I didn’t see any grammatical errors.

There are many students every year that start studying Spanish and a very few continue. Many students fall in love with the Spanish language because of the linguistic varieties, the cultural topics, the history, etc. so we have a great opportunity to present some of these subjects in our classes. There are many countries where Spanish is spoken, including the United States, so we have a great variety of choices, like the use of the Spanglish in the United States. In my opinion Spanish I doesn’t present many cultural themes. In the first chapters there is an attempt with few cultural notes and some videos, but I believe it is not enough because this is a Spanish textbook.

I believe Spanish I is a good textbook to start teaching Spanish. As the author mentions instructors can always personalize the content and modify, eliminate and add material (the cultural topics, for example). Also I like the flipped classroom approach that uses the book, and the learning objectives for each section because both help students to become more responsible for their own learning. It is great that students can have this book at no cost.

Reviewed by Evelyn Nadeau, Professor of Spanish, Clarke University, Clarke University on 1/2/21

The usual vocabulary topics and grammatical structures in a university-level first semester Spanish book are included, although there are also some less typical structures included in the last chapter, such as commands and past tenses (the... read more

The usual vocabulary topics and grammatical structures in a university-level first semester Spanish book are included, although there are also some less typical structures included in the last chapter, such as commands and past tenses (the preterit), that aren't usually presented until later in the language sequence. The text is a bit light on cultural material, and some chapters, such as 4 and 5, seem to have little or none. While each individual chapter has a very detailed list of the topics included, which can be clicked on, there isn't any overall table of contents at the beginning of the book, nor an index at the end. It could also be helpful for students to have a glossary with the vocabulary presented at the end, and even some grammar charts.

The content is accurate for the most part, with only a few errors, such as the misspelling of "olvidó" in 1.1.c (olividó) or a missing question mark in the dialogue in 9.8. There is sufficient inclusion of linguistic diversity from the Spanish-speaking world.

There are up-to-date references, such as an exercise with the January 2021 calendar page, and the inclusion of popular music and cultural figures, but they can be easily substituted for newer material as time goes on. The use of the 2005 article on mileuristas seemed a bit dated, and although reference is made to subsequent Spanish microcultures, I would likely substitute this for a more recent article/topic.

Explanations are straightforward and clear for the most part, but the understanding of some basic grammar terms is assumed, such as the meaning of "verb conjugation" at the very beginning in 1.1. My experience has been that there are many beginning students who are not familiar with either the term or the concept of conjugating verbs. Also, in some cases it would be helpful to provide models for the homework assignments so that it's clear what the student is being asked to do.

The same format and approach is maintained throughout the text.

The text is set up so that there are eight sections in each chapter, with the same organization that supports the flipped classroom approach throughout. It would be very easy for an instructor to customize this structure to fit his or her own course, including or excluding sections in the various chapters.

Each section of each chapter includes three very distinct sections--two for the student to do before class and one for communicative interaction in class. This appears to be a very effective organization for the flipped classroom approach.

The pdf format is text heavy, which is fine although some visuals would be welcome. Clicking on the initial table of contents for the chapters or then within the list of sections for each chapter takes one to that chapter or section, which is helpful, but it would be useful to have a link to take one back to the beginning as well. There were some links to videos that functioned well and supported the material being presented. There also were symbols and references to audio files, but these did not work, and I assume that they are still to be added.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

The grammar seems fine for the most part.

While there isn't a lot of cultural material included in the text, what there is reflects cultural sensitivity for the most part, such as the discussion of gender-neutral terms in Spanish. I did find surprising the use of the term "salesgirl" in 9.8 rather than "sales clerk" or "saleswoman."

I think that this would be a very usable text for the class for which it's designed as long as the instructor is prepared to bring in more cultural material. The only real difficulty that I see relates to a second introductory course since this is set up for for the first of what is often a two-course sequence, and it would not be ideal to have to introduce a completely different text and approach in the second semester.

Reviewed by Emily Scida, Professor, General Faculty, University of Virginia on 12/14/20

This textbook covers the vocabulary and grammar concepts typically covered in first-semester Spanish at the college level. The overall approach is a traditional grammar-focused one with presentation-practice-production. Each chapter presents a... read more

This textbook covers the vocabulary and grammar concepts typically covered in first-semester Spanish at the college level. The overall approach is a traditional grammar-focused one with presentation-practice-production. Each chapter presents a detailed table of contents and list of clear learning objectives. In addition to sections on vocabulary and grammar, each chapter contains sections on pronunciation/spelling and a final section focused on a cultural text (written or video) linked out to the web. There is very little focus on learning about the cultures of the Spanish-speaking world or on developing students' cultural competence. The textbook has no glossary. The main table of contents lists only the theme of each chapter but not the specific grammar concepts, vocabulary, or pronunciation topics.

The content is accurate and error-free.

The content (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) is relevant and will not change much. The information presented is up-to-date -- for example, there is mention of the use of -@ as a gender marker.

The presentation of content and most instructions are written in English and are clear.

The organization of the textbook, terminology, and framework used are consistent across all chapters. The textbook uses a flipped classroom approach where students learn the content at home, complete form-focused practices at home, and engage in more interactive practices during class time. Chapters 2-4 end with a final capstone project.

The textbook is organized into smaller sections that could easily be reorganized for the purposes of a specific course.

The content of the textbook is organized moving from simple to more complex grammar concepts. Each chapter is based on a theme (i.e., La casa) and vocabulary lists are presented related to that theme. Each topic is presented in English, followed by form-focused practice to be completed at home, then more interactive practice to be completed in class. The focus is on output with very little attention to input.

The interface is easy to use and navigate with some embedded audio files and links to outside sites. There is very little in terms of visual input (images, photos). Some pronunciation sections prompt students to listen to a model, but no audio files are linked.

Is well-written and virtually free of grammatical errors.

The textbook could make better use of examples, texts, and visuals that reflect a variety of backgrounds and greater diversity. This could be improved through greater emphasis on learning about the cultures of the Spanish-speaking world, through integration of texts, multimedia, and visuals, and through examples incorporated in practices and presentations. For example, the vocabulary list on holidays includes traditional Christian holidays (Christmas, Easter, etc.) but afterward asks students to look up any holidays that are relevant to them (Hanukkah, Ramadan). Perhaps these should be included in the main list.

This is a solid first-semester beginning Spanish textbook for those interested primarily in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Instructors will need to supplement this text with outside resources and assignments focused on developing students' proficiency in skill-building and cultural competence.

Reviewed by Andrea Dewees, Associate Professor, University of Alaska, Southeast on 11/29/20, updated 12/16/20

It covers most grammar and vocabulary topics (more so if it is for a quarter-based system), but it does not contain sufficient cultural material (realia, explanation, practice). (See ACTFL standards). For example, by p. 264 students should be able... read more

It covers most grammar and vocabulary topics (more so if it is for a quarter-based system), but it does not contain sufficient cultural material (realia, explanation, practice). (See ACTFL standards). For example, by p. 264 students should be able to google famous Spanish-speaking sports players and the U.S.-based list could be avoided. While there are communicative in-class activities (surveys), these are not particularly in-depth.

There's a typo on page 12. I think that, on page 132, the word "mostrador" as a translation of countertop is incorrect. "Mostrador" is usually the counter in a store (where one buys things, particularly in small stores). I think the word for countertop is encimera.

By concentrating on the basics the book will be easy to use from year to year. The Enrique Iglesias song could be swapped for another, as could the journal article. A seasoned instructor will be able to adapt it easily.

The book is clear, and the pronunciation guides and practice were excellent ("rr" p. 269, 2.2). It depends a lot on English however. I would like to see less English as the book progresses.

Consistency rating: 4

Yes, book is consistent.

Yes. The commands section towards the end seemed out of place and without purpose.

Yes, this works well. It recycles material, but not always in the most interesting way.

Yes, it's very simple and straightforward.

I commented above.

I don't think this book focuses enough on culture (see ACTFL standards).

I think this book would be good for a seasoned instructor who has experience developing their own materials and familiarity with the ACTFL standards. Experienced instructors with second language acquisition training can supplement the book with their own cultural materials (realia, etc.) and customize the communicative activities. This book does need supplementation in order to fulfill the ACTFL standards in communicative language and culture. I would remove the "commands" sections because it is unnecessary at this stage.

Reviewed by Ana M. Lopez-Aguilera, Assistant Professor, Bemidji State University on 11/11/20

The book Spanish I is a very complete textbook. It covers the topics, vocabulary, communicative situations, grammar structures and cultural information that a student at the elementary level needs to communicate in Spanish in everyday life. I feel... read more

The book Spanish I is a very complete textbook. It covers the topics, vocabulary, communicative situations, grammar structures and cultural information that a student at the elementary level needs to communicate in Spanish in everyday life. I feel that the book covers what we usually study in the first two semesters of our Spanish sequence. The book includes an index at the beginning with the chapter titles (clickable). You need to visit each chapter to get a detailed outline of what is covered each chapter. A chart with the topics and learning outcomes in the first pages of the book or a more detailed index would provide readers with a general view of the book content from the beginning. There are some elements that stand out in this textbook compared to other Spanish textbooks. The book follows the flipped classroom approach: students have a set of assignments to do at home (sections “Para estudiar en casa” and “Para practicar en casa”) and then activities to do in class to practice what they have studied (“Para practicar en clase”). While most textbooks tend to reduce their written explanations (using videos or presentations to explain grammar and vocabulary instead), Spanish I includes lengthy ones. Because the author´s style is very accessible and he establishes connections with previously explained points, having these lengthy explanations actually helps students to assimilate the information. While most Spanish textbooks hide their strong grammatical orientation under claims of communicative approach, with Spanish I, you know from the beginning that you are studying grammar and why is necessary for you to learn it (the introduction for every section makes it clear). Spanish I includes extensive sections on pronunciation and vocabulary as well. Cultural information is mixed among explanations on vocabulary and grammar structures as cultural notes.

The content is accurate and presented in a methodical and accessible manner. The author always keeps in mind that his readers are students and novice not only in Spanish language, but also in matters of linguistic terminology and grammatical abstractions.

The content of the book is relevant. For the most part, it is written in a general way so that it will not require an update soon. On the other hand, the book includes frequent references to the local area and university that can confuse and won´t have the same identification effect in students from other institutions.

The text is clear and easy to understand. Although long, the explanations are written in a casual way that do not overwhelm students, the actual reader of the textbook. Spanish I includes many tables and charts that help presenting the information in a clear and organized way. The book does not include images or pictures that help to understand vocabulary. Images would make the text more appealing. The instructions on what students need to do are exceptionally clear.

The chapter and section´s structure is repeated and that provides consistency. Every section concludes with a self-evaluation (labeled “repaso”, review) and every chapter includes a Capstone project (a presentation, a dialogue played out, etc.) that put together all studied.

The table of contents, and the section titles in each chapter are clickable so it is easier to get to different sections of the book. The titles, subtitles and activities numbering are consistent and very helpful.

There is a clear structure that is repeated along the book. Spanish I is divided in 5 chapters and each chapter in 8 sections. The book follows the flipped classroom approach and that influences how it is organized: each section is divided in a set of assignments to do at home (“Para estudiar en casa” and “Para practicar en casa”) and then activities to do in class to practice what they have learned before (“Para practicar en clase”). With this approach, students become responsible of their own learning and class time can be spent on language practice rather than explanations on vocabulary and grammar. Several publishers seem to be transitioning to the flipped classroom approach by adding high-priced online platforms to their textbooks. Spanish I is a free alternative. The only disadvantage is that home assignments in Spanish I can´t be self-graded since it is a PDF (while home assignments in online platforms can be graded automatically saving a lot of time for instructors). It wouldn´t be too difficult for an instructor to review the answers at the beginning of class or provide the answer keys to students for self-evaluation though. The description of the book mentions that a complementary website with extra material for the textbook will be added soon. A website could provide the opportunity to create self-graded assignments to do at home.

The book is on PDF and can be downloaded or used online. It includes videos that require a connection to internet (actual links to online videos). I found a couple of symbols of audios in the book but they did not work. I assume those audios will be available in the upcoming complementary website for Spanish I. No distortions of charts. I would add some images.

There are no grammatical errors in Spanish I, only a few typos like “uno niño” (page 18) or “internationales” (page 45) that can be easily corrected in future editions.

The book includes cultural notes along the text mixed with linguistic explanations and it is not culturally insensitive or offensive. I would add more cultural information and examples of linguistic and cultural diversity in the Spanish-speaking world.

Spanish I is a good book to teach beginning level Spanish. Because it uses the flipped classroom approach, it is an excellence alternative to commercial textbooks that rely on online platforms for such flipped language teaching.

Table of Contents

• 1.En la universidad
• 2. La familia
• 4.De compras
• 5.Los pasatiempos

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This peer-reviewed textbook is designed for the true beginner with U.S. college students in mind. It contains themed chapters, which are divided into 8 sections. Each section has its own set of learning objectives, and is further separated into three types of assignments, Para estudiar en casa (with detailed explanations), Para practicar en casa (homework exercises), and Para practicar en clase (paired and group classwork activities). The explanations and primary input are written to be easily comprehensible. The individual exercises are geared towards acquisition of form and function, and the communicative classwork exercises promote interpersonal exchanges between students. The digital copy includes some embedded audio files, and we are developing a website to house many more resources.

About the Contributors

Dr. Matthew Dean grew up speaking only English. As an undergraduate, he began his exploration of Spanish, fell in love with the language and cultures, and never looked back. He began teaching Spanish at San Diego State University in 1997. Currently, he is Professor of Spanish in the Department of World Languages and Cultures at Humboldt State University. He has taught all levels of Spanish language, literature, and culture, and directed several study abroad programs. As a non-native Spanish speaker, Dr. Dean understands the struggles of the language learner. He has taught Spanish to thousands of community college and university students and invites you to start your language adventure today. 

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50 Simple Spanish Questions To Ask in a Conversation (and How To Answer)

Want to know how to create more fluid and authentic Spanish conversations?

The secret ingredient is questions!

Just a few simple Spanish questions can transform your quiet small talk into a flowing conversation.

Don’t let your anxiety or nerves stop you from starting that first dialogue. 

Intimate conversations create lasting bonds, increased happiness , greater life longevity , and less stress . 

Humans are social creatures—we thrive on relationships and connection! It’s time to let your socialization needs run free. 

Dive into this guide for 50 Spanish questions across a variety of topics, along with excellent tips and tricks for conversing in your second language. 

These dialogue examples, question words and answers, and speaking prompts will reshape you into a Spanish conversationalist master!

¿Qué esperas?  What are you waiting for?

Table of Contents:

How to have a conversation in spanish, about spanish question words, how to write questions in spanish, spanish-speaking prompts, spanish conversation topics, 50 spanish questions to use in conversation, spanish dialogue examples, practice conversations in spanish with a free class.

Looking for tips on how to start a conversation in Spanish?

The first conversation you have in Spanish is always the scariest. However, it quickly gets easier with practice! 

These 3 conversational tips and tricks will help you feel more comfortable and better prepared for your future Spanish discussions!

1. Take Control of the Conversation

When you’re speaking in your second language, there will always be words and phrases that you don’t know. 

One way to avoid getting too confused is by taking control of the conversation . Steer your conversation companion towards the topics that you are most familiar with. This way, you will be better prepared to answer and understand them. 

Once you’re feeling comfortable, make the bold choice to discuss a more difficult topic. New topics can be challenging, but they also help you learn tons of new words!

2. Ask Lots of Questions

Conversation is a vocal back and forth dance between people. You can present simple questions to take the lead and guide your dance partner. 

They also enable you to learn more about things you don’t fully understand. 

You can use questions to pause the conversation or clarify something your partner said that you didn’t understand. So, stock up on simple past questions so that you can always be prepared. 

Questions are powerful—be sure to use them!

3. Watch Body Language

Talking in your non-native tongue is challenging in the beginning. 

The speaker across from you might use words you don’t know or slang that doesn’t translate well. 

Making eye contact and watching body language go a long way to smoothing the conversation channels. Hand motions and body gestures are a language in and of themselves! 

If your Spanish is failing you, just listen to what their body is saying!

Some of the most important words in any language are “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” and “how.”

These question words enable you to search for answers, direct thoughts, and gain new insights. They are an essential part of any language learner’s vocabulary. 

Here are some simple ways to use them!

Where (¿Dónde?)

Whether you need to ask for directions or talk about geography, dónde is the word you will need!

Dónde means “where” in Spanish. But, if you add the preposition a in front of the word, then it becomes “to where.” 

Similarly, the preposition de makes the word become “from where.”

Take a look at these example sentences!

¿Dónde está la tienda? Where is the store?

¿De dónde viene? Where is it coming from?

¿Adónde vamos? Where are we going?

When ( ¿Cuándo?)

If you want to ask about calendar plans in Spanish, then you need to know the word cuándo !

Cuándo is Spanish for “when.” Use cuándo to discover events, holidays, and more! 

Keep in mind that you can’t use this word to ask for a specific time. If you want to know the exact time in minutes or hours, then you need to use a qué hora (at what time). 

¿Cuándo es el concierto? When is the concert?

¿Cuándo son las vacaciones? When is vacation?

What/Which (¿Qué?/¿Cuál?)

You can say “what” in Spanish using two different words.

More often than not, qué is the correct question word to use. 

The only time you need to use cuál is when you are asking about a choice between options. It’s sort of like saying “which” in English. 

¿Qué estás haciendo? What are you doing?

¿Cuál es tu color favorito? Which color is your favorite?

Who (¿Quién?)

Use quién to ask about people in Spanish. If you are asking about just one person, then it’s quién . 

If you need to ask about multiple people, then you have to use quiénes .

¿Quién eres tú? Who are you?

¿Quiénes son? Who are they?

¿Quién lo hizo? Who did it?

Why (¿Por qué?)

Por qué is an incredibly helpful question word. It let’s you understand the purpose and meaning behind something. 

Additionally, por qué can transform into porque to become a new word. Por qué translates as “why” but porque means “because!”

¿Por qué lo hizo? Why did he do that?

¿Por qué están aquí? Why are they here?

How (¿Cómo?)

Use cómo to ask “how” in Spanish. Cómo helps you learn how things work and how you can achieve results. 

Bear in mind that you can’t use cómo to ask “how much” or “how many.” For these questions, you need to use the question word cuanto !

¿Cómo funciona? How does it work?

¿Cómo puedo aprender español? How can I learn Spanish?

How Many/Much (¿Cuántos?)

Cuántos is all about numbers!

This question word allows you to ask “how many” or “how much” in Spanish. 

¿Cuánto cuesta? How much does it cost?

¿Cuántos hay? How many are there?

Questions in Spanish are slightly different from those in English. 

One distinct difference with Spanish questions is that they utilize two question marks. 

Just like in English, Spanish questions have a normal question mark at the end of the sentence. However, they also have a second upside-down question mark at the beginning! 

The two question marks look like this: 

¿Cómo estás? How are you?

It’s important to remember that the question marks go only around the question itself. Any connecting words or introductions should be left out!

Here are some examples: 

Si mañana llueve, ¿quieres ir al cine? If it rains tomorrow, do you want to go to the movies?

El año que viene, ¿dónde vivirás? Next year, where will you live?

Tú vs Usted

When asking questions in Spanish, you can use either tú or usted . Both of these second person pronouns are a way to say “you” in Spanish. 

However, you need to use each one in the proper context!

Use usted when you want to respond with respect or professionalism. Usted is the better choice when talking with teachers, elders, and strangers. 

Tú, on the other hand, is for conversations between close friends or children. It’s very informal and shows a sense of familiarity. 

If you aren’t sure which pronoun to use, just mimic the one that the other person is using!

To conjugate verbs using usted you drop the “s.” If you hear someone add an “s” in a conversation, that means they are speaking to you using tú . 

Take a look at the differences in these examples!

How are you?

¿Cómo estás? 

¿Cómo está usted?

Who are you?

¿Quién eres tú?

¿Quién es usted?

It can be hard to know how to start a conversation in Spanish. 

Having some Spanish prompts on hand is an excellent way to assure your impromptu conversation takes place. 

These Spanish prompts let you ease into the conversation and ask permission to begin. 

¿Tienes un momentito? Do you have a moment?

¿Puedo hacerte una pregunta? Can I ask you a question?

Tengo una pregunta para ti. I have one question for you.

There is no shortage of questions to ask people when you are learning a second language. There is a whole new culture for you to discover!

When you first start learning a second language, it can be helpful to have your conversation topics prepared. By knowing and studying your conversation topics ahead of time, your conversational Spanish will flourish!

Here are some beginner Spanish conversation topics that you are sure to come across!

The Weather

Talking about the weather makes for easy small talk . Rain, snow, sleet, or shine, you can discuss the outdoors no matter what the clouds decide! 

Study Resources:

• ¿Qué tal está el clima? Spanish Weather Words for Adult Conversations
• Spanish Weather Words

Books/Movies/Media 

Nothing tells you more about a person than their favorite song, book, or TV show. These works of entertainment provide an insight into their listener’s character and values. 

Books and TV are strong bonding tools. Find someone who shares the same interests as you to form an instant connection!

• 11 Native Spanish Shows on Netflix for Teenagers (14+)
• Free Ebooks for Beginners
• 10 Most Famous Spanish Songs of the 80s With Lyrics PDF

Restaurants/Food

There are delightful desserts and dinners to talk about from all over the globe!

Food is a favorite topic of many since it leaves you feeling full and satisfied. Fill up your brain with some yummy vocabulary so that you never miss out on these appetizing conversations!

• Breakfast Foods in Spanish: A Vocabulary Guide
• Let’s Make Some Food in Spanish

Local Sights/Events/Travel

The Spanish language is spread all over the world. There are lots of new countries and events to explore!

Prepare for your visit abroad with these travel and locational vocabulary terms!

• A Vocabulary Guide to Roads and Traffic in Spanish
• Places and People in Your Neighborhood
• Travel Vocabulary

Now that you know the most common conversation topics in Spanish, it’s time to ask questions! 

These 50 Spanish questions are sure to enhance your conversational skills. Get ready to converse with native speakers like a pro!

Conversation Starters in Spanish

Sometimes, the hardest part of talking is starting the dialogue. Practicing easy Spanish conversation starters can help take the nerves and anxiety out of striking up a conversation. 

Here are some basic Spanish questions to ask someone in nearly any situation!

1. How are you? (¿Cómo estás?)

2. Where are you from? (¿De dónde eres?)

3. What is your name? (¿Cómo te llamas?)

4. I like your shirt! Where did you get it? (Me gusta tu camiseta. ¿Dónde la conseguiste?)

5. How is your day? (¿Cómo va tu día?)

6. What are your plans for this weekend? (¿Qué planes tiene para este fin de semana?)

7. Have you been here before? (¿Has estado aquí antes?)

Example Questions and Answers

¿Cómo estás? Estoy bien, gracias.

How are you?  I am good, thank you. 

¿De dónde eres? Soy de los Estados Unidos.

Where are you from? I am from the United States.

¿Qué planes tienes para este fin de semana? Este fin de semana voy a salir con mis amigos.

What are your plans for this weekend? This weekend, I am going to hang out with my friends.

Get To Know You Questions

The most rewarding part about conversations is creating a lasting human connection. 

Socialization is an essential part of a well-rounded lifestyle. Communication and conversation even have cognitive and health benefits ! 

Discover your new friend’s personality , preferences, and perspective with these get to know you questions!

8. Where did you grow up? (¿Dónde creciste?)

9. What is your favorite book/movie? (¿Cuál es tu libro/película favorita?)

10. How old are you? (¿Cuántos años tienes?)

11. What do you like to do for fun? (¿Qué te gusta hacer para divertirte?)

12. What is the most memorable lesson you learned? (¿Cuál es la lección más memorable que ha aprendido?)

13. What is your biggest fear? (¿Cuál es tu mayor temor?)

14. Who is your hero? (¿Quién es tu héroe?)

15. Who is your favorite author? (¿Cuál es tu autor favorito?)

¿Cuántos años tienes? Tengo 20 años.

How old are you? I am 20 years old. 

¿Dónde creciste? Me crié en la ciudad.

Where did you grow Up? I grew up in the city.

¿Qué te gusta hacer para divertirte? Para divertirme me gusta leer.

What do you like to do for fun? For fun, I like to read. 

Questions About the Weather

Conversing about the weather is a famous small talk tactic. This neutral topic is safe in just about any situation! 

16. What’s the weather like today? (¿Qué tiempo hace hoy?)

17. What is the temperature? (¿Cuál es la temperatura?)

18. Is it raining? (¿Está lloviendo?)

19. Should I bring a jacket? (¿Debo llevar una chaqueta?)

20. How hot/cold is It? (¿Cuánto calor/frío hace?)

21. What is your favorite season? (¿Cuál es tu estación favorita?)

¿Qué tiempo hace hoy?  Hace sol y calor.

What’s the weather like today?  It’s sunny and hot. 

¿Cuál es tu estación favorita? Mi estación favorita es el verano. 

What is your favorite season? My favorite season is summer. 

 ¿Está lloviendo? No, no llueve.

Is it raining? No, it’s not raining.

¿Cuál es la temperatura? Estamos a 50 grados.

What is the temperature? It is 50 degrees. 

Yes or No Questions

Sometimes, a simple “no” or “yes” will suffice! 

Cut to the chase with these quick questions that only require one-word answers. 

22. Do You Like ___? (¿Te gusta ___?)

23. Do you have pets? (¿Tienes mascotas?)

24. Do you drink coffee? (¿Tomas café?)

¿Te gusta el senderismo? Sí, me gusta el senderismo.

Do you like hiking ? Yes, I like hiking. 

¿Tomas café? No, no tomo café.

Do you drink coffee? No, I don’t drink coffee.

Family Questions

Family members sneak their way into your heart. They grow up with you, take care of you, and spend lots of time with you (sometimes too much!). 

Unsurprisingly, you might want to share about your family during the conversation. These household questions enable you to do just that!

25. Do You Have a large or small family? (¿Tienes una familia grande o pequeña?)

26. Do you have any brothers or sisters? (¿Tienes hermanos o hermanas?)

27. What is your favorite family tradition? (¿Cuál es tu tradición familiar favorita?)

¿Tienes una familia grande o pequeña? Tengo una familia pequeña.

Do you have a large or small family? I have a small family. 

¿Tienes hermanos o hermanas? Tengo una hermana. 

Do you have any brothers or sisters? I have one sister. 

¿Cuál es tu tradición familiar favorita?  Mi tradición familiar favorita es comer juntos durante las fiestas. 

What is your favorite family tradition?  My favorite family tradition is eating together during the holidays.

Discuss Food

Who wouldn’t want to talk about their favorite dishes and preferred cuisines?

Eating is something you do every day! Food is a huge part of culture and lifestyle. Food preferences and differences are a fun topic to explore—especially with someone from another country!

Explore new tastes and smells with these delicious questions!

28. Do you like to cook? (¿Te gusta cocinar?)

29. What ‘s your favorite food? (¿Cuál es tu comida favorita?)

30. Do you have a favorite local restaurant? (¿Tienes un restaurante local favorito?)

31. What ‘s the craziest thing you’ve ever eaten? (¿Qué es lo más loco que has comido?)

¿Te gusta cocinar? Me encanta cocinar.

Do you like to cook?  I love cooking.

¿Cuál es tu comida favorita? Mi comida favorita es la pasta.

What’s your favorite food? My favorite food is pasta.

¿Tienes un restaurante local favorito? Mi restaurante favorito es Panera.

Do you have a favorite local restaurant?  My favorite restaurant is Panera.

¿Qué es lo más loco que has comido? Lo más loco que he comido son los caracoles.

What’s the craziest thing you’ve ever eaten?  The craziest thing that I have ever eaten is snails.

Asking About Work

Work is a huge part of most people’s lives. Naturally, they will have a lot to say about this topic. 

Discuss dream jobs, unique careers, and amazing projects with these 5 simple Spanish questions!

32. What is your job? (¿Cuál es tu trabajo?)

33. What is the first thing you do after work? (¿Qué es lo primero que haces después del trabajo?)

34. What ‘s your dream job? (¿Cuál es el trabajo de tus sueños?)

35. How long have you been at your job? (¿Cuánto tiempo llevas en tu trabajo?)

36. Do you like your job? (¿Te gusta tu trabajo?)

¿Cuál es tu trabajo? Soy contador.

What is your job? I am an accountant.

¿Cuánto tiempo llevas en tu trabajo? Llevo tres años en mi trabajo.

How long have you been at your job? I have been at my job for three years.

¿Cuál es el trabajo de tus sueños? Mi trabajo soñado es escribir.

What’s your dream job? My dream job is writing.

Talking About Travel

You don’t have to live abroad to talk about travel!

This exciting topic adds spice and wonder to any conversation. It helps you learn more about the world and explore different experiences. 

These are very simple Spanish questions that will help you talk about your dream destination!

37. Do you prefer to visit the city or nature? (¿Prefiere visitar la ciudad o la naturaleza?)

38. What countries have you traveled to? (¿A qué países has viajado?)

39. Do you speak any other languages? (¿Hablas otros idiomas?)

40. Do you prefer the beach or mountains? (¿Prefieres la playa o la montaña?)

¿Prefiere visitar la ciudad o la naturaleza? Prefiero la ciudad.

Do you prefer to visit the city or nature? I prefer the city.

¿Hablas otros idiomas?  Hablo tres idiomas.

Do you speak any other languages?  I speak three languages.

¿Prefieres la playa o las montañas? Prefiero la playa.

Do you prefer the beach or the mountains? I prefer the beach.

Funny Questions To Ask in Spanish

Everyone loves a good laugh—even in Spanish!

From Spanish puns to jokes, there are plenty of ways to give your conversation partner the giggles. Here are a few questions in Spanish that are sure to brighten up your day!

41. Do you know any good jokes? (¿Conoces algún chiste bueno?)

42. What ‘s the craziest thing you’ve ever done? (¿Qué es lo más loco que has hecho?)

¿Conoces algún buen chiste? Conozco muchos chistes.

Do you know any good jokes? I know lots of jokes.

¿Qué es lo más loco que has hecho? Lo más loco que he hecho es bucear.

What’s the craziest thing you’ve ever done? The craziest thing that I have ever done is scuba diving.

Questions About School

It doesn’t matter what country you’re from or which language you speak, school is a universal experience!

As a result, school is also an excellent conversation topic. 

Whether you’re still in high school or on your way to a PhD, there is always something academic that you can discuss. 

Here are a few classroom questions to get you started!

43. What are you studying? (¿Qué estás estudiando?)

44. What school/college do you go to? (¿A qué escuela/universidad asistes?)

45. What is your major? (¿Cuál es tu especialidad?)

46. What is your favorite class? (¿Cuál es tu clase favorita?)

¿Qué estás estudiando? Estudio ingeniería.

What are you studying? I am studying engineering.

¿Cuál es su clase favorita? Mi clase favorita es la de español.

What is your favorite class? My favorite class is Spanish. 

Hard Spanish Questions

Want to impress a native Spanish speaker with your savvy language skills? Try asking them a hypothetical question! 

Hypotheticals let you pose questions that aren’t limited by reality or money restraints. They open the door to limitless possibilities! 

Hypothetical statements always start with “if,” or si in Spanish. 

Hypothetical questions sound impressive, but they are actually incredibly easy to create! 

All you need is a si clause , imperfect subjunctive verb, and a simple conditional verb. 

Just follow this simple formula:

si + imperfect subjunctive verb + conditional verb

For extra conjugation help, check out our gramatical guide: A Simple Intermediate Guide to Subjunctive Conditional Spanish . 

47. If you were stranded on a deserted island and you could have only one item, what would it be? (Si te quedaras tirado en una isla desierta y sólo pudieras tener un objeto, ¿cuál sería?)

48. If you could go anywhere on vacation, where would you go? (Si pudieras ir a cualquier lugar de vacaciones, ¿a dónde irías?)

49. If you could live anywhere in the world, where would it be? (Si pudieras vivir en cualquier lugar del mundo, ¿dónde sería?)

50. If you had a million dollars, what would you do with it? (Si tuvieras un millón de dólares, ¿qué harías con él?)

Si pudieras ir a cualquier lugar de vacaciones, ¿a dónde irías?  Si pudiera ir a cualquier lugar de vacaciones, iría a las Bahamas.

If you could go anywhere on vacation, where would you go?  If I could go anywhere on vacation, I would go to the Bahamas.

Si pudieras vivir en cualquier parte del mundo, ¿dónde sería? Si pudiera vivir en cualquier parte del mundo, sería en España.

If you could live anywhere in the world, where would it be? If I could live anywhere in the world, it would be Spain. 

Si tuvieras un millón de dólares, ¿qué harías con él? Si tuviera un millón de dólares, me compraría una mansión.

If you had a million dollars, what would you do with it? If I had a million dollars, I would buy a mansion. 

These practice dialogues will help you plan out your next Spanish conversation. Each one shows you how to use one of your new thought-provoking questions in real life! 

Watch how the question words appear and notice the flow of the conversation. 

It’s time for some Spanish conversation with English translation practice!

Spanish Conversation 1

Juan: Hola, me llamo Juan. Juan: ¿Cómo te llamas? Cassandra: Hola, Juan, me llamo Cassandra.  Cassandra: ¿De dónde eres tú? Juan: Soy de los Estados Unidos.  Juan: ¿Y tú?   Cassandra: Soy de México. 

Juan: Hello, my name is Juan.  Juan: What is your name? Cassandra: Hello, Juan, my name is Cassandra.  Cassandra: Where are you from? Juan: I am from the U.S.  Juan: And you? Cassandra: I am from Mexico. 

Spanish Conversation 2

Cristina: ¿A qué te dedicas? Erik: Soy maestra.  Erik: ¿Y tú? Cristina: Trabajo con animales.  Erik: Me encantan los animales.  Erik: ¿Tienes mascota?  Cristina: Sí, dos perros y un gato. 

Cristina: What do you do? Erik: I am a teacher.  Erik: And you? Cristina: I work with animals. Erik: I love animals.  Erik: Do you have a pet? Cristina: Yes, two dogs and a cat.

Spanish Conversation 3

Lucía: ¿A dónde vas?  Paula: Voy al Hotel de los Reyes. Paula: ¿ Dónde está la calle Rafael?  Lucía: La calle Rafael está junto a la biblioteca.  Lucía: ¿Has estado aquí antes? Paula: No, es mi primera vez. 

Lucía: Where are you going? Paula: I am going to the Kings’ Hotel. Paula: Where is Rafael Street? Lucía: La calle Rafael está junto a la biblioteca.  Lucía: Have you been here before? Paula: No, it is my first time.

One of the best aspects of knowing a second language is being able to talk with more people. Now that your language toolbelt is full of simple Spanish questions, you’re ready to start practicing! 

Luckily, there is no shortage of practice partners when it comes to speaking Spanish. 

With more than 580 million speakers, Spanish is one of the most popular languages in the world. There are more than 20 countries that speak Spanish. In fact, the United States alone has over 41 million Spanish speakers !

There are loads of other great benefits to being bilingual too! People who speak two languages have better cognition and decision-making abilities , more job opportunities, and increased pay . 

There is no better time to begin your language journey. The sooner you start, the quicker you’ll be speaking Spanish! The fastest way to achieve fluency is by practicing your conversation skills with a native Spanish-speaking teacher. 

Our certified teachers at Homeschool Spanish Academy can help you take your Spanish to the next level. We offer flexible scheduling, affordable pricing , and tailored programs . Each 1-on-1 lesson is custom-tailored to fit your specific needs. 

Try a risk-free class today and watch your Spanish skills skyrocket! 

Join one of the 40,000 classes that we teach each month and you can experience results like these

“This is the best way for your kid to learn Spanish. It’s one-on-one, taught by native Spanish speakers, and uses a curriculum.”

– Sharon K, Parent of 3

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– Erica P. Parent of 1

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9 Ways That You Can Say "I Don't Understand" In Spanish

• Read time 8 mins

When you’re first learning Spanish , it can seem like native speakers are speaking at a breakneck pace.

To use a metaphor for understanding spoken Spanish, it might seem like the bus has left without you, and you’re running to catch it, just like you have to play “catch up” when you don’t understand someone.

So, what’s the best way to get someone to repeat themselves? You might need to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish.

How to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish

Here’s a list of useful ways to say you don’t understand something in Spanish.

1. Most literal and straightforward way to say you don’t understand

Spanish phrase: no entiendo

The literal Spanish translation of “I don’t understand” is no entiendo .

The first half of this Spanish phrase uses a negative statement, and you should construct it using the negation no and combine this with the Spanish conjugated verb entiendo .

You could also add the word eso to the end of the phrase no entiendo , giving you the phrase no entiendo eso .

This phrase means “I don’t understand that”, which you can combine with me puede repetir (a phrase which we have also explained on this list).

And, guess what?

You can make different sentences by conjugating the infinitive verb entender .

How do you conjugate the verb entender ?

You may want to make a different person the subject of your sentence.

For example, you may want to say, “she doesn’t understand” or “they don’t understand.”

Making someone else the subject of the sentence requires you to conjugate the verb entender in the present tense.

Look at the table below to practice conjugating it:

So, if you wanted to say “she didn’t understand,” you would use the third person present tense form of the infinitive verb entender , entiende , in your sentences.

This would give you no entiende , or no entiende lo que dijiste .

You can also use the phrase no entendí , the past tense of the phrase no entiendo .

No entendí means “I didn’t understand.”

If you’re curious to know how to conjugate entender in the simple past tense , here’s how to do it:

2. The short and simple way

Spanish phrase: ¿cómo?

If you simply misheard a couple of words in the sentence and want to clarify what someone said, one of the most straightforward ways to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish is to say ¿cómo? .

¿Cómo? translates to “what?” in English.

Remember, ¿cómo?, in this context, takes the form of a question.

The fact that it’s a question or interrogative means you have to change the intonation of your voice a little bit to emphasise that you didn’t understand the speaker.

3. Asking someone to repeat themselves

Spanish phrase: ¿me lo puede repetir?

But there may be a time when you don’t understand an entire sentence.

So, what phrase should you use in this scenario?

In this situation, the phrase you’ll need is ¿me lo puede repetir, por favor?

It means “can you repeat it to me, please?”

Keep in mind that there are separate verb conjugations for people you don’t know and people with whom you are friends in Spanish.

When you’re using the phrase ¿me lo puede repetir, por favor? you should use the verb puede when speaking to someone you don’t know since puede is the usted version of this verb.

If you’re speaking to your friend or family member, you should modify the phrase and ask ¿me lo puedes repetir, por favor? , where the verb puedes uses the tú form.

4. How to ask someone to speak more slowly when you don’t understand

Spanish phrase: más lento porfa

If you understood a couple of words but missed the whole meaning of the sentence, you can say más lento, porfa .

Since it contains the colloquial word porfa , you should use this phrase when speaking with friends, but you can modify it if you’re speaking with people you don’t know.

Just say más lento, por favor instead.

5. Saying “I don’t understand” in Spanish when you didn’t understand any words

Spanish phrase: ¿qué dijiste?

What if there’s a time when you simply don’t understand any words someone has said?

We’ve all been there. You may want to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish in contexts like these.

If you want to vary your vocabulary and avoid saying no entiendo all the time, you can also say ¿qué dijiste? which means, “what did you say?”

If you’re in a group of Spanish speakers and want to ask a friend what someone else said, it’s handy to know how to conjugate the verb decir .

When you know how to conjugate it, you can make new sentences like ¿qué dijo? or ¿qué dijisteis? , which mean “what did he/she say?” and “what did you all say?” respectively.

Let’s quickly examine how to conjugate the verb decir in the simple past so you can form a few more sentences and build your vocabulary

6. Asking for an example, when you want to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish

Spanish phrase: ¿me das un ejemplo?

Sometimes, it takes a simple example to help you understand what someone is discussing.

If you’re speaking with friends, you can use the question ¿me das un ejemplo? to get someone to clarify what they mean.

Alternatively, you might be working in a Spanish-speaking country and need an example of how to complete a task.

In this case, you will need to modify the verb dar to ask the same question in this formal situation.

Using the usted version is important as it shows respect.

The usted version of the sentence is ¿me da un ejemplo por favor?

7. Asking for clarification when someone asks you a question

Spanish phrase: no entendí su pregunta

What if someone has asked you a complex question and you don’t know what they asked?

Using the phrase no entendí su pregunta is how you could respond.

As you can see, you can use the past tense of the verb entender and say “I didn’t understand your question,” but you can also say no entiendo su pregunta , which means “I don’t understand your question”.

Take note that no entendí su pregunta is a phrase in the formal, usted version.

Use this sentence if you are speaking to someone you don’t know.

If you want to say “I didn’t understand your question” to someone you know well, modify the possessive pronoun and use tu – no entendí tu pregunta .

8. An alternative way to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish

Spanish phrase: otra vez

A shorter, more succinct way to say ¿me lo puedes repetir, por favor? is to use the phrase otra vez .

Otra vez literally means “another time”, but a better definition of this phrase is “again”.

You can use otra vez when speaking with friends or colleagues to quickly tell them that you didn’t understand what they were saying.

Another version of otra vez is slightly longer and probably best reserved for formal situations. You can say una vez más , or una vez más, por favor .

If someone is teaching you Spanish in a Spanish course and you don’t understand their explanation, use this phrase to request that they explain it again. Otra vez más means “one more time”.

9. How to say “it’s not clear to me” in Spanish

Spanish phrase: no me queda claro lo que dijiste justo ahora

If you are able to follow what someone was talking about up until a certain point, but were unable to understand one sentence, you might say no me queda claro lo que dijiste justo ahora .

This phrase means “I’m not clear what you said just now.”

Remember that when you are speaking to someone who you don’t know, you need to use the usted version of the verb decir .

And since this sentence is in the past tense, you would use the verb dijo .

Don’t just nod and pretend you get it

It’s frustrating when you can’t understand what someone has said in another language, but don’t resort to nodding along when you don’t understand.

Telling the other person that you don’t understand is how you improve.

Getting them to either slow down or repeat what they’ve said will help you progress.

Use the phrases listed in this article to develop your understanding of spoken Spanish by asking for clarity.

Which phrases do you use to say “I don’t understand” in Spanish?

Share your contribution below!

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More options:, strategies for differentiated instruction in the spanish classroom.

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All students are capable of and can benefit from learning a second language such as Spanish. Learning a second language can help students build cultural awareness, social skills, cognitive skills, and problem-solving skills, as well as boost their confidence.

Teachers of Spanish, however, face the challenge of meeting the diverse needs and wide variety of skill levels students bring into their classrooms. Each student comes in with a different level of understanding and proficiency of Spanish, yet they will all enter the same classroom at the same course level, and learn from the same core lessons.

Since student populations are becoming increasingly more diverse, it’s becoming more and more critical that Spanish teachers have the resources they need to create an environment that encourages learning at all levels.

In this blog post, we’ll provide strategies on differentiating instruction that will help all students — no matter what level they are at — gain the benefits of learning a new language. These strategies will also help teachers feel confident instructing in a way that accommodates the diverse needs of all their students.

The Need for Differentiated Instructional Materials in Spanish Classrooms

According to a recent poll of 480 Spanish teachers, only 39 percent said they were satisfied with the resources and training available to them to help them differentiate teaching by skill level.

When asked what features they would want to see in a new Spanish curriculum or program, “differentiated materials” was among the top answers — further illustrating teachers’ needs for these resources.

Auténtico

Meet individual needs through authentic language and authentic resources.

Teachers know that in order for all students in their classrooms to be successful in acquiring a new language — which will have benefits that extend beyond school and into their careers — it’s critical for them to have the materials and training that will help them teach with confidence and success.

It is important to have strategies in place that show students that what they’re learning is relevant to them; help them organize their time and learning; direct their focus on what is important; provide multiple opportunities to learn utilizing different modalities; and assure that students know what is expected of them whether in the classroom or for homework.

Below are a few simple but effective strategies that can help teachers deliver differentiated instruction for all learners in the Spanish classroom:

• Clarify objectives . Students need to understand the outcomes for which they will be assessed.
• Provide “thinking time” before students have to talk . You may want to ask a question and then count to 10 before expecting a response. If a student is struggling, indicate that you’ll be back for the response in a minute. Move on to another student, and then return to the student for his/her response.
• Use visuals . Present vocabulary visually. Use charts to present grammar. Write all assignments on the board. Assignments given both verbally and visually are clearer to all students. Use video that provides visual support. Highlight key vocabulary words on the screen and show grammar videos that visualize grammar patterns.
• Build in opportunities for reteaching and practicing vocabulary words and grammar . Students need many opportunities to learn new concepts and need to practice in a variety of formats.
• Build vocabulary skills by teaching the patterns of language . Teach the meaning of prefixes, suffixes, and the role of cognates. Point out connections between English, Spanish, and Latin.
• Consider alternative means for demonstrating understanding . Think beyond the common modes of reading and writing. Students could present information orally, create a poster or visual representation of work, record their ideas on an audio file, create a blog or social media post, or act out their understanding.

Success in the Spanish classroom can be achieved by consistently and systematically integrating instructional strategies such as these that are responsive to the needs of all learners.

Teaching Spanish to Students with Learning Disabilities

Now, let’s review some ideas that you can use with a special focus on students that need extra help, such as students with learning difficulties and students who are eligible for and receiving special education services.

Students with learning disabilities can develop a level of proficiency in a second language with some modifications to instruction and testing. These learners benefit from a highly structured approach that teaches new content in context and in incremental amounts.

Teach, practice, and assess using multisensory strategies. Many students benefit when instruction combines seeing, hearing, saying, and writing. For example, a teacher would first show a visual of a word and say it aloud. This is followed by using the new word in context. The teacher then writes the word on the board. Students would say the word aloud with the teacher. They then write it down and say it aloud again. In subsequent days, many students benefit from frequent reviews of learned auditory materials.

Accommodations for Students with Special Needs in the Spanish Classroom

Here are a few suggestions for instruction for students with special needs, such as hearing impairments, visual perception challenges, and ADD/ADHD:

Strategies for Accommodating Students with Hearing Impairments in the Spanish Classroom

• Help students comprehend oral information or instructions by providing written directions/materials and/or visual cues to support what is presented orally. Face the students when speaking, repeat as needed, and speak clearly.
• Seat students with hearing impairments in the front of the classroom. Provide outlines of lectures or oral presentations. Have another student take notes and make copies of notes available to all students. Use audio and video scripts. Turn the closed caption feature on.
• Limit background noises that may distract students. Avoid seating these students where they may hear extraneous noise.

Strategies for Accommodating Students with Visual Perception Challenges in the Spanish Classroom

• Help students access information provided visually. Allow for preferred seating in the front of the class, including providing space for a guide dog, if necessary. Avoid seating students where they will be distracted by extraneous auditory or visual stimuli. Give students additional time to review visual input prior to an oral or written task. Highlight important information by providing key words, visuals, and simple outlines.
• Provide support for accessing printed information. Make sure the print is easy to read. The readings should be designed to maximize readability: easy-to-read font, layout, and design. Teach reading strategies that highlight the visual aspects of a selection: text organization, use of visuals, titles and headers, and the use of color. Provide copies of reading selections with additional support: underline key words/sentences/concepts or magnify the text in duplication.
• Teach, practice, and assess using multisensory strategies.

Strategies for Accommodating Students with ADD/ADHD in the Spanish Classroom

• Provide additional support that enables students to focus. Present information in small “chunks.” This includes new content, short instructions or directions, and shorter assignments, or break assignments into steps.
• Verify that students “got it.” Check that students are looking at you (eye contact) when providing oral instructions. Ask students to repeat what you just told them. Move closer to students to increase attention. Provide preferential seating that allows you to monitor students’ focus and attention. Allow extra wait time when students are responding.
• Be predictable. Establish a daily routine for managing the classroom and be consistent. Avoid surprises with these students.

Check for Understanding Using Can-Do Statements

While implementing these strategies in the classroom, it is critical to also maintain assessment milestones to check for understanding and that students are meeting benchmarks set by the department or district. “Can-Do Statements” can be an effective progress-evaluation tool to identify areas that are progressing and areas that need improvement.

Can-Do Statements were developed by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) as part of its proficiency guidelines. They were created as a way to show what language learners can do independently, at different proficiency levels, and in different modes of communication, i.e., interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational.

For example, a language learner at the Intermediate-Mid level of proficiency would be able to express the following Can-Do Statements:

I can participate in conversations on familiar topics using sentences and series of sentences. I can handle short social interactions in everyday situations by asking and answering a variety of questions.

Using Can-Do Statements, students demonstrate what they “can do” consistently in each mode of communication in numerous situations throughout the learning process. Students and educators are encouraged to customize the statements to fit the content and context of the learning and their district’s learning targets.

Differentiated Instruction Makes Learning Accessible for All Students

By using these strategies for differentiated instruction, you’re enabling students who have different learning styles, needs, and backgrounds gain access to grade-level content alongside their peers. Each student in the classroom will have an equal chance of success in language learning, leading to a multitude of benefits that will positively impact their lives for years to come.

Stay up to date on the latest trends, research, and ideas to help shape your classroom with Savvas Insights .

Authentic Resources that Help Meet Individual Needs

When high-quality instructional strategies are combined with a high-quality Spanish language program, students can achieve even greater success. Consider a program like Auténtico that will help you meet individual needs and enable students to become self-directed learners. The included authentic resources lesson plans provide differentiation strategies for a variety of learners, and differentiated instruction notes in the Teacher’s Editions provide support at point of use on every page. A variety of activities and resources support different learning modalities and intelligences, so every student has the opportunity to engage with language learning!

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Assignment-writing 2019  (all links open as pdf files), society - young people spend too much time in front of a screen nowadays. discuss. you could mention time watching tv, on the internet and on mobile phones. you could also discuss advantages and disadvantages of these and the role parents should play in managing screen time..

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Special Assignment: Cinderbee Surge not working

Completed 3 world quests in Isle of Dorn, then I see the “You Failed Cinderbee Surge” message pop up, check the map and it says “You need to complete 0 world quests to unlock” and am just unable to do it now.

I am getting a similar issue as well. Completed 3 WQs, but the lock icon is still on the map and says I need to complete 0 world quests to unlock.

same problem. Don’t understand why the whole game is such a buggy mess

Also seeing this locked out - I have completed all WQs in the zone and have not been within range of where the Special Assignment is compelted, so shouldn’t have triggered it in any way.

I had completed the Theatre Troupe before completing the third WQ required to unlock it.

This is bugged for me also … did Theatre Troupe first then 3 WQ and the quest is still locked with 0 world quests to complete listed on the tooltip.

This is bugged for me too. Very annoying.

Restart your game and it fixes it!

Bugged for me too. Restarted the game, and still locked for me with it telling me to complete 0 world quests to unlock

Left the area, and relogged again, and now it’s showing for me

Had this issue, fixed it by taking a flight path to a different zone, quitting the game and relaunching and then it recorded my 3/3 WQs as completed and gave me the Special Assignment.

cant get it to work, just says “special assignment: Cinderbee surge failed” everytime i log back in =/

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From net importer to global leader: understanding the drivers of Spain’s meat export growth since the 1960s

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 04 September 2024

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• Pablo Delgado   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5891-4671 1 ,
• Vicente Pinilla   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2256-8898 1 &
• Ignacio Belloc   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1081-4107 2  

How has Spain transitioned from historically having a relatively low meat production and being a net importer of meat in 1990 to becoming the world’s leading exporter of pork in 2020? This is the research question we aim to address in this article. In our quest for an answer, we constructed a gravity model to examine the determinants of Spanish meat exports. We posit that a significant surge in domestic meat consumption since the 1960s led to substantial economies of scale in the sector, rendering it highly competitive by the 1980s. Consequently, when Spain joined the European Union and liberalized the sector, it was sufficiently competitive to conquer international markets. In other words, we aim to study how a Home Market Effect has occurred in Spain and how it has been reinforced by the European Union adhesion. Ultimately, this high competitiveness has allowed Spain to capitalize on China’s demand for pork in recent years.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

After a period of commercial disintegration and economic slowdown at the global level during the 1930s (Federico and Tena-Junguito 2019 ; Hynes et al. 2012 ; Estevadeordal, Frantz and Taylor. M 2003 ), the decades following World War II were characterized by strong economic growth and a reintegration of global trade (Federico and Tena-Junguito 2017 ). Thus, what the literature has called the second globalization (O’Rourke and Findlay 2007 , pp. 473-525) took place. This new era of globalization, unlike the previous one (O’Rourke and Findlay 2007 , pp. 363-425), was characterized by an increase in the trade of manufactured products between developed countries (Hummels 2007 ). Therefore, although the trade of agri-food products increased notably in absolute values, it lost weight very significantly with respect to global trade (Serrano and Pinilla 2012 , see Fig. 1 ).

One of the agri-food products whose trade has increased the most during the twentieth century has been meat. During the second half of the nineteenth century, its international trade was relatively low compared to other products such as cereals. This was due to the lack of widespread mechanical refrigeration, which hindered long-distance trade (Lluch 2019 ; Perren 2006 ). However, during the first third of the twentieth century, its global trade gained significance in relation to the overall trade of agri-food products (Delgado et al. 2023 ). However, after the Second World War, global meat trade exhibited even greater dynamism. Specifically, in the 1960s, the value of its trade in relation to the trade of agri-food products was approximately 6 percent. By the early twenty-first century, its significance had already increased to around 12 percent (Serrano and Pinilla 2013 , see Table 1 ). The explanatory factors behind this dynamic behavior can be summarized in demand, supply, and trade agreements that encouraged its trade.

On the demand side, the culmination of the nutritional transition due to an increase in per capita income and urbanization rates, first in the West and later in developing countries, led to a significant increase in the consumption of meat products due to its higher income elasticity (Chung et al. 2020 ; Cheng et al. 2015 ; Pujol Andreu and Cussó Segura 2014 ; Delgado 2003 ; Grigg 1995 ; Popkin 1993 ). In fact, income elasticity becomes more inelastic over time for products like cereals, while price elasticity becomes more elastic, thus indicating a shift in preferences where utility increases with the consumption of livestock products (Law et al. 2020 ). Footnote 1 Furthermore, although the nutritional transition has tended to occur in most countries, the path toward it has not been uniform, highlighting that the peculiarities of each country are crucial in explaining significant dietary changes (Presa and Román 2023 ; Langthaler 2018 ). On the supply side, the strong increase in productivity in the sector due to the implementation of the agribusiness model resulted in a fall in relative prices of meat, thereby boosting its consumption, and consequently its trade (Clar 2008 ; Rivera-Ferre 2009 ; Godley 2014 ). Finally, several trade agreements initiated since the end of World War II, starting with the creation of the European Union as well as other regional agreements such as NAFTA, MERCOSUR, and China’s trade liberalization, further encouraged the trade of meat (Karemera et al. 2015 ; Winders and Ransom 2019 , p. 14).

In this context, Spain stands out as one of the countries with the most international penetration of its meat exports. Until the 1960s, the diet in Spain was characterized by the consumption of Mediterranean products, resulting in relatively low meat consumption (Garrabou Segura and Cussó Segura 2007 ). In fact, the country was a net importer of this product. However, between 1960 and 1980, the consumption grew significantly, turning Spain into one of the largest consumers of meat in Europe (Delgado 2023 ). To meet this increased demand, the meat industry adopted an agribusiness model (Godley 2014 ), characterized by large vertically integrated companies and massive imports of feed, more productive breeds, and advanced US technology (Clar 2010 ). Thus, the meat sector became highly productive with large economies of scale (Serrano et al. 2015 ). Therefore, after Spain’s integration into the EU in 1986, its meat exports took off, with pork becoming the world’s leading export in 2020 (Clar 2024 ). However, while Europe has been the primary destination for Spanish meat exports, in recent years, China has gained considerable prominence as an export destination, becoming the top buyer of Spanish meat in 2019 (primarily pork).

However, despite several studies focusing on the remarkable increase in meat production (and its associated environmental costs) and subsequently in the conquest of international markets (Rodriguez Zúñiga and Soria 1989 ; Domínguez Martín, 2001b ; Lence 2007 ; Ríos-Núñez and Coq-Huelva 2015 ; Clar et al. 2018 ; González de Molina et al. 2020 , among others), a quantitative analysis of this process has not yet been performed, particularly disaggregated by meat types (Serrano et al. 2015 , p. 10).

Therefore, the aim of this paper is to understand how Spain transitioned from being a net importer of meat in the 1990s to becoming the leading global exporter of pork in 2020. In addition, we aim to emphasize two aspects. Firstly, to analyze whether there has been a Home Market Effect. That is, to quantify whether the impulse of domestic demand, reflected in a strong concentration of production and large economies of scale in the sector, has played a relevant role in the growth of exports. Secondly, to quantify the effect of the entry of Spain into the European Union in 1986 on meat exports. Although the literature points out its importance (Clar 2013 , p. 346; Langreo 2008 , p. 43), it has not yet been quantified in a disaggregated manner. Therefore, this paper complements the work of Serrano et al. ( 2015 ), where it is observed that meat exports were driven both by the Home Market Effect and Spain’s entry into the European Union. Indeed, although there are certain exceptions where the determinants of exports of various types of meat are analyzed separately (Karemera et al. 2015 ; Ghazalian et al. 2011 ; Cao and Johnson 2006 ), most studies focus either on aggregated meat (Hayat and Ishaq 2023 ; Serrano et al. 2015 ; Jayasinghe and Sarker 2009 ; Schlueter et al. 2009 ; Koo et al. 1993 ) or only on some specific type of meat (Prentice et al. 1998 ; Meneguelli Fasarella, Pinto de Souza and Lee Burnquist 2011 ; Yang, Reed and Saghaian 2012 ; Shahriar et al. 2019 ; Wu 2022 ). Therefore, in this study, although we emphasize more on pork due to its significant weight in total meat exports, analyzing all different types of meat and relating them to their historical background allow us to better understand the greater or lesser success in global markets of each type of meat and its determinants.

This study will be structured as follows. After this introduction, Section 2 analyzes the evolution of the Spanish meat industry from the 1950s to the present day from the perspective of consumption, production, and exports. In Section 3 , we present the data and methodology. In the following section, we present the main results of the gravity model. Then, we discuss the results before concluding the study with a brief conclusion.

2 Evolution of the meat sector in Spain

The Spanish agri-food industry in the 1950s was relatively weak compared to the European one (Clar et al. 2018 ). Although limited improvements were made from the demand and supply sides in the first third of the twentieth century (Langreo and Germán 2018 ), the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and post-war period only set back the limited progress made in the agri-food industry and the economy as a whole (Simpson 1995 , p. 279; Carreras et al. 2005 ). Therefore, twenty years after the Civil War, this industry was characterized by small size, low technological level, and production of low-value-added and low-degree of transformation products (Clar 2008 , p. 146). The production and productivity of meat (and other livestock products) also showed lower performance than the European average (Ríos-Núñez and Coq-Huelva 2015 , p. 519; Domínguez Martín 2001b ; Carpintero Redondo 2006 ; Clar et al. 2018 , p. 336). Consequently, the contribution of livestock production to GDP was substantially lower than in countries such as France or Germany (Ríos-Núñez and Coq-Huelva 2015 , p. 529). For instance, in 1962, livestock production in Spain accounted for 23 percent of the total agricultural production. In contrast, in Italy, it represented 27 percent, in France 45 percent, and in Germany 55 percent (Clar et al. 2015 , see Table 5 ). Despite the challenging economic conditions faced by the Spanish economy in the second third of the twentieth century, the historically low production of meat in Spain can mainly be attributed to the country’s agro climatic conditions. As a Mediterranean country, its comparative advantage was in the production of products such as wine, olive oil, and certain fruits and vegetables (Ayuda and Pinilla 2020 ; Pinilla and Ayuda 2010 ). Only in a small region in the north of the country, with agro climatic conditions similar to those of Atlantic Europe, was the production of livestock products higher (Dominguez Martin 1996 ). Despite the low meat production, it was energetically efficient, sustainable, and diversified (Rodríguez Zúñiga 1980 ).

In parallel with production, food consumption during the first half of the twentieth century was also dominated by Mediterranean products. In other words, on average, the Spanish diet was based on products such as bread, fruits, vegetables, fish, and wine (Cussó Segura and Garrabou Segura 2007 ; Cussó Segura 2005 ). Therefore, with the exception of the northern region where consumption of livestock products was higher (Delgado and Pinilla 2023 ; Hernández-Adell et al. 2019 ; Collantes 2015 ), the consumption of meat in the majority of the population was reduced (Delgado 2023 ; Marrodán, Montero and Cherkaoui 2012 ; Bernabeu-Mestre 2008 ; Moreno et al. 2002 ) in comparison with the European average, and even lower than countries such as Turkey or Greece (Clar 2008 ; Bernabeu-Mestre et al. 2007 ). Consequently, the low consumption of livestock products resulted in a deficit in certain micronutrients such as calcium or vitamin A in large population groups (Medina-Albaladejo and Calatayud 2020 ; Cussó Segura et al. 2018 ; Cussó Segura 2005 ).

Regarding meat exports, they were virtually non-existent around the 1950s (Clar, Serrano and Pinilla 2015 , p. 154). In fact, Spain was a net importer of meat, with most of it coming from Argentina (Gómez Mendoza 1995 , p. 154). Nonetheless, meat imports were relatively low due to both the aforementioned limited domestic consumption and the Spanish economy’s commercial isolation. Thus, during the decade following World War II, there was a clear correlation between meat production, consumption, and trade with the country’s agro climatic conditions.

However, the scenario was completely different around the 1980s and 1990s. On the supply side (production), there was a spectacular take-off. Specifically, meat production rose from around 650.000 tons to over 3, 5 million between 1960 and 1990 (see Table 1 ). Furthermore, meat production went from representing less than 6 percent of total agricultural production in the 1950s to representing nearly 23 percent in the 1990s (Clar et al. 2015 , see Table 3 ). Thus, the weight of Spanish meat production with respect to European production doubled (see Table 1 ), and the (constant) value multiplied by 5 in the same period (calculations based on FAOSTAT). However, not all types of meat participated in this expansion process. Specifically, beef and, especially sheep meat, lost weight in total meat production. In contrast, chicken and pork production increased significantly. The reason behind these patterns lies in the degree of industrialization in the production of each type of meat. In other words, it reflected what the literature has called the crisis of traditional livestock farming and the expansion of intensive livestock farming (Domínguez Martín 2001a , b , pp. 40-42). On the one hand, beef and sheep production remained tied to the land (Segrelles Serrano 1993, p. 40), so it could not meet the increasing demand for cheap proteins from the Spanish population (Domínguez Martín 2001b , p. 58). On the other hand, following Western patterns (Godley 2014 ), as well as the recommendations of the FAO (BIRD and FAO 1967 ) the industrialization of production, first of chicken, and then of pork, was implemented in Spain. Thus, the agribusiness model was implemented for both types of meat (Clar 2010 ). Broadly speaking, this production model that explains the sharp increase in chicken and pork production is based on four pillars. Firstly, the introduction of foreign breeds such as the broiler chicken in the case of poultry or the Jersey-Duroc in pigs (Clar 2024 , p. 9). These breeds were clearly more productive compared to native breeds (such as the Iberian pig), resulting in significant loss in weight of the latter (Langreo and Germán 2018 , p. 175). Secondly, there was massive imports of feed, and the USA emerged as the primary exporter. This trade relationship was established following the 1953 agreement between the two countries (Clar 2005 ). Consequently, meat production became heavily dependent on the imports of foreign feed (Rodríguez Zúñiga 1980 ). In fact, the massive imports of feed are key to explaining the negative coverage rate in total agri-food trade during this period (Clar et al. 2015 , p. 65). Thirdly, and related to the previous point, there was ease in the penetration of high-tech foreign capital in the production of poultry and pork, mainly from the USA. Footnote 2 Finally, recent literature has also highlighted the importance of improving the use of substances for animal fattening (Estévez Reboredo and Sánchez de Lollano Prieto 2022 ).

Thus, the production of poultry and pork was characterized by strong vertical integration in the value chain, with broiler chickens reaching a 95 percent integration level (Domínguez Martín 2001b , p. 51; Clar 2008 ). During this time, feed companies were the main axis of integration (Clar 2024 ). Meanwhile, sheep were left out of the vertical integration process (Langreo 2008 , p. 45), while beef would be integrated in later years.

Source FAOSTAT

Meat production in Spain (thousands of tons).

This intense vertical integration in poultry and pork production, in turn, led to a concentration of production both at a geographic and business level. At the geographic level, there was a process of decoupling between areas with suitable agro climatic conditions for livestock production and meat production. That is, meat production was no longer located in areas with abundant high quality grassland, such as the north, but in those closer to major consumption centers, in areas with easy access to imported feed and where there was a certain dynamism of feed companies, among other factors (Castell and Ramon-Muñoz 2022 ). Therefore, a large part of production was relocated to the northeast, Levant, and areas near Madrid and Barcelona (Sineiro García and Lorenaza Fernández 2008 ; Garcia Pascual 1998 ; Domínguez Martin 1996 ; Segrelles 1993 ; Rodríguez Zúñiga 1980 ).

Regarding corporate concentration, both in the pork and poultry industries (as well as in the agri-food industry as a whole (Rodríguez Zúñiga and Soria 1989 )) it also increased. For example, in 1962 there were around one and a half million farms with 3.3 pigs per farm. By 1990, the number of farms had been reduced to less than four hundred thousand, with around 32 pigs per farm. This spatial and vertical corporate integration generated sufficient economies of scale to produce meat at a low price in response to a growing demand from the population.

In other words, the combination of an increase in disposable income due to the Spanish economic growth since the 1950s and a availability of low-priced meat due to the economies of scale in the meat industry resulted in a strong expansion in domestic meat consumption, surpassing countries such as France and England in the 1990s (Delgado 2023b , p.236). Besides income and prices, preferences also played a significant role in the substantial expansion of meat consumption (especially chicken and pork). This is evident when observing that the growth in the consumption of both meats was greater than the growth in purchasing power, thus indicating that they were superior goods (Delgado 2024 ). Moreover, these preferences could have been influenced by various factors, such as urbanization processes or large investments in advertising by major meat companies (Langreo 2008 ). In other words, just as with dairy products (Collantes 2015 , 2019 ; Hernández-Adell et al. 2019 ), the increase in meat consumption by the less affluent classes and historically less consuming regions generated mass consumption of total meat (Delgado and Pinilla 2023 ) (Fig. 2 ).

Source own elaboration based on Delgado ( 2023 ). Notes: Only household consumption

Meat consumption in Spain (kg per capita).

The implementation of this livestock production model in the post-World War II era originated in the USA in the 1930s and spread to Europe from the 1950s, well ahead of Spain. In some countries with a high penetration of this production model and significant production growth, by the late 1970s, livestock saturation issues due to the generation of huge surpluses of manure were evident (Frouws 1993 ). This situation worsened throughout the 1980s, not only hindering further production expansion but also resulting in a reduction or stabilization in the number of animals in some significant producers (Kemp et al. 2011 ). These issues were particularly prominent in countries such as the Netherlands, where intensive livestock production had grown substantially, but agricultural space was limited, and rural population density was high (Staritsky et al. 2011 ), or in regions with a high concentration of intensive farms, such as pig farming in Brittany (Roguet et al. 2015 ). In the Netherlands, environmental measures implemented as a consequence led to a stagnation in livestock numbers (Rieu and Roguet 2012 ). In some countries like Denmark or the Netherlands, these limitations have led to a specialization in piglet production, which are then exported to Germany for fattening, as there is insufficient space to complete the process locally (Roguet and Rieu 2011 ; Roguet et al. 2010 ).

The delayed development of intensive livestock farming in Spain has led to the establishment of larger-scale farms, particularly in the case of pig farming, and, more importantly, a stronger vertical integration compared to other countries, resulting in higher economies of scale (Benecke 2018 ). Only Denmark and the Netherlands have generated larger farms. Compared to Germany, Spain had a significant advantage. In 2010, nearly 60% of farms in Spain had more than 200 animals, compared to just under half in Germany. By 2020, this percentage had increased to over 80% in Spain, while in Germany, it had risen to 60% (Roguet et al. 2017 ). Integration plays a much more significant role in Spain than in most European countries. In the Spanish model, integrative companies oversee the entire value chain, but some phases of the process are carried out on contract farms with the integrator, who pays per animal or per space occupied by the animals. This arrangement means that these contract farms primarily do not employ wage labor but rather farmers invest in setting up the facilities and then handle production by receiving inputs from the integrator, who also buys their output. The result is a more industrial model that closely resembles that of the USA, although in this case the process tends to be internalized in the integrating company (Rieu and Roguet 2012 ). Thus, cooperation between independent farmers and the integrator company dominates the production model in Spain. This implies close cooperation and sharing of investment and risk. Footnote 3 Finally, Spain’s low population density, exacerbated by the rapid rural exodus to cities that began around 1950, created an additional advantage for the new livestock farming model. The disturbances caused by the new farms were less significant in sparsely populated areas, where this activity was also dynamic in retaining population. Additionally, the availability of extensive agricultural land allowed for the absorption of slurry generated by the livestock.

As for exports, until the early 1990s, Spain was still a net importer of meat (see Fig.  3 ). This occurred despite the fact that the sector was already mature and competitive (Clar 2024 ; Langreo 2002 ). For example, in the 1990s, producer prices for chicken were the lowest in Europe after Denmark (Clar 2024 , p. 10). There are two reasons why Spain did not yet export meat in significant quantities in the 1980s. First and foremost, all production was absorbed by the growing domestic consumption (see Fig. 2 ), something that is currently happening in developing countries such as China (Hasiner and Yu 2019 ; Cheng et al. 2015 ). Second, outbreaks of swine fever also delayed pork exports until it was eradicated in 1989 (Segrelles Serrano 1993 , pp. 205–206; Langreo 2008 , p. 50). That is to say, with the liberalization of meat trade in 1986, imports of meat increased while exports remained stagnant due to swine fever.

Source COMTRADE

Imports and exports of meat in Spain (real 2015 US dollars).

Meat consumption in Spain reached a plateau in the 1980s, followed by a continuous decline that has persisted to this day (a trend also observed in other Western countries (Stewart et al. 2021 )). The stagnation in consumption may have caused problems of excess meat production. Consequently, once the domestic market became saturated, meat had to be placed in foreign markets. Given a mature sector (Langreo 2008 , p. 49) due to a strong increase in domestic demand since the 1960s, geographic and business concentration, and integration in the value chain, meat was competitive enough to be exported. This process, as with the entire agri-food sector (Clar, Serrano and Pinilla 2015 ), was reinforced by Spain’s entry into the European Union. In other words, the commercial liberalization of the meat sector, which was heavily controlled in the years before joining the EU (Langreo 2008 , p. 50), further reinforced the concentration and efficiency process of the sector due to a reallocation of resources (Melitz 2003 ), since smaller companies had difficulties adapting to cutting-edge technology and the new health regulations required to enter the EU (Segrelles 1994 , p. 29). In other words, a home market effect was taking place (Clar, Serrano and Pinilla 2015 ; Serrano et al. 2015 ).

Therefore, as shown in Fig.  3 , the 1990s witnessed a surge in meat exports. In value terms, between 1990 and 2019, they increased almost tenfold. Table 2 emphasizes the importance of Spain’s entry into the EU (1986) for the sector. In 1980, extra-community countries such as Equatorial Guinea (former Spanish colony until 1968), Japan, or Andorra had a significant weight in Spanish meat exports. This is probably due to their subsequent re-exportation to third-party countries. The same was true for external sales of cava (Badia-Miró et al. 2022 ). Despite UN-COMTRADE indicating that Andorran and Guinean re-exports were 0, it is difficult to think that these two countries absorbed the same amount of meat as France. However, 10 years later, almost all foreign sales were directed to the EU. Specifically, France, Italy, Portugal, Germany, and the UK have dominated a large part of Spanish meat exports until recent years. Regarding pork exports, the pattern is similar due to its importance relative to total meat exports (see below).

In the first wave of globalization, transportation costs played a crucial role in the increase in global meat exports due to the diffusion of mechanical refrigeration, which facilitated long-distance trade (Delgado et al. 2023 ). However, as explained in the introduction, during the second wave of globalization, trade between developed countries increased, notably observed in the meat sector, where Spain primarily exported its meat to neighboring European countries (see Table  2 ). UN-COMTRADE data allow for the disaggregation of exports by type of transportation starting from the year 2000, indicating that between 95 and 99 percent of Spanish meat exports to its main partners were made by road. In this regard, Spain has benefited from two factors. Firstly, expansions and improvements in both the road transportation network and technological innovations in truck refrigeration. Secondly, and particularly in the Spanish context, greater integration within the meat value chain (Benecke 2018 ), likely fosters reduced transportation costs by avoiding outsourcing. However, with the rise of China as Spain’s main meat buyer, a significant portion of Spanish sales in recent years has shifted to sea transportation. In this regard, Spain’s meat trade has benefited from one of the key technical innovations in transportation during the second wave of globalization: the use of containers (in this case, refrigerated) (Levinson 2016 ). While it is not clear to what extent containers have reduced transportation costs (Hummels 2007 ; Serrano and Pinilla 2010 , p. 3509), it is evident that they have had a qualitative impact on meat transportation.

However, as outlined throughout the article, not all meats have participated in the export boom in the same manner. As shown in Table  3 , since the 1990s, the majority of meat exports have been attributed to pork, accounting for around 70 percent of total exports in the last decade. In other words, the conquest of the global market by Spanish meat exports is mainly due to pork exports (see Appendix Table 8 for a perspective on absolute values). Despite being initially more competitive than pork, chicken did not adapt to the needs of the foreign market. The preferences for the type of chicken meat consumed in Spain and abroad are different, so the industry, focusing on conquering the domestic market, failed to do so in international markets (Clar 2024 ).

Over the last two decades, meat production has increased significantly compared to Europe (see Table  1 ). Currently, the weight of the meat industry within the total Spanish agri-food production is 22.6 percent, accounting for 2.24 percent of the total GDP in 2019 (Huerta 2020 ). In that same year, Spain had 21 percent of Europe’s pig population, surpassing Germany (17.6 percent) and followed by France (9.1 percent) (Giménez García et al. 2021 , p. 203). In fact, the first two countries account for 10 percent of global pig production (although well below the USA and especially China) (Giménez García et al. 2021 , p. 206). Additionally, meat companies have climbed positions in the total turnover of the food industry, both nationally and internationally (Clar 2024 ). Since domestic consumption has continued to decline, the increase in pig production in the last decade is explained by the increase in exports.

This is precisely what Table  4 shows, where it is observed that Spain has been gaining weight in the world pork exports. In 2019, the market share (in value) was greater than that of major exporters such as the USA, Denmark, and Germany. Undoubtedly, the rise in demand from China is the main reason for the great performance of Spanish pork exports abroad in the last decade (see Table  2 ). Traditionally, the Chinese diet was based on a high content of cereals and vegetables, with low consumption of animal products. However, the reforms of 1978 led to strong economic growth and thus its process toward nutritional transition, where meat consumption notably increased, and pork has been gaining more prominence (Huang et al. 2021 ; Popkin 2003 ). However, due to relatively low production costs and relatively high tariffs, pork imports did not start to increase until the late 2000s when the sector became less competitive (Cheng et al. 2015 ). Therefore, to meet its domestic demand, China developed a powerful pork industry through massive imports of feed (Schneider 2015 ). From 2018 onward, imports grew much more strongly due to the detection of African swine fever (Shao et al. 2018 ).

3 Data and methodology

With regard to the data, United Nations COMTRADE database has been used to collect the value of bilateral flows of Spain’s meat exports from 1963 to 2019. Thus, a total of 12 products with 4 digits have been obtained according to the SITC (revision 1) classification Footnote 4 : meat of bovine animals, fresh, chilled or frozen (111); meat of sheep and goats, fresh, chilled or frozen (112); meat of swine, fresh, chilled or frozen (113); poultry, incl. offals ex. liver fresh, chilled, frozen (114); meat of horses, asses, mules and hinnies, frozen, chilled and frozen (115); edible offals of animals, fresh, chilled, frozen (116); other fresh, chilled, frozen meat and edible offals (118); bacon, ham and other dried, salted, smoked pig meat (121); meat and edible offals, nes. dried, salted, smoked (129); meat extracts and meat juices (133); sausages, whether or not in airtight containers (134); and other prepared or preserved meat (138) . These 12 products have been aggregated into 5 types of meat: total meat (sum of all previous digits), poultry meat (114), pork meat (113 + 121 + 134), sheep meat (112), and beef meat (111). Footnote 5

To understand the main determinants of Spanish meat exports, we use the structural gravity model as a tool for the econometric analyses, first proposed by Tinbergen ( 1962 ). Currently, it is one of the most used models in the literature to understand the determinants of international trade due to its great explanatory power and its solid theoretical framework (Shepherd 2016 ). In its simplest version, the gravity model indicates that trade between two countries ( ij ) is positively determined by the product of the production of both countries (i.e., their GDPs: Y i Y j ), and negatively related by distance between them (as a proxy measure of trade costs (D)) as shown in Eq.  1 .

As explained, the history of meat exports in Spain since the second half of the twentieth century can be divided into two clearly differentiated stages (see Fig.  3 ). The first stage would span from the 1960s to approximately the 1980s. During this stage, meat exports in Spain were virtually non-existent. The second stage would span from approximately the 1980s to the present day and meat exports would soar spectacularly. For this reason, we have estimated the gravity model for the second period (1984–2019). To be clear, for the econometric analysis, we focus solely on the period when meat exports began to gain significance. To identify a structural break and separate the second period, we used the Clemente et al. ( 1998 ) Innovational Outlier statistic. Using this statistic, we identified the structural break at the year 1984. Therefore, we propose the following estimation for the augmented gravity model.

We use as dependent variable the Spain’s meat exports in nominal value ( i ) to each importing country ( j ) in each year ( t ). As in the basic gravity equation, we include a supply variable (log of Spain’s GDP or livestock production in nominal value ( Y i )), a demand variable (log of the importing country’s GDP or log of total meat consumption ( Y j )), and a variable representing trade frictions (log of the distance between both countries (Distij)). This variable is the geographical distance, in km, between Madrid and the importing country’s capital. In addition to GDP as a supply variable, we consider it is interesting to alternatively use livestock production because it is more closely related to meat exports than GDP. To estimate demand, Yotov et al., ( 2016 ) proposes using sectoral expenditure instead of GDP. Since meat expenditure data in nominal values is unavailable in our case, we have utilized quantities as an alternative. Shepherd ( 2016 ) notes that if sectoral expenditure data are unavailable, GDP can serve as an acceptable proxy. Consequently, we have estimated the models by combining the two available supply variables with the two existing demand variables. In addition to this, we augment the standard structural gravity model by including the log of volatility exchange rate for 10 years between exporting and importing country following Cho et al. ( 2002 ) calculated using the standard deviation of the first differences in the logarithm of the nominal exchange rate for a time period spanning 10 years prior to t, to measure the impact of the exchange rate uncertainty on bilateral trade flows. Additionally, we include dummy variables for the membership to the European Union and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization. The first one takes a value of 1 if Spain and the importing country are members of the European Union, 0 otherwise, whereas the last dummy variable takes value 1 if both Spain and the importing country belong in year \(t\) to the GATT/WTO, 0 otherwise. Footnote 6 Finally, the model incorporates time fixed effects (Ω t ) However, in addition to the model presented in Eq.  2 , we estimate a second model. The primary distinction between the two models lies in the inclusion of distance in the first model and fixed importer effects in the second model. In other words, the first model carries a more economic interpretation as distance serves as a proxy for transportation costs. In the second model, the incorporation of fixed importer effects entails a loss of economic explanation; however, it allows for control over additional country-level variables that the first model does not account for. We did not include distance and fixed importer effects in the same model to avoid issues of collinearity.

Spain’s GDP and the GDP of each importing country, as well as the two dummy variables (EU and WTO), are from CEPII database. The exchange rate is from the World Bank’s World Development Indicator database, and meat consumption by country is from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAOSTAT). To construct the livestock production in value, we used the Agricultural Statistics Yearbooks for the years 1984–2019. These yearbooks provide the carcass weight for each species each year and the price received by farmers in pesetas. We multiplied both values to obtain the value, which we then converted into dollars. Besides, all monetary amounts are expressed in current/nominal terms (Shepherd 2016 ; De Benedictis and Taglioni 2011 ).

In order to estimate the model, we rely on the Poisson Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood (PPML) estimator, proposed by Santos Silva and Tenreyro ( 2006 ). Additionally, we have clustered standard errors at the country-pair level. The main advantages of this estimator are that it is a nonlinear estimator that is robust to different forms of heteroskedasticity and to the presence of zero trade flows, both frequent problems in international trade data (Ayuda et al. 2022 ). The fact that it is a nonlinear estimator allows us to estimate the dependent variable without a natural logarithmic transformation, so this permits not to omit zero trade flows, unlike other methods such as ordinary least squares (OLS) or the Heckman model (Heckman 1979 ). Therefore, in our case, the dependent variable (trade flows) is expressed in levels, and the continuous independent variables are in logarithms, which are interpreted as elasticities. Within this context, this estimator has converted in the workhorse in the international trade applied literature due to its desirable econometric properties. Particularly, this zero problem is quite frequent in our trade flows dataset. Footnote 7

As emphasized, the two main objectives of the article are to determine if there has been a Home Market Effect process and the effect of the EU on meat exports. To empirically analyze if there has been an HME, the elasticity of Spanish GDP or livestock production has to be greater than the elasticity of the importer’s GDP or meat consumption (Feenstra et al. 1998 ). This would indicate that supply has a greater weight in the take-off of meat exports.

Tables 5 and 6 present the regression results for aggregated meat and pork for the 1984–2019 period. Table 5 displays the model including distance (Eq.  2 ), while Table  6 includes fixed importer effects. As a supply variable, both Spanish GDP (1) and livestock production (2) are shown. For the demand side, we utilize both the importer’s GDP and meat consumption (differentiated by types of meat). The results for beef, sheep, and poultry are shown in Tables 9 and 10 of Appendix.

Overall, although with some exceptions, it can be concluded that Spanish meat exports have been boosted by both supply (either GDP or livestock production) and demand (either GDP or meat consumption) from importing countries. For the first model, Footnote 8 where distance is included as a proxy for transportation costs, it similarly exhibits the expected sign, namely negative and significant (with the exception of pork, which is not statistically significant). One of the main objectives of the article is to verify the existence of a Home Market Effect. As explained in the methodological section, this effect occurs if the elasticity of supply (GDP or livestock production) is greater than the elasticity of demand (importing country GDP or meat consumption) as an explanatory variable for meat exports. For both aggregated meat and pork, we observe a Home Market Effect in the first model (Table  5 ). For the second model (Table  6 ), this effect is also present except when we include GDP as a supply variable. However, as indicated in the methodological section, it is more appropriate to include sectorial production and demand rather than GDPs. This means that total meat and pork exports in Spain have grown due to the growth of domestic demand, which has allowed the creation of strong economies of scale that have made the sector very competitive.

For beef and poultry, the results differ depending on the model utilized. If we include distance (Table 9 in Appendix), the Home Market Effect is observed, although it is much smaller compared to pork when considering livestock production as a supply variable and meat consumption as a demand variable. On the other hand, if we incorporate fixed importer effects (Table 10 in Appendix), the effect is much more ambiguous depending on the variables used and, in any case, the effect is much smaller. For lamb, the effect occurs in some cases when including distance, but never when including importer fixed effects.

Therefore, in a context where countries trade goods, even if they are substitutable due to consumer preferences for variety, and under imperfect competition and increasing returns to scale, exports are more responsive to changes in domestic production than to changes in external demand (Serrano et al. 2015 ; Feenstra et al. 1998 ; Krugman 1980 ). Therefore, this Home Market Effect occurs especially in meats where industrial production and value chain integration have been stronger, thus generating greater economies of scale (pork). For the remaining meats, the effect is much less clear than for pork. The case of poultry is particularly interesting; despite its early industrialization, the sector did not adapt to international preferences, and its exports did not grow significantly.

Another objective of this study is to quantify the weight of Spain’s entry into the EU as an explanatory variable for meat exports. For total meat and pork, the results are less ambiguous. Specifically, in both models, the fact that Spain and the importing country are part of the EU has a large and positive effect on exports of total meat and pork. For beef and lamb, EU membership is also positive and significant in both models. As for poultry, it is positive but only significant if we include consumption as a demand variable. Once again, the industry’s failure to adapt to international markets may be the reason behind the lack of significance of EU membership in chicken exports (Clar 2024 ).

In line with other studies on agri-food trade (Ayuda et al. 2022 ; Serrano and Pinilla 2012 ), the membership of the exporting and importing country in the GATT or the WTO does not have significant effects. For both total meat and pork, the aforementioned variable exhibits a negative coefficient and lacks statistical significance in the model incorporating distance as a factor. Conversely, in the model incorporating importer fixed effects, the variable in question demonstrates a negative coefficient that is statistically significant. Indeed, for beef, lamb, and poultry, WTO membership only exhibits the "expected" results (positive and significant) for the case of poultry in the first model. A possible explanation for this counterintuitive result could be that China, despite being in the WTO, maintains relatively high tariffs on meat imports (Yu and Cao 2015 ). However, excluding China from the regression analysis yields similar results (results not shown). Another possible explanation would be that WTO accession may have led to an increase in non-tariff barriers. Nevertheless, it is not clear whether non-tariff barriers hinder meat trade. In fact, the most recent evidence shows the opposite (Ridley et al. 2024 ). Indeed, since Rose ( 2004 ), it is quite common to find a negative effect on trade when both countries are in the WTO, especially in the case of food products (Mujahid and Kalkuhl 2016 ). Regarding exchange rate volatility, its overall effect is small and negative, although in several cases it is not statistically significant. Notably, in the gravity model estimates of pork exports with importer fixed effects the estimates for this variable are positive and statistically significant, which is a counterintuitive result. Nevertheless, the elasticity confirms that its relative importance is low too. All these results align with prior research, such as Rose et al. ( 2000 ) or Cho et al. ( 2002 ).

The R-squared of the model including fixed effects is significantly higher than that of the model including distance. This can be attributed to the fact that by controlling for numerous unobservable country effects, the explanatory power of the model is enhanced. Furthermore, when conducting a reset test to assess the model’s goodness of fit, the results indicate potential misspecification for beef, lamb, and poultry in the model that includes distance. In contrast, the reset test suggests that the model with fixed effects is correctly specified. Therefore, despite exhibiting somewhat counterintuitive results in certain variables and lacking the inclusion of distance, the latter model generally produces more reliable findings.

5 Discussion

How did Spain go from being a net importer of meat in the 1980s to becoming the world’s leading exporter of pork in 2020? To explain this fact, we can resort to structural and cyclical factors. Regarding the structural ones, the economic success of the meat industry in Spain is explained by the competitiveness generated by the boost in domestic demand. Historically, meat consumption in Spain has been relatively low and production has been based on extensive livestock farming. The strong increase in Spanish income from the 1960s onward led to a growth in demand for meat that supply could not satisfy. Faced with this situation, the regime granted great facilities for American capital meat companies to establish themselves in Spain and quickly adopt the agribusiness model (Clar 2010 ). In this way, in just a few years, both the poultry and pork sectors were characterized by massive imports of feed, highly productive breeds, and great vertical integration in the value chain. As a result, large economies of scale were generated in both sectors. The result of this was a sharp drop in prices that drove meat consumption in Spain above the European average, further fueling economies of scale. Spain’s entry into the EU in the late 1980s meant the liberalization of the sector (as it was still heavily regulated for international trade (Langreo 2008 )) and therefore a reallocation of resources toward the most competitive companies, which absorbed smaller companies and economies of scale were even further reinforced (Melitz 2003 ). Therefore, with a saturated domestic market, the 1990s witnessed the growth of pork exports in Spain. The HME as a driving force has been observed in meats whose production underwent stronger industrialization, with the industry adapting to both domestic and international market preferences, particularly in the case of pork. Conversely, in meats where production was industrialized but the industry did not adapt to external markets, the HME either does not occur or occurs to a lesser extent, as seen in poultry. In contrast, meats with significantly lower productivity and lacking economies of scale, such as lamb and beef, did not experience export promotion through the HME. In the last decade, the pork sector in Spain has taken advantage of the increase in demand from China to become the world’s leading exporter ahead of major producers such as Germany. The fact that large economies of scale are key to explaining the competitiveness of the Spanish pork sector can be seen by comparing the production cost structure of the two main pork exporters in Europe: Spain and Germany (Table  7 ).

In recent years, with the exception of feed, where Spain has a greater dependence on imports than Germany, production costs in the Spanish pork sector are lower. The cost of labor, although Germany also pays low wages in this sector, mainly to immigrants from Poland (Stępień and Polcyn 2016 , p. 5), is still higher than in Spain. However, the bulk of the difference in cost structure is based on fixed costs and other variable costs. Regarding the latter, although reports from the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) do not specify this, it is highly likely that these are costs related to transporting the pigs to the slaughterhouse. Therefore, if fixed and transportation costs are lower in Spain, this would indicate that economies of scale in the Spanish pork industry are greater than in Germany (Clar 2024 , p. 15). Greater vertical integration of the value chain in Spain than in Germany may explain this greater efficiency in production (Klein 2018 ). Other factors, such as Spain having a lower population density and therefore being able to install large farms far from urban centers, as well as greater promotion of the sector by the state, also help explain Spanish success (Lence 2007 ). In fact, many of the farms were installed not far from the large centers of consumption but in rural areas with very low demographic densities due to the intense depopulation they had previously experienced (Collantes and Pinilla 2011 ). In these areas, the scarcity of economic alternatives meant that intensive livestock farming was one of the few economic activities capable of generating employment, so that the possible nuisances caused by the farms were considered a tolerable negative externality (Langreo 2008 ). Therefore, having a vast available area in territories with low rural population density has been an advantage for the expansion of pig production in Spain. Thus, among the twelve EU countries with the largest livestock herds, Spain ranked the lowest in Gross Livestock Units per square kilometer and per hectare of agricultural land in 2010. Furthermore, the difference compared to other major producers was significant (Roguet et al. 2015 ).

Environmental legislation is common to all European Union countries, which limits the amount of nitrates that can be discharged based on soil availability (for example, the famous Nitrates Directive of 1991). The expansion of pig farming in Spain has therefore benefited from a large area with low population densities. Additionally, some national regulations may have limited herd growth, as was the case in the Netherlands since the 1980s. Opposition in this country to the developing model was not only related to pollution caused by manure but also to animal welfare, impact on landscape and environment, and the model being judged as too industrial. The institutional response was to limit the size of farms, also initiating a public debate on the issue. Paradoxically, the number of animals per farm continued to increase, while the number of farms plummeted (Rieu and Roguet 2012 ).

Other institutional variables may also help explain Spain’s success. For instance, appropriate institutions are crucial for meat exports to China (Hasiner and Yu 2019 ). Although there are indices that measure institutions in the long term (Martín-Retortillo and Pinilla 2022 ), the low variability since 1984 for the Spanish case prevents us from including it in the model. Nevertheless, we know that the Spanish government has promoted pork exports. For example, as noted in Van Ferneij and Lecuyer ( 2018 ) Spain facilitated meat exports outside the EU in 2016 through the Royal Decree 993/2014, streamlining the process and cooperation with importing countries to obtain import certificates. This process is more costly in the German case. Additionally, as the authors argue, in Spain, there is greater effort by companies to differentiate the product’s quality (cutting level, packaging, quality certificates, etc.), whereas in Germany, the focus is on volumes and providing a standardized brand with little differentiation.

However, there are also cyclical arguments that help explain the success of Spanish meat exports, specifically, episodes of swine fever. This disease entered Spain in the 1960s and was endemic until its eradication in the 1990s (Barcelona 1990 ), thus delaying exports due to embargoes by potential importing countries. In 2014, outbreaks were detected in nearby countries such as Poland or Romania and in 2018 in China. Therefore, Spain has benefited from swine fever in two ways. Firstly, from outbreaks in both competing countries (although it was not detected in Germany until 2020) and importers (China). Secondly, the increasing importance given by the EU to animal health has favored verticalization and integration in Spain (Langreo 2002 ), as integrators provide all sanitary inputs to farmers. Thus, economies of scale and competitiveness have increased.

To our knowledge, the only study that analyzes whether there has been a Home Market Effect in the meat sector is the aforementioned Serrano et al., ( 2015 ) where the results complement those of this study. However, other studies have used gravity models to analyze the determinants of meat trade, allowing us to interpret whether HME has occurred or not, even though it is not the objective of these studies. For example, using a sample of 186 pork-exporting countries, Yang, Reed and Saghaian ( 2012 ) find that the supply elasticity (GDP of the exporter country) is greater than the demand elasticity (GDP of the importing country), although the difference is, on average, smaller than in the Spanish case. In Schlueter et al. ( 2009 ), analyzing the aggregated meat exports of the top 10 major exporting regions globally (including the European Union as a whole) between 1996 and 2007, no HME is found. In this case, they use livestock production as the supply variable and consumption as the demand variable. In Meneguelli Fasarella, Pinto de Souza and Lee Burnquist ( 2011 ) they analyze the determinants of chicken exports in Brazil between 1996 and 2009, and the result regarding whether there has been an HME process is ambiguous depending on the model used. In Wu ( 2022 ), it is observed that global rabbit meat trade since the 1960s has been primarily driven by demand factors, indicating no HME process. Lastly, Cao and Johnson ( 2006 ) find HME in New Zealand exports between 1994 and 2003 for sheep meat but not for beef. The difference in this study is that by analyzing what has happened with the consumption and production of each type of meat from a historical perspective, we can better understand why HME has occurred in some meats and not in others.

6 Conclusions

This study aimed to quantify the most relevant variables that explain how the meat sector in Spain conquered international markets. To achieve this, we conducted a gravity model from 1984 to 2019 with aggregated meat and several types of meat. Thus, we complemented previous literature that had done the same exercise from the point of view of the agri-food sector as a whole (Serrano et al. 2015 ) or with other products such as wine (Ayuda et al. 2019 ; Castillo and García Cortijo 2014 ; Pinilla and Ayuda 2002 ). The results varied depending on the type of meat, demonstrating the importance of disaggregated studies to understand the commercial dynamics of agri-food products.

The findings revealed the presence of a Home Market Effect process in meats that underwent the most intensified production and whose industry adapted to external markets (specifically, pork). That is, in a context where Spain was completing its nutritional transition with a clear preference for pork consumption, implied the formation of large economies of scale in the sector. Therefore, when the sector was liberalized with Spain’s entry into the European Union, the sector was competitive enough to gain market share in international markets. Thus, although exports of all types of meat grew tremendously in absolute terms, the pork sector eventually became the world’s leading exporter. The results also demonstrate that, overall, Spain’s membership in the European Union was a significant factor in the growth of meat exports. Furthermore, China’s economic development and its own nutritional transition also fostered an increase in its consumption, from which Spain has been able to benefit in recent years through massive pork exports to the Asian country.

In summary, the abrupt transformation of a net meat importer into a super exporter is considered an extremely intriguing case study. It highlights how, in a context characterized by underdeveloped livestock production and low meat consumption, rapid economic growth, which spurred a profound shift in dietary patterns, along with new technological offerings such as improvements in transportation networks, the development of refrigerated containers, or the implementation of intensive livestock farming, facilitated a swift expansion of meat production to cater to the dynamic domestic market. A deep vertical integration within the production chain fostered the achievement of economies of scale, which, once the domestic market reached saturation, made rapid export growth possible, further aided by Spain’s integration into the European Union. The growth of a production sector that generates evident adverse environmental effects and inconveniences for nearby populations was facilitated by the low population densities that the previous rural exodus had generated in the rural areas where production expanded. The new industrial livestock farming emerged as a crucial economic alternative for these regions, addressing the challenges they faced.

However, the economic success of the meat industry in international markets is overshadowed by the environmental issues caused by this process. Livestock production is one of the sectors that generates the most greenhouse gas emissions (Ilea 2009 ), making it a clear contributor to climate change (Willett et al. 2019 ; Lassaletta et al. 2014 ; Gerber et al. 2013 ). In order to meet the growing demand for meat and livestock products in Spain since the 1960s, the implementation of the agribusiness model has generated several environmental impacts that have degraded agro-ecosystems (Guzmán et al. 2018 ). Greenhouse gas emissions from Spanish livestock production have increased from 8 to 75 million CO2e emissions since the beginning of the twenty-first century (Aguilera et al. 2020 ). In particular, the management of manure use and its environmental impact remains a fundamental problem in the pig industry (Giménez García et al. 2021 ; Díaz Yubero 2018 ).

Furthermore, the ecological footprint of intensification in livestock production is not limited to Spanish borders. The strong dependence on feed imports, especially from countries such as Argentina and Brazil, is related to deforestation processes and other environmental and social issues (Infante-Amate et al. 2018 ). Therefore, this raises questions about the viability of this model in the long term, as although various decrees have attempted to improve the environmental conditions of intensive meat production (Giménez García et al. 2021 ), they are not sufficient to adopt a sustainable model.

Regarding future lines of work, we believe that two aspects should be further explored. Firstly, as mentioned earlier, other disaggregated products should be used to quantify their expansion process. Secondly, as outlined at the end of the discussion, the environmental impacts of meat exports should be quantified. Although this has been done for agriculture or livestock as a whole (Infante-Amate et al. 2018 ; Soto, Infante-Amate, Guzmán, et al. 2016a , b ), we consider that a disaggregated perspective is also necessary.

However, in certain countries in Southeast Asia, it has been observed that preferences play a lesser role in the nutritional transition (Lipoeto, Geok Lin and Angeles-Agdeppa 2013 ).

At this juncture, Clar underscores the significance of domestic intermediaries for this process (Clar 2010 ).

To understand the Spanish business model and its differences with those prevailing in other countries, interviews with Francisco Mur (Director of Engineering, Production and R&D&I of Grupo Jorge) and Patricia Mazana (Deputy Director of Mazana Group) have been particularly useful. In 2023, Grupo Jorge is ranked 43rd among the world’s leading pork producers ( https://jorgesl.com/en ) and with sales of 1,750 million euros. Mazana is a company specialized in pig production with sales of 371 million euros ( https://www.mazana.es/index.php?mod=page&id=57 ).

Revision 1 is utilized because it enables the presentation of homogeneous products throughout the entire study period.

Digits 129 and 134, while not specified as being derived from pork, are assumed to be so given that the majority of sausages consumed in Spain are of porcine origin.

It would have also been interesting to measure the impact that tariff rates might have had on meat exports. There are two databases that would allow us to include this variable: the Market Access Map ( https://urldefense.com/v3/ , https://www.macmap.org/__;!!D9dNQwwGXtA!QwLl0IeyhHcKzSTscYa5m8qS80awCfBtl1gbcSnMj8GQjS82QOqJAA1umyMBNlXqqt2sZMGnQg0BFU5iWA$ ) and the WITS database ( https://urldefense.com/v3/ , https://wits.worldbank.org/WITS/Restricted/Login.aspx__;!!D9dNQwwGXtA!QwLl0IeyhHcKzSTscYa5m8qS80awCfBtl1gbcSnMj8GQjS82QOqJAA1umyMBNlXqqt2sZMGnQg0OxmrAqA$ ). However, neither of these databases allows us to introduce bilateral tariffs on meat for our study period, as both provide data for more recent years. Difficulty in obtaining data on tariff rates has generally prevented the use of this variable in gravity equations (Bayar 2018 ).

Although it would be interesting to conduct an analysis of Spanish meat exports at the margins, we have discarded this idea as we only have 12 products, which are aggregated into 4. Therefore, the extensive margin at the product level would not make much sense.

Typically, gravity models include other dummy variables such as whether both parties share a language as a proxy for cultural proximity or whether both countries share a border. When running the regression incorporating these variables, we obtain coherent results (not shown). Specifically, the common border variable is positive and significant, as both Portugal and France are countries with significant weight in Spanish meat exports. The shared language variable is usually negative, which is also normal given that Spain hardly exports meat to countries where the language is shared. However, we prefer not to include both variables because the RESET test indicates that the model is misspecified for all types of meat.

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Acknowledgments

This study has received financial support from the Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain (PID2022-138886NB-I00) and from the Government of Aragon ( S55_23R). We are grateful for the comments and suggestions received from Raúl Compés, Rafael Pagán, Laurent Herment, Francisco Mur, David Soto, Juan Infante, Daniel Babot, Alfonso Herranz, Christine Roguet, Anton Schuurman, Alfonso Díez, Patricia Mazana, Vicente Salas, Fernando Collantes, Bruno Esperante and María José Rey. We also thank the comments received at the Rural History Conference (Uppsala, 2022), the European Historical Economics Society Conference (Groningen, 2023), the 10th Iberometrics Conference (Lisbon, 2023), the VIII Encuentro de Historia Económica de la AEHE (Santander, 2023), the Workshop of the Economic History Group of the Department of Economics at the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Administration of the University of the Republic (Montevideo, 2023), and the PHES Research Seminar (Montevideo, 2023). Finally, we appreciate the work of the editor and the suggestions from the two reviewers, which have greatly improved the original version of this article.

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Delgado, P., Pinilla, V. & Belloc, I. From net importer to global leader: understanding the drivers of Spain’s meat export growth since the 1960s. Cliometrica (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11698-024-00292-5

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