what do research social workers do

The link between social work research and practice

When thinking about social work, some may consider the field to solely focus on clinical interventions with individuals or groups.

There may be a mistaken impression that research is not a part of the social work profession. This is completely false. Rather, the two have been and will continue to need to be intertwined.

This guide covers why social workers should care about research, how both social work practice and social work research influence and guide each other, how to build research skills both as a student and as a professional working in the field, and the benefits of being a social worker with strong research skills. 

A selection of social work research jobs are also discussed.  

• Social workers and research
• Evidence-based practice
• Practice and research
• Research and practice
• Build research skills
• Social worker as researcher
• Benefits of research skills
• Research jobs

Why should social workers care about research?

Sometimes it may seem as though social work practice and social work research are two separate tracks running parallel to each other – they both seek to improve the lives of clients, families and communities, but they don’t interact. This is not the way it is supposed to work.

Research and practice should be intertwined, with each affecting the other and improving processes on both ends, so that it leads to better outcomes for the population we’re serving.

Section 5 of the NASW Social Work Code of Ethics is focused on social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the social work profession. There are two areas in which research is mentioned in upholding our ethical obligations: for the integrity of the profession (section 5.01) and for evaluation and research (section 5.02). 

Some of the specific guidance provided around research and social work include:

• 5.01(b): …Social workers should protect, enhance, and improve the integrity of the profession through appropriate study and research, active discussion, and responsible criticism of the profession.
• 5.01(d): Social workers should contribute to the knowledge base of social work and share with colleagues their knowledge related to practice, research, and ethics…
• 5.02(a) Social workers should monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of programs, and practice interventions.
• 5.02(b) Social workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to contribute to the development of knowledge.
• 5.02(c) Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research evidence in their professional practice.
• 5.02(q) Social workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues about responsible research practices.

Evidence-based practice and evidence-based treatment

In order to strengthen the profession and determine that the interventions we are providing are, in fact, effective, we must conduct research. When research and practice are intertwined, this leads practitioners to develop evidence-based practice (EBP) and evidence-based treatment (EBT).

Evidence-based practice is, according to The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) , a process involving creating an answerable question based on a client or organizational need, locating the best available evidence to answer the question, evaluating the quality of the evidence as well as its applicability, applying the evidence, and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the solution. 

Evidence-based treatment is any practice that has been established as effective through scientific research according to a set of explicit criteria (Drake et al., 2001). These are interventions that, when applied consistently, routinely produce improved client outcomes. 

For example, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) was one of a variety of interventions for those with anxiety disorders. Researchers wondered if CBT was better than other intervention options in producing positive, consistent results for clients.

So research was conducted comparing multiple types of interventions, and the evidence (research results) demonstrated that CBT was the best intervention.

The anecdotal evidence from practice combined with research evidence determined that CBT should become the standard treatment for those diagnosed with anxiety. Now more social workers are getting trained in CBT methods in order to offer this as a treatment option to their clients.

How does social work practice affect research?

Social work practice provides the context and content for research. For example, agency staff was concerned about the lack of nutritional food in their service area, and heard from clients that it was too hard to get to a grocery store with a variety of foods, because they didn’t have transportation, or public transit took too long. 

So the agency applied for and received a grant to start a farmer’s market in their community, an urban area that was considered a food desert. This program accepted their state’s version of food stamps as a payment option for the items sold at the farmer’s market.

The agency used their passenger van to provide free transportation to and from the farmer’s market for those living more than four blocks from the market location.

The local university also had a booth each week at the market with nursing and medical students checking blood pressure and providing referrals to community agencies that could assist with medical needs. The agency was excited to improve the health of its clients by offering this program.

But how does the granting foundation know if this was a good use of their money? This is where research and evaluation comes in. Research could gather data to answer a number of questions. Here is but a small sample:

• How many community members visited each week and purchased fruits and vegetables? 
• How many took advantage of the transportation provided, and how many walked to the market? 
• How many took advantage of the blood pressure checks? Were improvements seen in those numbers for those having repeat blood pressure readings throughout the market season? 
• How much did the self-reported fruit and vegetable intake increase for customers? 
• What barriers did community members report in visiting and buying food from the market (prices too high? Inconvenient hours?)
• Do community members want the program to continue next year?
• Was the program cost-effective, or did it waste money by paying for a driver and for gasoline to offer free transportation that wasn’t utilized? What are areas where money could be saved without compromising the quality of the program?
• What else needs to be included in this program to help improve the health of community members?

How does research affect social work practice?

Research can guide practice to implement proven strategies. It can also ask the ‘what if’ or ‘how about’ questions that can open doors for new, innovative interventions to be developed (and then research the effectiveness of those interventions).

Engel and Schutt (2017) describe four categories of research used in social work:

• Descriptive research is research in which social phenomena are defined and described. A descriptive research question would be ‘How many homeless women with substance use disorder live in the metro area?’
• Exploratory research seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them. An example research question would be ‘What are the barriers to homeless women with substance use disorder receiving treatment services?’
• Explanatory research seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena. It can be used to rule out other explanations for findings and show how two events are related to each other.  An explanatory research question would be ‘Why do women with substance use disorder become homeless?’
• Evaluation research describes or identifies the impact of social programs and policies. This type of research question could be ‘How effective was XYZ treatment-first program that combined housing and required drug/alcohol abstinence in keeping women with substance use disorder in stable housing 2 years after the program ended?’

Each of the above types of research can answer important questions about the population, setting or intervention being provided. This can help practitioners determine which option is most effective or cost-efficient or that clients are most likely to adhere to. In turn, this data allows social workers to make informed choices on what to keep in their practice, and what needs changing. 

How to build research skills while in school

There are a number of ways to build research skills while a student.  BSW and MSW programs require a research course, but there are other ways to develop these skills beyond a single class:

• Volunteer to help a professor working in an area of interest. Professors are often excited to share their knowledge and receive extra assistance from students with similar interests.
• Participate in student research projects where you’re the subject. These are most often found in psychology departments. You can learn a lot about the informed consent process and how data is collected by volunteering as a research participant.  Many of these studies also pay a small amount, so it’s an easy way to earn a bit of extra money while you’re on campus. 
• Create an independent study research project as an elective and work with a professor who is an expert in an area you’re interested in.  You’d design a research study, collect the data, analyze it, and write a report or possibly even an article you can submit to an academic journal.
• Some practicum programs will have you complete a small evaluation project or assist with a larger research project as part of your field education hours. 
• In MSW programs, some professors hire students to conduct interviews or enter data on their funded research projects. This could be a good part time job while in school.
• Research assistant positions are more common in MSW programs, and these pay for some or all your tuition in exchange for working a set number of hours per week on a funded research project.

How to build research skills while working as a social worker

Social service agencies are often understaffed, with more projects to complete than there are people to complete them.

Taking the initiative to volunteer to survey clients about what they want and need, conduct an evaluation on a program, or seeing if there is data that has been previously collected but not analyzed and review that data and write up a report can help you stand out from your peers, be appreciated by management and other staff, and may even lead to a raise, a promotion, or even new job opportunities because of the skills you’ve developed.

Benefits of being a social worker with strong research skills

Social workers with strong research skills can have the opportunity to work on various projects, and at higher levels of responsibility. 

Many can be promoted into administration level positions after demonstrating they understand how to conduct, interpret and report research findings and apply those findings to improving the agency and their programs.

There’s also a level of confidence knowing you’re implementing proven strategies with your clients. 

Social work research jobs

There are a number of ways in which you can blend interests in social work and research. A quick search on Glassdoor.com and Indeed.com retrieved the following positions related to social work research:

• Research Coordinator on a clinical trial offering psychosocial supportive interventions and non-addictive pain treatments to minimize opioid use for pain.
• Senior Research Associate leading and overseeing research on a suite of projects offered in housing, mental health and corrections.
• Research Fellow in a school of social work
• Project Policy Analyst for large health organization
• Health Educator/Research Specialist to implement and evaluate cancer prevention and screening programs for a health department
• Research Interventionist providing Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for insomnia patients participating in a clinical trial
• Research Associate for Child Care and Early Education
• Social Services Data Researcher for an organization serving adults with disabilities.
• Director of Community Health Equity Research Programs evaluating health disparities.

No matter your population or area of interest, you’d likely be able to find a position that integrated research and social work. 

Social work practice and research are and should remain intertwined. This is the only way we can know what questions to ask about the programs and services we are providing, and ensure our interventions are effective. 

There are many opportunities to develop research skills while in school and while working in the field, and these skills can lead to some interesting positions that can make a real difference to clients, families and communities. 

Drake, R. E., Goldman, H., Leff, H. S., Lehman, A. F., Dixon, L., Mueser, K. T., et al. (2001). Implementing evidence-based practices in routine mental health service settings. Psychiatric Services, 52(2), 179-182. 

Engel, R.J., & Schutt, R.K. (2017). The Practice of Research in Social Work. Sage.

National Association of Social Workers. (n.d). Evidence Based Practice. Retrieved from: https://www.socialworkers.org/News/Research-Data/Social-Work-Policy-Research/Evidence-Based-Practice

Social Work Research Methods That Drive the Practice

Social workers advocate for the well-being of individuals, families and communities. But how do social workers know what interventions are needed to help an individual? How do they assess whether a treatment plan is working? What do social workers use to write evidence-based policy?

Social work involves research-informed practice and practice-informed research. At every level, social workers need to know objective facts about the populations they serve, the efficacy of their interventions and the likelihood that their policies will improve lives. A variety of social work research methods make that possible.

Data-Driven Work

Data is a collection of facts used for reference and analysis. In a field as broad as social work, data comes in many forms.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

As with any research, social work research involves both quantitative and qualitative studies.

Quantitative Research

Answers to questions like these can help social workers know about the populations they serve — or hope to serve in the future.

• How many students currently receive reduced-price school lunches in the local school district?
• How many hours per week does a specific individual consume digital media?
• How frequently did community members access a specific medical service last year?

Quantitative data — facts that can be measured and expressed numerically — are crucial for social work.

Quantitative research has advantages for social scientists. Such research can be more generalizable to large populations, as it uses specific sampling methods and lends itself to large datasets. It can provide important descriptive statistics about a specific population. Furthermore, by operationalizing variables, it can help social workers easily compare similar datasets with one another.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative data — facts that cannot be measured or expressed in terms of mere numbers or counts — offer rich insights into individuals, groups and societies. It can be collected via interviews and observations.

• What attitudes do students have toward the reduced-price school lunch program?
• What strategies do individuals use to moderate their weekly digital media consumption?
• What factors made community members more or less likely to access a specific medical service last year?

Qualitative research can thereby provide a textured view of social contexts and systems that may not have been possible with quantitative methods. Plus, it may even suggest new lines of inquiry for social work research.

Mixed Methods Research

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods into a single study is known as mixed methods research. This form of research has gained popularity in the study of social sciences, according to a 2019 report in the academic journal Theory and Society. Since quantitative and qualitative methods answer different questions, merging them into a single study can balance the limitations of each and potentially produce more in-depth findings.

However, mixed methods research is not without its drawbacks. Combining research methods increases the complexity of a study and generally requires a higher level of expertise to collect, analyze and interpret the data. It also requires a greater level of effort, time and often money.

The Importance of Research Design

Data-driven practice plays an essential role in social work. Unlike philanthropists and altruistic volunteers, social workers are obligated to operate from a scientific knowledge base.

To know whether their programs are effective, social workers must conduct research to determine results, aggregate those results into comprehensible data, analyze and interpret their findings, and use evidence to justify next steps.

Employing the proper design ensures that any evidence obtained during research enables social workers to reliably answer their research questions.

Research Methods in Social Work

The various social work research methods have specific benefits and limitations determined by context. Common research methods include surveys, program evaluations, needs assessments, randomized controlled trials, descriptive studies and single-system designs.

Surveys involve a hypothesis and a series of questions in order to test that hypothesis. Social work researchers will send out a survey, receive responses, aggregate the results, analyze the data, and form conclusions based on trends.

Surveys are one of the most common research methods social workers use — and for good reason. They tend to be relatively simple and are usually affordable. However, surveys generally require large participant groups, and self-reports from survey respondents are not always reliable.

Program Evaluations

Social workers ally with all sorts of programs: after-school programs, government initiatives, nonprofit projects and private programs, for example.

Crucially, social workers must evaluate a program’s effectiveness in order to determine whether the program is meeting its goals and what improvements can be made to better serve the program’s target population.

Evidence-based programming helps everyone save money and time, and comparing programs with one another can help social workers make decisions about how to structure new initiatives. Evaluating programs becomes complicated, however, when programs have multiple goal metrics, some of which may be vague or difficult to assess (e.g., “we aim to promote the well-being of our community”).

Needs Assessments

Social workers use needs assessments to identify services and necessities that a population lacks access to.

Common social work populations that researchers may perform needs assessments on include:

• People in a specific income group
• Everyone in a specific geographic region
• A specific ethnic group
• People in a specific age group

In the field, a social worker may use a combination of methods (e.g., surveys and descriptive studies) to learn more about a specific population or program. Social workers look for gaps between the actual context and a population’s or individual’s “wants” or desires.

For example, a social worker could conduct a needs assessment with an individual with cancer trying to navigate the complex medical-industrial system. The social worker may ask the client questions about the number of hours they spend scheduling doctor’s appointments, commuting and managing their many medications. After learning more about the specific client needs, the social worker can identify opportunities for improvements in an updated care plan.

In policy and program development, social workers conduct needs assessments to determine where and how to effect change on a much larger scale. Integral to social work at all levels, needs assessments reveal crucial information about a population’s needs to researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders. Needs assessments may fall short, however, in revealing the root causes of those needs (e.g., structural racism).

Randomized Controlled Trials

Randomized controlled trials are studies in which a randomly selected group is subjected to a variable (e.g., a specific stimulus or treatment) and a control group is not. Social workers then measure and compare the results of the randomized group with the control group in order to glean insights about the effectiveness of a particular intervention or treatment.

Randomized controlled trials are easily reproducible and highly measurable. They’re useful when results are easily quantifiable. However, this method is less helpful when results are not easily quantifiable (i.e., when rich data such as narratives and on-the-ground observations are needed).

Descriptive Studies

Descriptive studies immerse the researcher in another context or culture to study specific participant practices or ways of living. Descriptive studies, including descriptive ethnographic studies, may overlap with and include other research methods:

• Informant interviews
• Census data
• Observation

By using descriptive studies, researchers may glean a richer, deeper understanding of a nuanced culture or group on-site. The main limitations of this research method are that it tends to be time-consuming and expensive.

Single-System Designs

Unlike most medical studies, which involve testing a drug or treatment on two groups — an experimental group that receives the drug/treatment and a control group that does not — single-system designs allow researchers to study just one group (e.g., an individual or family).

Single-system designs typically entail studying a single group over a long period of time and may involve assessing the group’s response to multiple variables.

For example, consider a study on how media consumption affects a person’s mood. One way to test a hypothesis that consuming media correlates with low mood would be to observe two groups: a control group (no media) and an experimental group (two hours of media per day). When employing a single-system design, however, researchers would observe a single participant as they watch two hours of media per day for one week and then four hours per day of media the next week.

These designs allow researchers to test multiple variables over a longer period of time. However, similar to descriptive studies, single-system designs can be fairly time-consuming and costly.

Learn More About Social Work Research Methods

Social workers have the opportunity to improve the social environment by advocating for the vulnerable — including children, older adults and people with disabilities — and facilitating and developing resources and programs.

Learn more about how you can earn your  Master of Social Work online at Virginia Commonwealth University . The highest-ranking school of social work in Virginia, VCU has a wide range of courses online. That means students can earn their degrees with the flexibility of learning at home. Learn more about how you can take your career in social work further with VCU.

From M.S.W. to LCSW: Understanding Your Career Path as a Social Worker

How Palliative Care Social Workers Support Patients With Terminal Illnesses

How to Become a Social Worker in Health Care

Gov.uk, Mixed Methods Study

MVS Open Press, Foundations of Social Work Research

Open Social Work Education, Scientific Inquiry in Social Work

Open Social Work, Graduate Research Methods in Social Work: A Project-Based Approach

Routledge, Research for Social Workers: An Introduction to Methods

SAGE Publications, Research Methods for Social Work: A Problem-Based Approach

Theory and Society, Mixed Methods Research: What It Is and What It Could Be

READY TO GET STARTED WITH OUR ONLINE M.S.W. PROGRAM FORMAT?

Bachelor’s degree is required.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1 1. Science and social work

Chapter outline.

• How do social workers know what to do? (12 minute read time)
• The scientific method (16 minute read time)
• Evidence-based practice (11 minute read time)
• Social work research (10 minute read time)

Content warning: Examples in this chapter contain references to school discipline, child abuse, food insecurity, homelessness, poverty and anti-poverty stigma, anti-vaccination pseudoscience, autism, trauma and PTSD, mental health stigma, susto and culture-bound syndromes, gender-based discrimination at work, homelessness, psychiatric hospitalizations, substance use, and mandatory treatment.

1.1 How do social workers know what to do?

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Reflect on how we, as social workers, make decisions
• Differentiate between micro-, meso-, and macro-level analysis
• Describe the concept of intuition, its purpose in social work, and its limitations
• Identify specific errors in thinking and reasoning

What would you do?

Case 1: Imagine you are a clinical social worker at a children’s mental health agency. One day, you receive a referral from your town’s middle school about a client who often skips school, gets into fights, and is disruptive in class. The school has suspended him and met with the parents on multiple occasions, who say they practice strict discipline at home. Yet the client’s behavior has worsened. When you arrive at the school to meet with your client, who is also a gifted artist, you notice he seems to have bruises on his legs, has difficulty maintaining eye contact, and appears distracted. Despite this, he spends the hour painting and drawing, during which time you are able to observe him.

• Given your observations of your client’s strengths and challenges, what intervention would you select, and how could you determine its effectiveness?

Case 2: Imagine you are a social worker working in the midst of an urban food desert (a geographic area in which there is no grocery store that sells fresh food). As a result, many of your low-income clients either eat takeout, or rely on food from the dollar store or a convenience store. You are becoming concerned about your clients’ health, as many of them are obese and say they are unable to buy fresh food. Your clients tell you that they have to rely on food pantries because convenience stores are expensive and often don’t have the right kinds of food for their families. You have spent the past month building a coalition of community members to lobby your city council. The coalition includes individuals from non-profit agencies, religious groups, and healthcare workers.

• How should this group address the impact of food deserts in your community?  What intervention(s) do you suggest?  How would you determine whether your intervention was effective?

Case 3: You are a social worker working at a public policy center whose work focuses on the issue of homelessness. Your city is seeking a large federal grant to address this growing problem and has hired you as a consultant to work on the grant proposal. After interviewing individuals who are homeless and conducting a needs assessment in collaboration with local social service agencies, you meet with city council members to talk about potential opportunities for intervention. Local agencies want to spend the money to increase the capacity of existing shelters in the community. In addition, they want to create a transitional housing program at an unused apartment complex where people can reside upon leaving the shelter, and where they can gain independent living skills. On the other hand, homeless individuals you interview indicate that they would prefer to receive housing vouchers to rent an apartment in the community. They also fear the agencies running the shelter and transitional housing program would impose restrictions and unnecessary rules and regulations, thereby curbing their ability to freely live their lives. When you ask the agencies about these client concerns, they state that these clients need the structure and supervision provided by agency support workers.

• Which kind of program should your city choose to implement?  Which is most likely to be effective and why?

Assuming you’ve taken a social work course before, you will notice that these case studies cover different levels of analysis in the social ecosystem—micro, meso, and macro. At the micro-level , social workers examine the smallest levels of interaction; in some cases, just “the self” alone (e.g. the child in case one).

When social workers investigate groups and communities, such as our food desert in case 2, their inquiry is at the meso-level .

At the  macro-level , social workers examine social structures and institutions. Research at the macro-level examines large-scale patterns, including culture and government policy.

These three domains interact with one another, and it is common for a research project to address more than one level of analysis. For example, you may have a study about individuals at a case management agency (a micro-level study) that impacts the organization as a whole (meso-level) and incorporates policies and cultural issues (macro-level). Moreover, research that occurs on one level is likely to have multiple implications across domains.

How do social workers know what to do?

Welcome to social work research. This chapter begins with three problems that social workers might face in practice, and three questions about what a social worker should do next. If you haven’t already, spend a minute or two thinking about the three aforementioned cases and jot down some notes. How might you respond to each of these cases?

I assume it is unlikely you are an expert in the areas of children’s mental health, community responses to food deserts, and homelessness policy. Don’t worry, I’m not either. In fact, for many of you, this textbook will likely come at an early point in your graduate social work education, so it may seem unfair for me to ask you what the ‘right’ answers are. And to disappoint you further, this course will not teach you the ‘right’ answer to these questions. It will, however, teach you how to answer these questions for yourself, and to find the ‘right’ answer that works best in each unique situation.

Assuming you are not an experienced practitioner in the areas described above, you likely used intuition (Cheung, 2016). [1] when thinking about what you would do in each of these scenarios. Intuition is a “gut feeling” about what to think about and do, often based on personal experience. What we experience influences how we perceive the world. For example, if you’ve witnessed representations of trauma in your practice, personal life, or in movies or television, you may have perceived that the child in case one was being physically abused and that his behavior was a sign of trauma. As you think about problems such as those described above, you find that certain details stay with you and influence your thinking to a greater degree than others. Using past experiences, you apply seemingly relevant knowledge and make predictions about what might be true.

Over a social worker’s career, intuition evolves into practice   wisdom . Practice wisdom is the “learning by doing” that develops as a result of practice experience. For example, a clinical social worker may have a “feel” for why certain clients would be a good fit to join a particular therapy group. This idea may be informed by direct experience with similar situations, reflections on previous experiences, and any consultation they receive from colleagues and/or supervisors. This “feel” that social workers get for their practice is a useful and valid source of knowledge and decision-makin – do not discount it.

On the other hand, intuitive thinking can be prone to a number of errors. We are all limited in terms of what we know and experience. One’s economic, social, and cultural background will shape intuition, and acting on your intuition may not work in a different sociocultural context. Because you cannot learn everything there is to know before you start your career as a social worker, it is important to learn how to understand and use social science to help you make sense of the world and to help you make sound, reasoned, and well-thought out decisions.

Social workers must learn how to take their intuition and deepen or challenge it by engaging with scientific literature. Similarly, social work researchers engage in research to make certain their interventions are effective and efficient (see Section 1.4 for more information). Both of these processes–consuming and producing research–inform the social justice mission of social work. That’s why the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), who accredits the MSW program you are in, requires that you engage in social science.

Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers: • use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research; • apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and • use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery. (CSWE, 2015). [2]

Errors in thinking

We all rely on mental shortcuts to help us figure out what to do in a practice situation. All people, including you and me, must train our minds to be aware of predictable flaws in thinking, termed cognitive biases . Here is a link to the Wikipedia entry on cognitive biases, as well as an interactive list . As you can see, there are many types of biases that can results in irrational conclusions.

The most important error in thinking for social scientists to be aware of is the concept of confirmation bias . Confirmation bias involves observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already believe to be true. We all arrive at each moment with a set of personal beliefs, experiences, and worldviews that have been developed and ingrained over time. These patterns of thought inform our intuitions, primarily in an unconscious manner. Confirmation bias occurs when our mind ignores or manipulates information to avoid challenging what we already believe to be true.

In our second case study, we are trying to figure out how to help people who receive SNAP (sometimes referred to as Food Stamps) who live in a food desert. Let’s say we have arrived at a policy solution and are now lobbying the city council to implement it. There are many who have negative beliefs about people who are “on welfare.”  These people may believe individuals who receive social welfare benefits spend their money irresponsibly, are too lazy to get a job, and manipulate the system to maintain or increase their government payout.

Those espousing this belief may point to an example such as Louis Cuff , who bought steak and lobster with his SNAP benefits and resold them for a profit. However, they are falling prey to assuming that one person’s bad behavior reflects upon an entire group of people. City council members who hold these beliefs may ignore the truth about the client population—that people experiencing poverty usually spend their money responsibly and that they genuinely need help accessing fresh and healthy food. In this way, confirmation bias often makes people less capable of empathizing with one another because they have difficulty accepting alternative perspectives.

Errors in reasoning

Because the human mind is prone to errors, when anyone makes a statement about what is true or what should be done in a given situation, errors in logic may abound. Think back to the case studies at the beginning of this section. You most likely had some ideas about what to do in each case. Below are some of the most common logical fallacies and the ways in which they may negatively influence a social worker:

• Making hasty generalization : when a person draws conclusions before having enough information. A social worker may apply lessons from a handful of clients to an entire population of people (see Louis Cuff , above). It is important to examine the scientific literature in order to avoid this.
• Confusing correlation with causation : when one concludes that because two things are correlated (as one changes, the other changes), they must be causally related. As an example, a social worker might observe both an increase in the minimum wage and higher unemployment in certain areas of the city. However, just because two things changed at the same time does not mean they are causally related. Social workers should explore other factors that might impact causality.
• Going down a slippery slope : when a person concludes that we should not do something because something far worse will happen if we do so. For example, a social worker may seek to increase a client’s opportunity to choose their own activities, but face opposition from those who believe it will lead to clients making unreasonable demands. Clearly, this is nonsense. Changes that foster self-determination are unlikely to result in client revolt. Social workers should be skeptical of arguments opposing small changes because one argues that radical changes are inevitable.
• Appealing to authority : when a person draws a conclusion by appealing to the authority of an expert or reputable individual, rather than through the strength of the claim. You have likely encountered individuals who believe they are correct because another in a position of authority told them so. Instead, we should work to build a reflective and critical approach to practice that questions authority.
• Hopping on the bandwagon : when a person draws a conclusion consistent with popular belief. Just because something is popular does not mean it is correct. Fashionable ideas come and go. Social workers should engage with trendy ideas but must ground their work in scientific evidence rather than popular opinion.
• Using a straw man : when a person does not represent their opponent’s position fairly or with sufficient depth. For example, a social worker advocating for a new group home may depict homeowners that are opposed to clients living in their neighborhood as individuals concerned only with their property values. However, this may not be the case. Social workers should instead engage deeply with all sides of an issue and represent them accurately.

Key Takeaways

• Social work research occurs at the micro-, meso-, and macro-level.
• Intuition is a powerful, though limited, source of information when making decisions.
• All human thought is subject to errors in thinking and reasoning.
• Scientific inquiry accounts for cognitive biases by applying an organized, logical way of observing and theorizing about the world.
• Think about a social work topic you might want to study this semester as part of a research project. How do individuals commit specific errors in logic or reasoning when discussing a specific topic (e.g. Louis Cuff)? How can using scientific evidence help you combat popular myths that are based on erroneous thinking?
• Reflect on the strengths and limitations of your personal experiences as a way to guide your work with diverse populations. Describe an instance when your intuition may have resulted in biased or misguided thinking or behavior in a social work practice situation.

1.2 The scientific method

Learning objectives.

• Define science and social science
• Describe the differences between objective and subjective truth(s)
• Identify how qualitative and quantitative data are analyzed differently and how they can be used together
• Delineate the features of science that distinguish it from pseudoscience

If I asked you to draw a picture of science, what would you draw?  My guess is it would be something from a chemistry or biology classroom, like a microscope or a beaker. Maybe something from a science fiction movie. All social workers use scientific thinking in their practice. However, social workers have a unique understanding of what science means, one that is (not surprisingly) more open to the unexpected and human side of the social world.

Science and not-science

In social work, science is a way of ‘knowing’ that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths. A key word here is systematically –conducting science is a deliberate process. Scientists gather information about facts in a way that is organized and intentional, and usually follows a set of predetermined steps. Social work is not a science, but social work is informed by social science ; the science of humanity, social interactions, and social structures. In other words, social work research uses organized and intentional procedures to uncover facts or truths about the social world. And social workers rely on social scientific research to promote change.

Science can also be thought of in terms of its impostor, pseudoscience. Pseudoscience refers to beliefs about the social world that are unsupported by scientific evidence. These claims are often presented as though they are based on science. But once researchers test them scientifically, they are demonstrated to be false. A scientifically uninformed social work practitioner using pseudoscience may recommend any number of ineffective, misguided, or harmful interventions. Pseudoscience often relies on information and scholarship that has not been reviewed by experts or offers a selective and biased reading of reviewed literature.

An example of pseudoscience comes from anti-vaccination activists. Despite overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines do not cause autism, a very vocal minority of people continue to believe that they do. Anti-vaccination advocates present their information as based in science, as seen here at Green Med Info . The author of this website shares real abstracts from scientific journal articles and studies but will only provide information on articles that show the potential dangers of vaccines, without showing any research that prevents the positive and safe side of vaccines. Green Med Info is an example of confirmation bias, as all data presented on the website supports what the pseudo-scientific researcher believes to be true. For more information on assessing causal relationships, consult Chapter 6 , where we discuss causality in detail.

The values and practices associated with the scientific method work to overcome common errors in thinking (such as confirmation bias). First, the scientific method uses established techniques from the literature to determine the likelihood of something being true or false. The research process often cites these techniques, reasons for their use, and how researchers came to the decision to use said techniques. However, each technique comes with its own strengths and limitations. Rigorous science is about making the best choice, being open about your process, and allowing others to check your work. It is important to remember that there is no “perfect” study – all research has limitations because all scientific methods come with limitations.

Skepticism and debate

Unfortunately, the “perfect” researcher does not exist. Scientists are human, so they are subject to error and bias, such as gravitating toward fashionable ideas and thinking their work is more important than others’ work. Theories and concepts fade in and out of use and may be tossed aside when new evidence challenges their truth. Part of the challenge in your research projects will be finding what you believe about an issue, rather than summarizing what others think about the topic. Good science, just like good social work practice, is authentic. When I see students present their research projects, those that are the strongest deliver both passionate and informed arguments about their topic area.

Good science is also open to ongoing questioning. Scientists are fundamentally skeptical. As such, they are likely to pursue alternative explanations. They might question the design of a study or replicate it to see if it works in another context. Scientists debate what is true until they arrive at a majority consensus. If you’ve ever heard that 97% of climate scientists agree that global warming is due to human activity [3] or that 99% of economists agree that tariffs make the economy worse [4] , you are seeing this sociology of science in action. This skepticism will help to catch situations in which scientists who make the oh-so-human mistakes in thinking and reasoning reviewed in Section 1.1.

Skepticism also helps to identify unethical scientists, as with Andrew Wakefield’s study linking the MMR vaccination and autism. When other researchers looked at his data, they found that he had altered the data to match his own conclusions and sought to benefit financially from the ensuing panic about vaccination (Godlee, Smith, & Marcovitch, 2011). [5] This highlights another key value in science: openness.

Through the use of publications and presentations, scientists share the methods used to gather and analyze data. The trend towards open science has also prompted researchers to share data as well. This in turn enables other researchers to re-run, replicate, and validate analyses and results. A major barrier to openness in science is the paywall. When you’ve searched online for a journal article (we will review search techniques in Chapter 3), you have likely run into the $25-$50 price tag. Don’t despair – your university should subscribe to these journals. However, the push towards openness in science means that more researchers are sharing their work in open access journals, which are free for people to access (like this textbook!). These open access journals do not require a university subscription to view.

Openness also means engaging the broader public about your study. Social work researchers conduct studies to help people, and part of scientific work is making sure your study has an impact. For example, it is likely that many of the authors publishing in scientific journals are on Twitter or other social media platforms, relaying the importance of study findings. They may create content for popular media, including newspapers, websites, blogs, or podcasts. It may lead to training for agency workers or public administrators. Regrettably, academic researchers have a reputation for being aloof and disengaged from the public conversation. However, this reputation is slowly changing with the trend towards public scholarship and engagement. For example, see this recent section of the Journal of the Society of Social Work and Research on public impact scholarship .

Science supported by empirical data

Pseudoscience is often doctored up to look like science, but the surety with which its advocates speak is not backed up by empirical data. Empirical data refers to information about the social world gathered and analyzed through scientific observation or experimentation. Theory is also an important part of science, as we will discuss in Chapter 5 . However, theories must be supported by empirical data–evidence that what we think is true really exists in the world.

There are two types of empirical data that social workers should become familiar with. Quantitative data refers to numbers and  qualitative data usually refers to word data (like a transcript of an interview) but can also refer to pictures, performances, and other means of expressing oneself. Researchers use specific methods designed to analyze each type of data. Together, these are known as research methods , or the methods researchers use to examine empirical data.

Objective truth

In our vaccine example, scientists have conducted many studies tracking children who were vaccinated to look for future diagnoses of autism (see Taylor et al. 2014 for a review). This is an example of using quantitative data to determine whether there is a causal relationship between vaccination and autism. By examining the number of people who develop autism after vaccinations and controlling for all of the other possible causes, researchers can determine the likelihood of whether vaccinations cause changes in the brain that are eventually diagnosed as autism.

In this case, the use of quantitative data is a good fit for disproving myths about the dangers of vaccination. When researchers analyze quantitative data, they are trying to establish an objective truth. An objective truth is always true, regardless of context. Generally speaking, researchers seeking to establish objective truth tend to use quantitative data because they believe numbers don’t lie. If repeated statistical analyses don’t show a relationship between two variables, like vaccines and autism, that relationship almost certainly does not exist. By boiling everything down to numbers, we can minimize the biases and logical errors that human researchers bring to the scientific process. That said, the interpretation of those numbers is always up for debate. That process can be subjective.

This approach to finding truth probably sounds similar to something you heard in your middle school science classes. When you learned about gravitational force or the mitochondria of a cell, you were learning about the theories and observations that make up our understanding of the physical world. We assume that gravity is real and that the mitochondria of a cell are real. Mitochondria are easy to spot with a powerful microscope and we can observe and theorize about their function in a cell. The gravitational force is invisible, but clearly apparent from observable facts, such as watching an apple fall. If we were unable to perceive mitochondria or gravity, they would still be there, doing their thing, because they exist independent of our observation of them.

Let’s consider a social work example. Scientific research has established that children who are subjected to severely traumatic experiences are more likely to be diagnosed with a mental health disorder (e.g., Mahoney, Karatzias, & Hutton, 2019). [6] A diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is considered objective, and may refer to a mental health issue that exists independent of the individual observing it and is highly similar in its presentation across clients. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, 2017) [7] identifies a group of criteria which is based on unbiased, neutral client observations. These criteria are based in research, and render an objective diagnosis more likely to be valid and reliable. Through the clinician’s observations and the client’s description of their symptoms, an objective determination of a mental health diagnosis can be made.

Subjective truth(s)

For those of you skeptics, you may ask yourself: but does a diagnosis tell a client’s whole story? No. It does not tell you what the client thinks and feels about their diagnosis, for example. Receiving a diagnosis of PTSD may be a relief for a client. The diagnosis may suggest the words to describe their experiences. In addition, this diagnosis may provide a direction for therapeutic work, as there are evidence-based interventions clinicians can use with each diagnosis. On the other hand, a client may feel shame and view the diagnosis as a label, defining them in a negative way and limiting their potential (Barsky, 2015). [8]

Imagine if we surveyed people with PTSD to see how they interpreted their diagnosis. Objectively, we could determine whether more people said the diagnosis was, overall, a positive or negative event for them. However, it is unlikely that the experience of receiving a diagnosis was either completely positive or completely negative. In social work, we know that a client’s thoughts and emotions are rarely binary, either/or situations. Clients likely feel a mix of positive and negative thoughts and emotions during the diagnostic process. These messy bits are subjective truths , or the thoughts and feelings that arise as people interpret and make meaning of situations. Uniquely, looking for subjective truths can help us see the contradictory and multi-faceted nature of people’s thoughts, and qualitative data allows us to avoid oversimplifying them into negative and positive feelings that could be counted, as in quantitative data. It is the role of a researcher, just like a practitioner, to seek to understand things from the perspective of the client. Unlike with objective truth, this will not lead to a general sense of what is true for everyone, but rather what is true for that one person.

Subjective truths are best expressed through qualitative data, or through the use of words (not numbers). For example, we might invite a client to tell us how they felt after they were first diagnosed, after they spoke with family, and over the course of the therapeutic process. While it may look different from what we normally think of as science (e.g. pharmaceutical studies), these stories are indeed a rich source of data for scientific analysis. However, it is impossible to analyze what this client said without also considering the sociocultural context in which they live. For example, the concept of PTSD is generated from Western thought and philosophy. How might people from other cultures understand trauma differently?

In the DSM-5 classification of mental health disorders, there is a list of culture-bound syndromes which appear only in certain cultures. For example,  susto describes a unique cluster of symptoms experienced by Latin Americans after a traumatic event (Nogueira, Mari, & Razzouk, 2015). [9]   Susto involves more physical symptoms than a traditional PTSD diagnosis. Indeed, many of these syndromes do not fit within a Western conceptualization of mental health because they differentiate less between the mind and body. To a Western scientist, susto may seem less real than PTSD. To someone from Latin America, their symptoms may not fit neatly into the PTSD framework developed in Western nations . Science has historically privileged knowledge from the United States and other nations in the West and Global North , marking them as objectively true. The objectivity of Western science as universally applicable to all cultures has been increasingly called into question as science has become less dominated by white males, and interaction between cultures and groups becomes broadly more democratic. Clearly, what is true depends in part on the context in which it is observed.

In this way, social scientists have a unique task. People are both objects and subjects. Objectively, you could quantify how tall a person is, what car they drive, how many adverse childhood experiences they had, or their score on a PTSD checklist. Subjectively, you could understand how a person made sense of a traumatic incident or how it contributed to certain patterns in thinking, negative feelings, or opportunities for growth, for example. It is this added dimension that renders social science unique to natural science, which focuses almost exclusively on quantitative data and objective truth. For this reason, this book is divided between projects using qualitative data and quantitative data.

There is no “better” or “more true” way of approaching social science. Instead, the methods a researcher chooses should match the question they ask. If you want to answer, “do vaccines cause autism?” you should choose methods appropriate to answer that question. It seeks an objective truth–one that is true for everyone, regardless of context. Studies like these use quantitative data and statistical analyses to test mathematical relationships between variables. If, on the other hand, you wanted to know “what does a diagnosis of PTSD mean to clients?” you should collect qualitative data and seek subjective truths. You will gather stories and experiences from clients and interpret them in a way that best represents their unique and shared truths. Where there is consensus, you will report that. Where there is contradiction, you will report that as well.

Mixed methods

In this textbook, we will treat quantitative and qualitative research methods separately. However, it is important to remember that a project can include both approaches. A mixed methods study, which we will discuss more in chapter 6, requires thinking through a more complicated project that includes at least one quantitative component, one qualitative component, and a plan to incorporate both approaches together. As a result, mixed methods projects may require more time for conceptualization, data collection, and analysis.

Finding patterns

Regardless of whether you are seeking objective or subjective truths, research and scientific inquiry aim to find and explain patterns. Most of the time, a pattern will not explain every single person’s experience, a fact about social science that is both fascinating and frustrating. Even individuals who do not know each other can create patterns that persist over time. Those new to social science may find these patterns frustrating because they may believe that the patterns describing their sex, age, or some other facet of their lives don’t represent their experience. It’s true. A pattern can exist among your cohort without your individual participation in it. There is diversity within diversity.

Let’s consider some specific examples. You probably wouldn’t be surprised to learn that a person’s social class background has an impact on their educational attainment and achievement. You may be surprised to learn that people select romantic partners that have similar educational attainment, which in turn, impacts their children’s educational attainment (Eika, Mogstad, & Zafar, 2019). [10] . People who have graduated college pair off with other college graduates, as so forth. This, in turn, reinforces existing inequalities, stratifying society by those who have the opportunity to complete college and those who don’t.

People who object to these findings tend to cite evidence from their own personal experience. However, the problem with this response is that objecting to a social pattern on the grounds that it doesn’t match one’s individual experience misses the point about patterns. Patterns don’t perfectly predict what will happen to an individual person. Yet, they are a reasonable guide that, when systematically observed, can help guide social work thought and action. When we don’t investigate these patterns scientifically, we are subject to developing stereotypes, biases, and other harmful beliefs.

A final note on qualitative and quantitative methods

There is not one superior way to find patterns that help us understand the world. As we will learn about in Chapter 5 , there are multiple philosophical, theoretical, and methodological ways to approach scientific truth. Qualitative methods aim to provide an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases. They also provide a voice for the client. Quantitative methods offer less depth on each case but can say more about broad patterns because they typically focus on a much larger number of cases. A researcher should approach the process of scientific inquiry by formulating a clear research question and using the methodological tools best suited to that question.

Believe it or not, there are still significant methodological battles being waged in the academic literature on objective vs. subjective social science. Usually, quantitative methods are viewed as “more scientific” and qualitative methods are viewed as “less scientific.”  Part of this battle is historical. As the social sciences developed, they were compared with the natural sciences, especially physics, which rely on mathematics and statistics to come to a truth. It is a hotly debated topic whether social science should adopt the philosophical assumptions of the natural sciences—with its emphasis on prediction, mathematics, and objectivity—or use a different set of tools—contextual understanding, language, and subjectivity—to find scientific truth.

You are fortunate to be in a profession that values multiple scientific ways of knowing. The qualitative/quantitative debate is fueled by researchers who may prefer one approach over another, either because their own research questions are better suited to one particular approach or because they happened to have been trained in one specific method. In this textbook, we’ll operate from the perspective that qualitative and quantitative methods are complementary rather than competing. While these two methodological approaches certainly differ, the main point is that they simply have different goals, strengths, and weaknesses. A social work researcher should select the method(s) that best match(es) the question they are asking.

• Social work is informed by science.
• Social science is concerned with both objective and subjective knowledge.
• Social science research aims to understand patterns in the social world.
• Social scientists use both qualitative and quantitative methods, which, while different, are often complementary.

Examine a pseudoscientific claim you’ve heard on the news or in conversation with others. Why do you consider it to be pseudoscientific? What empirical data can you find from a quick internet search that would demonstrate it lacks truth?

• Consider a topic you might want to study this semester as part of a research project. Provide a few examples of objective and subjective truths about the topic, even if you aren’t completely certain they are correct. Identify how objective and subjective truths differ.

1.3 Evidence-based practice

• Explain how social workers produce and consume research as part of practice
• Review the process of evidence-based practice and how social workers apply research knowledge with clients and groups

“Why am I in this class?”

“When will I ever use this information?”

While students aren’t always so direct, I would wager a guess that these questions are on the mind of almost every student in a research methods class. And they are valid and important questions to ask!  While it may seem strange, the answer is that you will probably use these skills often. Social workers engage with research on a daily basis by consuming it through popular media, social work education, and advanced training. They also often contribute to research projects, adding new scientific information to what we know. As professors, we also sometimes hear from field supervisors who say that research competencies are unimportant in their setting. One might wonder how these organizations measure program outcomes, report the impact of their program to board members or funding agencies, or create new interventions grounded in social theory and empirical evidence.

Social workers as research consumers

Whether you know it or not, your life is impacted by research every day. Many of our laws, social policies, and court proceedings are grounded in some degree of empirical research and evidence (Jenkins & Kroll-Smith, 1996). [11] That’s not to say that all laws and social policies are good or make sense. But you can’t have an informed opinion about any of them without understanding where they come from, how they were formed, and what their evidence base is. In order to be effective practitioners across micro, meso, and macro domains, social workers need to understand the root causes and policy solutions to social problems their clients are experiencing.

A recent lawsuit against Walmart provides an example of social science research in action. A sociologist named Professor William Bielby was enlisted by plaintiffs to conduct an analysis of Walmart’s personnel policies in order to support their claim that Walmart engages in gender discriminatory practices. Bielby’s analysis shows that Walmart’s compensation and promotion decisions may indeed have been vulnerable to gender bias. In June 2011, the United States Supreme Court decided against allowing the case to proceed as a class-action lawsuit ( Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes , 2011). [12] While a class-action suit was not pursued in this case, consider the impact that such a suit against one of our nation’s largest employers could have had on companies, their employees, and even consumers around the country. [13]

A social worker might learn about this lawsuit through popular media, news media websites or television programs. Social science knowledge allows a social worker to apply a critical eye towards new information, regardless of the source. Unfortunately, popular media does not always report on scientific findings accurately. A social worker armed with scientific knowledge would be able to search for, read, and interpret the original study as well as other information that might challenge or support the study. As social work graduate students, you should be comfortable in your information literacy abilities, and your advocacy and practice should be grounded in these skills. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 of this textbook focus on information literacy , or how to understand what we already know about a topic and contribute to that body of knowledge.

When social workers consume research, they are usually doing so to inform their practice. Clinical social workers are required by a state licensing board to complete continuing education classes in order to remain informed on the latest information in their field. On the macro side, social workers at public policy think tanks consume information to inform advocacy and public awareness campaigns. Regardless of the role of the social worker, practice must be informed by research.

Evidence-based practice

Consuming research is the first component of evidence-based practice (EBP). Drisko and Grady (2015) [14] present EBP as a process composed of “four equally weighted parts: 1) current client needs and situation, (2) the best relevant research evidence, (3) client values and preferences, and (4) the clinician’s expertise” (p. 275). It is not simply “doing what the literature says,” but is rather a process by which practitioners examine the literature, client, self, and context to inform interventions with clients and systems (McNeese & Thyer, 2004). [15] It is a collaboration between social worker, client, and context. As we discussed in Section 1.2, the patterns discovered by scientific research are not applicable to all situations. Instead, we rely on our critical thinking skills to apply scientific knowledge to real-world situations.

The bedrock of EBP is a proper assessment of the client or client system. Once we have a solid understanding of what the issue is, we can evaluate the literature to determine whether there are any interventions that have been shown to treat the issue, and if so, which have been shown to be the most effective. You will learn those skills in the next few chapters. Once we know what our options are, we should be upfront with clients about each option, what the interventions look like, and what the expected outcome will be. Once we have client feedback, we use our expertise and practice wisdom to make an informed decision about how to move forward.

If this sounds familiar, it’s the same approach a doctor, physical therapist, or other health professional would use. This highlights a common critique of EBP: it is too focused on micro-level, clinical social work practice. Not every social worker is a clinical social worker. While there is a large body of literature on EBP for clinical practice, the same concepts apply to other social work roles as well. A social work manager should endeavor to be familiar with evidence-based management styles, and a social work policy advocate should argue for evidence-based policies.

In agency-based social work practice, EBP can take on a different role due to the complexities of the grant funding process. Funders naturally require agencies to demonstrate that their practice is effective. Agencies are almost always required to document that they are achieving the outcomes they intended. However, funders sometimes require agencies to choose from a limited list of interventions determined to be evidence-based practices. Not included in this model are clinical expertise and client values, which are key components of EBP and the therapeutic process. According to some funders, EBP is not a process conducted by a practitioner but instead consists of a list of interventions. Similar dynamics are at play in private clinical practice, in which insurance companies may specify the modality of therapy offered. For example, insurance companies may favor short-term, solution-focused therapy which minimizes cost. But what happens when someone has an idea for a new kind of intervention?  How do new approaches get “on the list” of EBPs of grant funders?

Social workers as research producers

Innovation in social work is incredibly important. Social workers work on wicked problems for their careers. For those of you who have practice experience, you may have had an idea of how to better approach a practice situation. That is another reason you are here in a research methods class. You (really!) will have bright ideas about what to do in practice. Sam Tsemberis relates an “ Aha! ” moment from his practice in this Ted talk on homelessness . While a faculty member at the New York University School of Medicine, he noticed a problem with people cycling in and out of the local psychiatric hospital wards. Clients would arrive in psychiatric crisis, stabilize under medical supervision in the hospital, and end up back at the hospital in psychiatric crisis shortly after discharge.

When he asked the clients what their issues were, they said they were unable to participate in homelessness programs because they were not always compliant with medication for their mental health diagnosis and they continued to use drugs and alcohol. The housing supports offered by the city government required abstinence and medication compliance before one was deemed “ready” for housing. For these clients, the problem was a homelessness service system that was unable to meet clients where they were–ready for housing, but not ready for abstinence and psychiatric medication. As a result, chronically homeless clients were cycling in and out of psychiatric crises, moving back and forth from the hospital to the street.

The solution that Sam Tsemberis implemented and popularized is called Housing First , and is an approach to homelessness prevention that starts by, you guessed it, providing people with housing first and foremost. Tsemberis’s model addresses chronic homelessness in people with co-occurring disorders (those who have a diagnosis of a substance use and mental health disorder). The Housing First model states that housing is a human right: clients should not be denied their right to housing based on substance use or mental health diagnoses.

In Housing First programs, clients are provided housing as soon as possible. The Housing First agency provides wraparound treatment from an interdisciplinary team, including social workers, nurses, psychiatrists, and former clients who are in recovery. Over the past few decades, this program has gone from a single program in New York City to the program of choice for federal, state, and local governments seeking to address homelessness in their communities.

The main idea behind Housing First is that once clients have a residence of their own, they are better able to engage in mental health and substance use treatment. While this approach may seem logical to you, it is the opposite of the traditional homelessness treatment model. The traditional approach began with the client abstaining from drug and alcohol use and taking prescribed medication. Only after clients achieved these goals were they offered group housing. If the client remained sober and medication compliant, they could then graduate towards less restrictive individual housing.

Conducting and disseminating research allows practitioners to establish an evidence base for their innovation or intervention, and to argue that it is more effective than the alternatives, and should therefore be implemented more broadly. For example, by comparing clients who were served through Housing First with those receiving traditional services, Tsemberis could establish that Housing First was more effective at keeping people housed and at addressing mental health and substance use goals. Starting first with smaller studies and graduating to larger ones, Housing First built a reputation as an effective approach to addressing homelessness. When President Bush created the Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness in 2003, Housing First was used in a majority of the interventions and its effectiveness was demonstrated on a national scale. In 2007, it was acknowledged as an evidence-based practice in the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) EBP resource center. [16]

We suggest browsing around the SAMHSA EBP Resource Center and looking for interventions on topics that interest you. Other sources of evidence-based practices include the Cochrane Reviews digital library  and Campbell Collaboration . In the next few chapters, we will talk more about how to search for and locate literature about clinical interventions. The use of systematic reviews , meta-analyses , and randomized controlled trials are particularly important in this regard, types of research we will describe more in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.

So why share the story of Housing First? Well, we want you to think about what you hope to contribute to our knowledge of social work practice. What is your bright idea and how can it change the world? Practitioners innovate all the time, often incorporating those innovations into their agency’s approach and mission. Using scientific research methods, agency-based social workers can demonstrate to policymakers and other social workers that their innovations should be more widely used. Without this wellspring of new ideas, social services would not be able to adapt to the changing needs of their communities. Social workers in agency-based practice may also participate in research projects taking place at their agency. Partnerships between schools of social work and agencies are a common way of testing and implementing innovations in social work. In such a case, all parties receive an advantage: clinicians receive specialized training, clients receive additional services, agencies gain prestige, and researchers can illustrate the effectiveness of an intervention.

Evidence-based practice highlights the unique perspective that social work brings to research. Social work both “holds” and critiques evidence. With regard to the former, “holding” evidence refers to the fact that the field of social work values scientific information. The Housing First example demonstrates how this interplay between valuing and critiquing science works–first by critiquing existing research and conducting research to establish a new approach to a problem. It also demonstrates the importance of listening to your target population and privileging their understanding and perception of the issue. While their understanding is not the result of scientific inquiry, it is deeply informed through years of direct experience with the issue and embedded within the relevant cultural and historical context. Although science often searches for the “one true answer,” social work researchers must remain humble about the degree to which we can really know, and must begin to engage with other ways of knowing that may originate from clients and communities.

See the video  below for an example of how “one true answer” about a population can often oversimplify things and overstate how much we know about how to intervene in a given situation.

Cultural Humility: People, Principles and Practices – Part 1 of 4 by Vivian Chavez is adapted under a Creative Commons license: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/b…

While you may not become a scientist in the sense of wearing a lab coat and using a microscope, social workers must understand science in order to engage in ethical practice. In this section, we reviewed ways in which research is a part of social work practice, including:

• Determining the best intervention for a client or system
• Ensuring existing services are accomplishing their goals
• Satisfying requirements to receive funding from private agencies and government grants
• Testing a new idea and demonstrating that it should be more widely implemented

Using a social work practice situation that you have experienced, walk through the four steps of the evidence-based practice process and how they informed your decision-making. Reflect on some of the difficulties applying EBP in the real world.

• Talk with a social worker about how he or she produces and consumes research as part of practice. Consider asking them about articles that changed their practice or helped them think about a problem in a new way. They may talk more about a training or a book, rather than academic journal articles. Reflect on your personal career goals and how research will fit into your future practice.

1.4 Social work research

• Differentiate between formal and informal research roles
• Describe common barriers to engaging with social work research
• Identify alternative ways of thinking about research methods

Formal and informal research roles

I’ve been teaching research methods for six years and have found that many students struggle to see the connection between research and social work practice. First of all, it’s important to mention that social work researchers exist!  The authors of this textbook are social work researchers across university, government, and non-profit institutions. Matt and Cory are researchers at universities, focusing on disability policy, wellness & mental health, and intimate partner violence. Dalia is a behavioral health researcher at RTI International, a nonprofit research institute, where she studies the opioid epidemic. Kate is a researcher at the Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission in Virginia, where she studies policies related to criminal justice. The career path for social workers in formal research roles is bright and diverse, as we each bring a unique perspective with our ethical and theoretical orientation.

Formal research results in written products like journal articles, government reports, or policy briefs. To get a sense of formal research roles in social work, consider asking a professor about their research. You can also browse around the top journals in social work: Trauma, Violence & Abuse , Child Maltreatment , Child Abuse & Neglect , Social Service Review , Family Relations , Journal of Social Policy , Social Policy & Administration , Research on Social Work Practice , Health & Social Care in the Community , Health & Social Work , British Journal of Social Work , Child & Family Social Work , International Journal of Social Welfare , Qualitative Social Work , Children & Youth Services Review , Social Work , Social Work in Health Care , Journal of Social Work Practice , International Social Work , Affilia Journal of Women and Social Work , and Clinical Social Work Journal .  Additionally, the websites to most government agencies, foundations, think tanks, and advocacy groups contain formal research often conducted by social workers.

But let’s be clear, studies show that most social work students are not interested in becoming social work researchers who publish journal articles or research reports (DeCarlo et al., 2019; Earley, 2014). [17] Once you enter post-graduate practice, you will need to apply your formal research skills to the informal research conducted by practitioners and agencies every day. Every time you are asking who, what, when, where and why, you are conducting informal research. Informal research can be more involved. Social workers may be surprised when they are asked to engage in research projects such as needs assessments, community scans, program and policy evaluations, and single system designs, to name a few. Macro-oriented students may have to conduct research on programs and policies as part of advocacy or administration. I cannot tell you the number former students who have contacted me looking for research resources or wanting to “pick my brain” about research they are doing as part of their employment.

Research for action

Regardless of whether a social worker conducts formal research that results in journal articles or informal research that is used within an agency, all social work research is distinctive in that it is active (Engel & Schutt, 2016). [18] We want our results to be used to effect social change. Sometimes this means using findings to change how clients receive services. Sometimes it means using findings to show the benefits of programs or policies. Sometimes it means using findings to speak with those oppressed and marginalized persons who have been left out of the policy creation process. Additionally, it can mean using research as the mode with which to engage a constituency to address a social justice issue. All of these research activities differ; however, the one consistent ingredient is that these activities move us towards social and economic justice.

Student anxieties and beliefs about research

Unfortunately, students generally arrive in research methods classes with a mixture of dread, fear, and frustration. If you attend any given social work education conference, there is probably a presentation on how to better engage students in research. There is an entire body of academic research that verifies what any research professor knows to be true. Honestly, this is why the authors of this textbook started this project. We want to make research more enjoyable and engaging for students. Generally, we have found some common myths and misconceptions get in the way of student success in research. Let’s see if any of these match with what you are thinking.

I’m never going to use this crap!

Students who tell me that research methods is not useful to them are saying something important. As a student scholar, your most valuable asset is your time. You give your time to the subjects you consider important to you and for your career. Because most social workers don’t become researchers or practitioner-researchers, students may feel that a research methods class is a waste of time. Our discussion of evidence-based practice and the ways in which social workers use research in practice brought home the idea that social workers play an important role in creating and disseminating new knowledge about social services.

On a more immediate level, learning about research methods and completing an individual research project allow students to focus in on a specific topic. This class is an invitation to conduct an independent study on a social work topic of interest to you. In this book, you will learn how to understand and apply the scientific method to that topic. Not only that, but the skills you learn in literature search and review will help you in every class in your MSW program.

Research is only for super-smart people

Research methods involves a lot of terminology that may be entirely new to social work students. Other domains of social work, such as practice, are easier to apply your intuition towards. You understand how to be an empathetic person, and your experiences in life can help guide you through a practice situation or even a theoretical or conceptual question. Research may seem like a totally new area in which you have no previous experience. In research methods there can be “wrong” answers. Depending on your research question, some approaches to data analysis or measurement, for example, may not help you find the correct answer.

The fear is entirely understandable. Research is not straightforward. As Figure 1.1 shows, it is a process that is non-linear, involving multiple revisions, wrong turns, and dead ends before you figure out the best question and research approach. You may have to go back to chapters after having read them or even peek ahead at chapters your class hasn’t covered yet.

Moreover, research is something you learn by doing…and stumbling a few times. It’s an iterative process, or one that requires many tries to get right. There isn’t a shortcut for learning research, but if you follow along with the exercises in this book, you can break down a student research project and accomplish it piece by piece. No one just knows research. It’s something you pick up by doing it, reflecting on the experiences and results, redoing your work, and revising it in consultation with your professor and peers. Research involves exploration, risk taking, and a willingness to say, “Let’s see what we will find!”

Research is designed to suck the joy from my life

We’ve talked already about the arcane research terminology, so I won’t go into it again here. But students sometimes perceive research methods as boring. Practice knowledge and even theory are fun to learn because they are easy to apply and provide insights into the world around you. Research just seems like its own weirdly shaped and ill-fitting puzzle piece.

I completely understand where this perspective comes from and hope there are a few things you will take away from this course that aren’t boring to you. In the first section of this textbook, you will learn how to take any topic and learn what is known about it. It may seem trivial, but this is actually a superpower. Your social work education will teach you basic knowledge that can be applied to nearly all social work practice situations as well as some applied material applicable to specific social work practice situations. However, no education will provide you with everything you need to know. And certainly, no professor can tell you what will be discovered over the next few decades of your practice. Our work on literature reviews in the next few chapters will help you increase your skills and knowledge to become a strong social work student and practitioner. Following that, our exploration of research methods will help you understand how theories, practice models, and techniques you learn in other classes are created and tested scientifically. Like a colorful puzzle, you’ll see how all of the pieces fit together.

Get out of your own way

Together, these misconceptions and myths can create a self-fulfilling prophecy for students. If you believe research is boring, you won’t find it interesting. If you believe research is hard, you will struggle more with assignments. If you believe research is useless, you won’t see its utility. If you’re afraid that you will make mistakes, then you won’t want to try. While we certainly acknowledge that students aren’t going to love research as much as we do (we spent over a year writing this book, so we like it a lot!), we suggest reframing how you think about research using the following touchstones:

• All social workers rely on social science research to engage in competent practice.
• No one  already knows research. It’s something I’ll learn through practice. And it’s challenging for everyone, not just me.
• Research is relevant to me because it allows me to figure out what is known about any topic I want to study.
• If the topic I choose to study is important to me, I will be more interested in exploring research to help me understand it further.

Students should be intentional about managing any anxiety coming from a research project. Here are some suggestions:

• Talk to your professor if you are feeling lost. We like students!
• Talk to a librarian if you are having trouble finding information about your topic.
• Seek support from your peers or mentors.

The structure of this textbook

The textbook is divided into five parts. In the first part (Chapters 1-4), we will review how to orient your research proposal to a specific question you want to answer and review the literature to see what we know about it. Student research projects come with special limitations, as you don’t have many resources, so our chapters are designed to help you think through those limitations and think of a project that is doable. In the second part (Chapters 5-8), we will bring in theory, causality, ethics to help you conceptualize your research project and what you hope to achieve. By the end of the second part, you will create a quantitative and qualitative research question. Parts 3 and 4 will walk you through how to conduct quantitative and qualitative research, respectively. These parts run through how to recruit people to participate in your study, what to ask them, and how to interpret the results of what they say. Finally, the last part of the textbook reviews how to connect research and practice. For some, that will mean completing program evaluations as part of agency-based practice. For others, it will mean consuming research as part of continuing education as a practitioner. We hope you enjoy reading this book as much as we enjoyed writing it!

If you are still figuring out how to navigate the book using your internet browser, consider watching our tutorial [LINK NEEDED]. Also, the exercises in each chapter offer you an opportunity to apply what you wrote to your own research project, so consider completing these as you read.

• Social workers engage in formal and informal research production as part of practice.
• If you feel anxious, bored, or overwhelmed by research, you are not alone!
• Becoming more familiar with research methods will help you become a better scholar and social work practitioner.
• With your peers, explore your feelings towards your research methods classes. Describe some themes that come up during your conversations. Identify which issues can be addressed by your professor and which can be addressed by students.
• Browse social work journals and identify an article of interest to you. Look up the author’s biography or curriculum vitae on their personal website or the website of their university.
• Cheung, J. C. S. (2016). Researching practice wisdom in social work. Journal of Social Intervention: Theory and Practice ,  25 (3), 24-38. ↵
• For more on the CSWE accreditation standards see https://www.cswe.org/CSWE/media/AccredidationPDFs/2015-epas-and-glossary_1.pdf and the EPAS index in this book. ↵
• See: https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/17/do-scientists-agree-on-climate-change/ ↵
• See: http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/import-duties ↵
• Godlee   F. ,  Smith   J. , & Marcovitch   H . (2011) Wakefield’s article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent. British medical journal, 342 , 64-66. ↵
• Mahoney, A., Karatzias, T., & Hutton, P. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis of group treatments for adults with symptoms associated with complex post-traumatic stress disorder.  Journal of affective disorders ,  243 , 305-321. ↵
• American Psychiatric Association. (2017). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) . Washington, DC ↵
• Barsky, A. (2015). DSM-5 and the ethics of diagnosis. New social worker . Retrieved from: https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ethics-articles/dsm-5-and-ethics-of-diagnosis/ ↵
• Nogueira, B. L., Mari, J. D. J., & Razzouk, D. (2015). Culture-bound syndromes in Spanish speaking Latin America: the case of Nervios, Susto and Ataques de Nervios. Archives of Clinical Psychiatry (São Paulo), 42( 6), 171-178. ↵
• Eika, L., Mogstad, M., & Zafar, B. (2019). Educational assortative mating and household income inequality. Journal of Political Economy, 127 (6), 2795-2835. ↵
• Jenkins, P. J., & Kroll-Smith, S. (Eds.). (1996). Witnessing for sociology: Sociologists in court . Westport, CT: Praeger. ↵
• Wal-Mart  Stores, Inc. v. Dukes , 564 U.S. (2011). The American Sociological Association (ASA) subsequently filed an amicus brief in support of what would be the class of individuals claiming gender discrimination. You can read the brief at http://asanet.org/images/press/docs/pdf/Amicus_Brief_Wal-Mart_v Dukes_et_al.pdf.  For other recent amicus briefs filed by the ASA, see  http://asanet.org/about/amicus_briefs.cfm . ↵
• Want to know more about the suit against Walmart or about Bielby’s analysis for the case? Check out the following source: Hart, M., & Secunda, P. M. (2009). A matter of context: Social framework evidence in employment discrimination class actions. Fordham Law Review ,  78 , 37-70. (2009). A matter of context: Social framework evidence in employment discrimination class action.  Fordham Law Review, 78 , 37–70. Retrieved from:  http://www.fordhamlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/Vol_78/Hart_Secunda_October_2009.pdf ↵
• Drisko, J. W., & Grady, M. D. (2015). Evidence-based practice in social work: A contemporary perspective. Clinical Social Work Journal ,  43 (3), 274-282. ↵
• McNeece, C. A., & Thyer, B. A. (2004). Evidence-based practice and social work. Journal of evidence-based social work ,  1 (1), 7-25. ↵
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2007). Pathways' housing first program . Retrieved from:https://www.samhsa.gov/homelessness-programs-resources/hpr-resources/housing-first-supports-recovery ↵
• DeCarlo, M. P., Schoppelrey, S., Crenshaw, C., Secret, M. C., & Stewart, M. (2020, January 1). Open educational resources and graduate social work students: Cost, outcomes, use, and perceptions. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/k4ytd; Earley, M. A. (2014). A synthesis of the literature on research methods education. Teaching in Higher Education, 19 (3), 242-253. ↵
• Engel, R. J. & Schutt, R. K. (2016) The practice of research in social work (4th edition) . Washington, DC: Sage Publications ↵

examining the smallest levels of interaction, usually individuals

examining interaction between groups and within communities

examining social structures and institutions

a “gut feeling” about what to do based on previous experience

“learning by doing” that guides social work intervention and increases over time

predictable flaws in thinking

observing and analyzing information in a way that agrees with what you already think is true and excludes other alternatives

a way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths

the science of humanity, social interactions, and social structures

claims about the world that appear scientific but are incompatible with the values and practices of science

information about the social world gathered and analyzed through scientific observation or experimentation

numerical data

data derived from analysis of texts. Usually, this is word data (like a conversation or journal entry) but can also include performances, pictures, and other means of expressing ideas.

the methods researchers use to examine empirical data

a single truth, observed without bias, that is universally applicable

one truth among many, bound within a social and cultural context

a process composed of "four equally weighted parts: 1) current client needs and situation, (2) the best relevant research evidence, (3) client values and preferences, and (4) the clinician’s expertise" (Drisko & Grady, 2015, p. 275)

a study that combines raw data from multiple quantitative studies and analyzes the pooled data using statistics

Graduate research methods in social work Copyright © 2020 by Matthew DeCarlo, Cory Cummings, Kate Agnelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Search Menu
• Advance articles
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• About Social Work Research
• National Association of Social Workers
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals Career Network
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Editor-in-Chief

Robert L. Hawkins, PhD, MA, MPA

About the journal

Social Work Research publishes exemplary research to advance the development of knowledge and inform social work practice.

Latest articles

Latest posts on x.

Find a home for your paper

Content Collections

Explore these curated collections, which feature articles from all four of the NASW journals.

Politics & Social Justice Collection

Immigration & Social Work Collection

Mental Health Collection

2020 Social Work Month Collection

2019 Social Work Month Collection

Featured Article

Boston College Professor Robert Motley discusses the research he co-authored, "Prevalence and Correlates of Police Contact Anxiety among Male and Female Black Emerging Adults in St. Louis, Missouri." 

Read the article

More Videos

Call for papers

The NASW journals are accepting manuscripts for upcoming special issues. 

Discover a more complete picture of how readers engage with research in Social Work Research  through Altmetric data. Now available on article pages.

Recommend to your library

Fill out our simple online form to recommend Social Work Research to your library.

Recommend now

Email alerts

Register to receive table of contents email alerts as soon as new issues of Social Work Research are published online.

Highly Cited Collection

Explore a collection of highly cited articles from the NASW journals published in 2020 and 2021.

Related Titles

• Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1545-6838
• Print ISSN 1070-5309
• Copyright © 2024 National Association of Social Workers
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Social Work Standard of the Month: Evaluation and Research

5.02 evaluation and research.

Revisions to section 5 of the NASW  Code of Ethics , which focuses on social workers’ responsibilities to the social work profession, were limited to standard 5.02, Evaluation and Research. There are now 16 standards in this section with the inclusion of new content that specifically incorporates guidance for social workers using electronic technology in evaluation and research, standard 5.02(f). This new content shifted the numbering of subsequent standards.

• Newly added standard 5.02(f) offers more concrete guidance for social workers using technology in their research and evaluation. This guidance includes the consideration of informed consent and research participants’ access to the technology and availability of alternatives.  “When using electronic technology to facilitate evaluation or research, social workers should ensure that participants provide informed consent for the use of such technology. Social workers should assess whether participants are able to use the technology and, when appropriate, offer reasonable alternatives to participate in the evaluation or research.”

Ohio State nav bar

The Ohio State University

• BuckeyeLink
• Find People
• Search Ohio State

So why is research important to social work?

As social workers, we train to be able to see the multitude of invisible lines within the systems that hold our lives together, or divide us. We learn to recognize the disconnects, and to help our clients figure out how to reconnect the dots. We view the world through a lens of person-in-environment, that is to say, we seek to understand the context in which our clients live.

The social sciences have an inherent obligation not only to keep abreast of current relevant research, but also to be competent enough to apply new treatments and insights within their practice. Social workers are truly dedicated professionals who have to complete a minimum number of continuing education credits to continue practicing. We don’t get to pick and choose the individuals we help, which is why we have to constantly develop our cultural competencies to identify the strengths of those we are helping. So, research is important to social work because it helps us be effective!

According to the NASW, research in social work helps us:

• Assess the needs and resources of people in their environments
• Evaluate the effectiveness of social work services in meeting peoples needs
• Demonstrate relative costs and benefits of social work services
• Advance professional education in light of changing contexts for practice
• Understand the impact of legislation and social policy on the clients and communities we serve (Retrieved from http://www.socialworkpolicy.org/research)

I still do not know what my research question will be for my senior thesis, but I am beginning to pare down some topics that interest me such as:

• Effects of childhood trauma
• The school-to-prison pipeline
• Trauma-informed therapies within prisons
• Effectiveness of prison diversion programs

8 thoughts on “ So why is research important to social work? ”

try explaining in detail

article quite informing for an amateur in research

In doing any of interventions;evidence based is needed. Not intuition,you need to do assessment of the problem before intervention.Then again you need to to evaluation on the service you provided if has positive impact to your client.

It is a very informative piece of work

try explaining in detail the points listed as to where the nexus between Research and Social work lie

are there means to conduct dual research projects with your institutions?

Akulu muziika zithu zonse ap tisamachiteso kuvutika iyayi 😏😏

CCleaner (Crap Cleaner) yasir252 is a freeware system optimization, privacy, and cleaning tool. It removes unused files from your system allowing Windows

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

What does a social worker do?

Would you make a good social worker? Take our career test and find your match with over 800 careers.

What is a Social Worker?

Social workers are dedicated to helping people overcome personal and societal obstacles by providing support, resources, and advocacy. They play a vital role in addressing issues related to mental health, poverty, family dynamics, healthcare access, substance abuse, and more. Social workers work across diverse settings, including hospitals, schools, social service agencies, community organizations, and government institutions.

Social workers collaborate with clients to set goals, navigate complex systems, and develop coping strategies. They also work to address systemic issues by advocating for policy changes and social justice initiatives that aim to create a more equitable and inclusive society. Their compassionate and empathetic approach, combined with their knowledge of human behavior and social systems, allows them to make a meaningful impact on the lives of individuals and communities in need.

What does a Social Worker do?

Social workers promote social justice and improve the lives of individuals and communities. They help a wide range of individuals, families, and communities who are facing various social, emotional, and economic challenges. They work with people from diverse backgrounds and cultures, including children, youth, adults, older adults, and individuals with disabilities.

Duties and Responsibilities Here are some of the duties and responsibilities of a social worker:

• Assessing clients' needs: Social workers need to be able to identify the needs of their clients by listening to them, observing their behavior, and conducting assessments. They may use a variety of tools such as interviews, questionnaires, and diagnostic tests to evaluate a client's mental, emotional, and social well-being.
• Developing care plans: Based on their assessment, social workers develop care plans to address the client's specific needs. This may include recommending services such as counseling, therapy, or medical treatment. They may also refer clients to community resources such as job training programs or housing assistance.
• Providing counseling and support: Social workers provide emotional support to their clients and help them to develop coping strategies to deal with life's challenges. They may also provide counseling for issues such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse.
• Advocating for clients: Social workers advocate for their clients' rights and interests, especially when it comes to accessing services and resources. They may help clients navigate complex systems such as government benefits, healthcare, or legal procedures.
• Promoting social justice: Social workers strive to promote social justice and address systemic inequalities. They may work to change policies or advocate for reforms that address issues such as poverty, racism, and discrimination.
• Collaborating with other professionals: Social workers often work with other professionals such as psychologists, healthcare providers, and educators to provide comprehensive care to clients. They may also work with community organizations and government agencies to develop programs and policies that benefit their clients.
• Keeping accurate records: Social workers must maintain accurate and confidential records of their clients' assessments, treatment plans, and progress. This helps to ensure that clients receive appropriate care and that the social worker is meeting ethical and legal requirements.
• Continuing education: Social workers must stay up-to-date on the latest research and best practices in their field. They may attend workshops, seminars, and conferences to improve their knowledge and skills.

Types of Social Workers To best serve the needs of their clients, social workers often specialize in a particular area of practice. Specializations provide social workers with the knowledge and skills they need to address the unique challenges and issues facing specific populations or in specific practice settings. Specializations also allow social workers to develop expertise in a particular area of practice and to become leaders in their field.

• Family Social Workers : Family social workers provide support and interventions to families facing various challenges, such as financial difficulties, housing issues, substance abuse, domestic violence, or mental health concerns. They aim to enhance family functioning and strengthen relationships among family members.
• Healthcare Social Workers : Healthcare social workers work in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare settings. They help patients and their families navigate the healthcare system, provide emotional support, and connect patients with resources like financial assistance, home healthcare, and rehabilitation services.
• Substance Abuse Social Workers : Substance abuse social workers work with individuals and families affected by addiction to drugs or alcohol. They provide counseling and support to help individuals overcome their addiction, manage the underlying issues that contribute to substance abuse, and develop strategies for recovery. They also work with community organizations and government agencies to develop and implement prevention and treatment programs that help address substance abuse at a larger scale.
• Mental Health Social Workers: Mental health social workers provide support and assistance to individuals who are experiencing mental health issues or illnesses. They help clients develop coping strategies, access resources, and navigate the healthcare system. Mental health social workers may work in a variety of settings, including hospitals, clinics, schools, and community organizations.
• School Social Workers: School social workers work in schools to support the social, emotional, and academic well-being of students. They provide counseling and crisis intervention, help students connect with resources, and work with teachers and administrators to create a safe and supportive learning environment.
• Community Social Workers: Community social workers work in communities to identify and address social problems like poverty, homelessness, and inequality. They collaborate with community organizations and government agencies to develop and implement programs and services that help improve people's lives.
• Criminal Justice Social Workers: Criminal justice social workers work in the criminal justice system, helping individuals and families affected by crime and incarceration. They provide counseling and support to victims of crime, help ex-offenders reintegrate into society, and advocate for policies that promote fairness and justice.
• Geriatric Social Workers: Geriatric social workers work with older adults and their families to provide support and resources as they navigate the challenges of aging. They help seniors access healthcare, manage chronic conditions, and find housing and other services that promote their independence and quality of life.
• Military social workers: Military social workers provide support to members of the military and their families, addressing issues such as deployment, trauma, and PTSD. They may work on military bases or with organizations that support military families.
• Policy and Advocacy Social Workers: Policy and advocacy social workers work to advocate for social justice and change at the policy level. They may work for government agencies, non-profit organizations, or advocacy groups to develop and implement policies that address social and economic issues.
• Research Social Workers: Research social workers conduct research on social issues and work to develop evidence-based practices and interventions to address social problems. They may work in academic settings or research organizations.
• International Social Workers: International social workers work with individuals and communities in different countries to address social, economic, and cultural issues. They may work to provide humanitarian aid, promote social justice, and advocate for human rights, and work on issues such as poverty, human trafficking, refugee resettlement, and disaster relief.
• Forensic Social Workers: Forensic social workers work within the criminal justice system to support individuals who have been involved in or affected by crime. They may work in prisons, courts, or with law enforcement agencies to provide services such as mental health assessments, therapy, and case management.

Are you suited to be a social worker?

Social workers have distinct personalities . They tend to be artistic individuals, which means they’re creative, intuitive, sensitive, articulate, and expressive. They are unstructured, original, nonconforming, and innovative. Some of them are also social, meaning they’re kind, generous, cooperative, patient, caring, helpful, empathetic, tactful, and friendly.

Does this sound like you? Take our free career test to find out if social worker is one of your top career matches.

What is the workplace of a Social Worker like?

Social workers can work in a variety of settings, including government agencies, hospitals, schools, non-profit organizations, and private practices. Their work can involve interacting with clients, collaborating with colleagues, and performing administrative tasks.

Here are some examples of workplace settings for social workers:

• Government agencies: Social workers may work for federal, state, or local government agencies, such as the Department of Social Services or Child Protective Services. They may help clients access government programs and resources, provide counseling and support services, and advocate for clients' rights.
• Hospitals and healthcare facilities: Social workers may work in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare facilities to provide emotional support and counseling to patients and their families, help patients access community resources, and coordinate care with other healthcare providers.
• Schools: Social workers may work in schools to provide counseling and support services to students, families, and staff. They may also help students with disabilities or special needs access support services and accommodations.
• Non-profit organizations: Social workers may work for non-profit organizations that provide social services, such as homeless shelters, food banks, and community centers. They may help clients access services and resources, provide counseling and support services, and advocate for social justice.
• Private practices: Social workers may work in private practices, either independently or as part of a group practice. They may provide counseling and therapy services to clients with a variety of needs, such as mental health issues, substance abuse, or relationship problems.

Frequently Asked Questions

Pros and cons of being a social worker.

Social work is a noble profession that involves helping individuals, families, and communities improve their lives and overcome challenging situations. However, like any other profession, social work has pros and cons that are important to consider before pursuing a career in this field.

• Making a positive impact: One of the biggest advantages of being a social worker is the satisfaction of making a positive impact on people's lives. Social workers have the opportunity to help individuals and families overcome challenges and lead fulfilling lives.
• Job Diversity: Social work is a broad field that offers many different career paths. Social workers can work in a variety of settings, including schools, hospitals, community organizations, and government agencies. This diversity provides opportunities for social workers to find a career path that aligns with their interests and passions.
• Emotional reward: Social work can be emotionally rewarding as social workers have the opportunity to make meaningful connections with their clients. Helping others and seeing the progress of their clients can be a powerful motivator and a source of personal fulfillment.
• Emotional strain: Social work can be emotionally draining and stressful as social workers often deal with challenging and complex cases. Supporting clients through difficult situations can be emotionally taxing, and social workers must take care of their mental health and well-being to avoid burnout.
• Low pay: Despite the importance of their work, social workers are often paid lower wages compared to other professions with similar education requirements. This can make it challenging for social workers to make ends meet and can impact their job satisfaction.
• High caseloads: Social workers often have high caseloads, which means they have to manage a large number of clients simultaneously. This can be challenging and may affect the quality of care that social workers can provide to their clients.

Internet Explorer is no longer supported by Microsoft. To browse the NIHR site please use a modern, secure browser like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Microsoft Edge.

Bridging the gap between research and practice in social work

Published: 03 August 2022

Lyn Romeo, Chief Social Worker for Adults at the Department of Health and Social Care, discusses the top 10 priorities for social work research and highlights opportunities for the sector to engage and make the most of research.

I’m a strong advocate for research in social work. The importance of gaining insight from the field and the individuals within it, to inform policy and practice should not be underestimated. The NIHR-funded  Connecting People Intervention study is a great example of providing evidence-informed guidance for practitioners to support people to connect with others .

Recently, in my Chief Social Worker’s Annual Report , I highlighted one of my priorities is to promote and advise on investment in research, particularly to continue addressing the top 10 priorities for social work research identified by James Lind Alliance (JLA). By integrating research into all aspects of social work, I hope to see research as a key driver in the continuous improvement of social work practice.

This will require close working between researchers with research expertise and knowledge of how to secure research funding, and social workers who understand the challenges of carrying out research in practice. This will help projects get underway and will be vital in shaping and using the findings.

Top 10 research priorities for social work

Back in 2018, social workers and people who need or use social care services identified the  top 10 research priorities in adult social work in England.

These priorities highlighted important areas within social work, including supporting the wellbeing of people using services and carers , communication between workers and people using services ( particularly those with difficulty communicating, such as those with dementia and learning difficulties ) and the impact of the Care Act .

In the four years since we identified the research key priorities, there’s certainly been change. As we begin to adjust to COVID-19 and implement social care reform , I believe this is a moment in time to think and do things differently. With research taking its place complementing other forms of practice improvement and practice-based knowledge, we can continue to be determined in our ambitions for improving social work.

Progress so far

Earlier this year, King’s College London  published a report that explored which of the top 10 priority questions the JLA identified had been addressed. For all the top 10 research priorities, research was found that either partially, or fully addressed, the research question.

This is great progress - yet of course there is still a considerable way to go to address these questions fully. I hope now that we can continue to build upon the great research that is being carried out and develop a thriving research culture.

Opportunities to engage

The NIHR has reaffirmed its commitment to social care and social work research and there has never been more opportunities to get involved with research.

For researchers, NIHR and other funders have been increasing their funding and support for social work research, meaning there are a number of  funding opportunities available – notably Research for Social Care (RfSC) round 5 is open to applications now (deadline for applications September 2022) and would welcome applications which address the JLA top 10 priority questions.

Whilst I encourage social workers who want to get involved in and lead research to do, I also realise that not all practitioners need to be able to do research. The profession can benefit from a spirit of ‘research-mindedness’, that could include being involved in identifying and scoping research questions, sitting on funding panels to influence which studies get funded, being involved in delivering research, or using the evidence generated by research. The NIHR website has further details about how you can get involved in research .

I look forward to seeing exciting and innovative research that address the issues that matter most to social workers, building a culture where research is at the centre of social work practice and can contribute towards our ambition to serve people to have the best possible lives.

Lyn Romeo, Chief Social Worker for Adults at the Department of Health and Social Care

Extending the Shared Commitment through digital engagement

How the Vaccine Innovation Pathway is advancing vaccine clinical trials

How Wikipedia can help to disseminate research: an innovative NIHR project

How NIHR funding helps accelerate AI research, boost careers & improve health outcomes

How we can support research careers for health and social care professionals

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1.1 How do social workers know what to do?

Learning objectives.

• Reflect on how we know what to do as social workers
• Differentiate between micro-, meso-, and macro-level analysis
• Describe intuition, its purpose in social work, and its limitations
• Identify specific types of cognitive biases and how the influence thought
• Define scientific inquiry

What would you do?

Imagine you are a clinical social worker at a children’s mental health agency.  Today, you receive a referral from your town’s middle school about a client who often skips school, gets into fights, and is disruptive in class.  The school has suspended him and met with the parents multiple times, who say they practice strict discipline at home. Yet, the client’s behavior only gotten worse.  When you arrive at the school to meet with the boy, you notice he has difficulty maintaining eye contact with you, appears distracted, and has a few bruises on his legs.  At the same time, he is also a gifted artist, and you two spend the hour in which you assess him painting and drawing.

• Given the strengths and challenges you notice, what interventions would you select for this client and how would you know your interventions worked?

Imagine you are a social worker in an urban food desert, a geographic area in which there is no grocery store that sells fresh food.  Many of your low-income clients rely on food from the dollar store or convenience stores in order to live or simply order takeout.  You are becoming concerned about your clients’ health, as many of them are obese and say they are unable to buy fresh food.  Because convenience stores are more expensive and your clients mostly survive on minimum wage jobs or Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, they often have to rely on food pantries towards the end of the month once their money runs out.  You have spent the past month building a coalition composed of members from your community, including non-profit agencies, religious groups, and healthcare workers to lobby your city council.

• How should your group address the issue of food deserts in your community?  What intervention do you suggest?  How would you know if your intervention worked?

You are a social worker working at a public policy center focused on homelessness.  Your city is seeking a large federal grant to address the growing problem of homelessness in your city and has hired you as a consultant to work on the grant proposal.  After conducting a needs assessment in collaboration with local social service agencies and interviewing people who are homeless, you meet with city councilmembers to talk about your options to create a program.  Local agencies want to spend the money to build additional capacity at existing shelters in the community.  They also want to create a transitional housing program at an unused apartment complex where people can live after the shelter and learn independent living skills.  On the other hand, the clients you interview want to receive housing vouchers so they can rent an apartment from a landlord in the community.  They also fear the agencies running the shelter and transitional housing program would dictate how to live their lives and impose unnecessary rules, like restrictions on guests or quiet hours.  When you ask the agencies about client feedback, they state that clients could not be trusted to manage in their own apartments and need the structure and supervision provided by agency support workers.

• What kind of program should your city choose to implement?  Which program is most likely to be effective?

Assuming you’ve taken a social work course before, you will notice that the case studies cover different levels of analysis in the social ecosystem—micro, meso, and macro.  At the micro-level , social workers examine the smallest levels of interaction; even in some cases, just “the self” alone. That is our misbehaving child in case 1.  When social workers investigate groups and communities, such as our food desert in case 2, their inquiry is at the meso-level . At the macro-level , social workers examine social structures and institutions. Research at the macro-level examines large-scale patterns, including culture and government policy, as in case 3. These domains interact with each other, and it is common for a social work research project to address more than one level of analysis. Moreover, research that occurs on one level is likely to have implications at the other levels of analysis.

How do social workers know what to do?

Welcome to social work research.  This chapter begins with three problems that social workers might face in practice and three questions about what a social worker should do next.  If you haven’t already, spend a minute or two thinking about how you would respond to each case and jot down some notes.  How would you respond to each of these cases?

I assume it is unlikely you are an expert in the areas of children’s mental health, community responses to food deserts, and homelessness policy.  Don’t worry, I’m not either.  In fact, for many of you this textbook will likely come at an early point in your social work education, so it may seem unfair for me to ask you what the right answers are.  And to disappoint you further, this course will not teach you the right answer to these questions.  It will, however, teach you how to answer these questions for yourself.  Social workers must learn how to examine the literature on a topic, come to a reasoned conclusion, and use that knowledge in their practice.  Similarly, social workers engage in research to make sure their interventions are helping, not harming, clients and to contribute to social science as well as social justice.

Again, assuming you did not have advanced knowledge of the topics  in the case studies, when you thought about what you might do in those practice situations, you were likely using intuition  (Cheung, 2016).  [1]  Intuition is a way of knowing that is mostly unconscious.  You simply have a gut feeling about what you should do.  As you think about a problem such as those in the case studies, you notice certain details and ignore others.  Using your past experiences, you apply knowledge that seems to be relevant and make predictions about what might be true.

In this way, intuition is based on direct experience .  Many of us know things simply because we’ve experienced them directly. For example, you would know that electric fences can be pretty dangerous and painful if you touched one while standing in a puddle of water. We all probably have times we can recall when we learned something because we experienced it. If you grew up in Minnesota, you would observe plenty of kids learning each winter that it really is true that your tongue will stick to metal if it’s very cold outside. Similarly, if you passed a police officer on a two-lane highway while driving 20 miles over the speed limit, you would probably learn that that’s a good way to earn a traffic ticket.

Intuition and direct experience are powerful forces.  Uniquely, social work is a discipline that values intuition, though it will take quite a while for you to develop what social workers refer to as practice   wisdom .  Practice wisdom is the “learning by doing” that develops as one practices social work over a period of time.  Social workers also reflect on their practice, independently and with colleagues, which sharpens their intuitions and opens their mind to other viewpoints.  While your direct experience in social work may be limited at this point, feel confident that through reflective practice you will attain practice wisdom.

However, it’s important to note that intuitions are not always correct.  Think back to the first case study.  What might be your novice diagnosis for this child’s behavior?  Does he have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) because he is distractible and getting into trouble at school?  Or are those symptoms of autism spectrum disorder or an attachment disorder?  Are the bruises on his legs an indicator of ADHD, or do they indicate possible physical abuse at home?  Even if you arrived at an accurate assessment of the situation, you would still need to figure out what kind of intervention to use with the client.  If he has a mental health issue, you might say, “give him therapy.”  Well…what kind of therapy?  Should we use cognitive-behavioral therapy, play therapy, art therapy, family therapy, or animal assisted therapy?  Should we try a combination of therapy and medication prescribed by a psychiatrist?

We could guess which intervention would be best…but in practice, that would be highly unethical.  If we guessed wrong, we could be wasting time, or worse, actively harming a client.  We need to ground our social work interventions with clients and systems with something more secure than our intuition and experience.

Cognitive biases

Although the human mind is a marvel of observation and data analysis, there are universal flaws in thinking that must be overcome.  We all rely on mental shortcuts to help us make sense of a continuous stream of new information.  All people, including me and you, must train our minds to be aware of predictable flaws in thinking, termed cognitive biases .  Here is a link to the Wikipedia entry on cognitive biases .  As you can see, it is quite long.  We will review some of the most important ones here, but take a minute and browse around to get a sense of how baked-in cognitive biases are to how humans think.

The most important cognitive bias for social scientists to be aware of is confirmation bias .  Confirmation bias involves observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already think is true.  No person is a blank slate.  We all arrive at each moment with a set of beliefs, experiences, and models of how the world works that we develop over time.  Often, these are grounded in our own personal experiences.  Confirmation bias assumes these intuitions are correct and ignores or manipulates new information order to avoid challenging what we already believe to be true.

Confirmation bias can be seen in many ways.  Sometimes, people will only pay attention to the information that fits their preconceived ideas and ignore information that does not fit.  This is called selective observation .  Other times, people will make hasty conclusions about a broad pattern based on only a few observations.  This is called overgeneralization .  Let’s walk through an example and see how they each would function.

In our second case study, we are trying to figure out how to help people who receive SNAP (formerly Food Stamps) who live in a food desert.  Let’s say that we have arrived at a solution and are now lobbying the city council to implement it.  There are many people who have negative beliefs about people who are “on welfare.”  These people believe individuals who receive social welfare benefits spend their money irresponsibly, are too lazy to get a job, and manipulate the system to maintain or increase their government payout. People expressing this belief may provide an example like Louis Cuff , who bought steak and lobster with his SNAP benefits and resold them for a profit.

City council members who hold these beliefs may ignore the truth about your client population—that people experiencing poverty usually spend their money responsibly and genuinely need help accessing fresh and healthy food.  This would be an example of selective observation, only looking at the cases that confirm their biased beliefs about people in poverty and ignoring evidence that challenges that perspective.  Likely, these are grounded in overgeneralization, in which one example, like Mr. Cuff, is applied broadly to the population of people using social welfare programs.  Social workers in this situation would have to hope that city council members are open to another perspective and can be swayed by evidence that challenges their beliefs.  Otherwise, they will continue to rely on a biased view of people in poverty when they create policies.

But where do these beliefs and biases come from?  Perhaps, someone who the person considers an authority told them that people in poverty are lazy and manipulative.  Naively relying on authority can take many forms.  We might rely on our parents, friends, or religious leaders as authorities on a topic.  We might consult someone who identifies as an expert in the field and simply follow what they say.  We might hop aboard a “bandwagon” and adopt the fashionable ideas and theories of our peers and friends.

Now, it is important to note that experts in the field should generally be trusted to provide well-informed answers on a topic, though that knowledge should be receptive to skeptical critique and will develop over time as more scholars study the topic.  There are limits to skepticisim, however.  Disagreeing with experts about global warming, the shape of the earth, or the efficacy and safety of vaccines does not make one free of cognitive biases.  On the contrary, it is likely that the person is falling victim to the Dunning -Kruger effect , in which unskilled people overestimate their ability to find the truth.  As this comic illustrates, they are at the top of Mount Stupid.  Only through rigorous, scientific inquiry can they progress down the back slope and hope to increase their depth of knowledge about a topic.

Scientific Inquiry

Cognitive biases are most often expressed when people are using informal observation.  Until I asked at the beginning of this chapter, you may have had little reason to formally observe and make sense of information about children’s mental health, food deserts, or homelessness policy.  Because you engaged in informal observation, it is more likely that you will express cognitive biases in your responses.  The problem with informal observation is that sometimes it is right, and sometimes it is wrong. And without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of our observations, we can never really be sure that our informal observations are accurate.  In order to minimize the effect of cognitive biases and come up with the truest understanding of a topic, we must apply a systematic framework for understanding what we observe.

The opposite of informal observation is scientific inquiry, used interchangeably with the term  research methods  in this text.  These terms refer to an organized, logical way of knowing that involves both theory and observation.  Science accounts for the limitations of cognitive biases—not perfectly, though—by ensuring observations are done rigorously, following a prescribed set of steps.  Scientists clearly describe the methods they use to conduct observations and create theories about the social world.  Theories are tested by observing the social world, and they can be shown to be false or incomplete.  In short, scientists try to learn the truth.  Social workers use scientific truths in their practice and conduct research to revise and extend our understanding of what is true in the social world.  Social workers who ignore science and act based on biased or informal observation may actively harm clients.

Key Takeaways

• Social work research occurs on the micro-, meso-, and macro-level.
• Intuition is a power, though woefully incomplete, guide to action in social work.
• All human thought is subject to cognitive biases.
• Scientific inquiry accounts for cognitive biases by applying an organized, logical way of observing and theorizing about the world.
• Authority- learning by listening to what people in authority say is true
• Cognitive biases- predictable flaws in thinking
• Confirmation bias- observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already think is true
• Direct experience- learning through informal observation
• Dunning-Kruger effect- when unskilled people overestimate their ability and knowledge (and experts underestimate their ability and knowledge)
• Intuition- your “gut feeling” about what to do
• Macro-level- examining social structures and institutions
• Meso-level- examining interaction between groups
• Micro-level- examining the smallest levels of interaction, usually individuals
• Overgeneralization- using limited observations to make assumptions about broad patterns
• Practice wisdom- “learning by doing” that guides social work intervention and increases over time
• Research methods- an organized, logical way of knowing based on theory and observation

Image Attributions

Thinking woman by Free-Photos via Pixabay CC-0

Light bulb by MasterTux via Pixabay CC-0

• Cheung, J. C. S. (2016). Researching practice wisdom in social work. Journal of Social Intervention: Theory and Practice , 25 (3), 24-38. ↵

Scientific Inquiry in Social Work Copyright © 2018 by Matthew DeCarlo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• UB Directory
• School of Social Work >
• Admissions >
• Explore the Social Work Profession >

What is Social Work and What Do Social Workers Do?

Social work is a profession in which trained professionals are devoted to helping vulnerable people and communities work through challenges they face in everyday life. Social workers practice in a wide variety of settings, united in their commitment to advocating for and improving the lives of individuals, families, groups and societies.

On this page:

What is the role of social workers.

While there is a diverse array of settings in which social workers practice, together social workers share the commitment to:

• Promote social welfare
• Help people from all backgrounds overcome the individual challenges they are facing
• Advocate for social and economic justice for members of diverse communities
• Embody the  social work code of ethics

Who do social workers help?

Social workers work directly with, and on behalf of, a wide variety of populations. Some examples are:

• Children and adolescents
• Individuals with disabilities
• Individuals who are experiencing poverty or homelessness
• Medical patients
• LGBTQ+ individuals
• Individuals struggling with addiction
• Individuals with mental health concerns
• Refugees and immigrants
• Aging individuals
• Couples and families
• Victims of violence or trauma
• Individuals who are incarcerated or in the criminal justice system

Social workers are uniquely positioned to help our fellow members of society who are vulnerable, oppressed or marginalized.

Ask yourself: Who are you most passionate about helping? Chances are you can make a difference with that population as a social worker!

Scope of social work practice

Social workers create change in many ways — from high, systems-level change (macro practice) to the individual level (micro practice). Social workers make an impact at all levels of practice.

When most people think of social workers, they think of micro-level social workers. These are the individuals who are working with people one-on-one to help them create change in their lives. Examples of micro-level social workers include:

• School social workers who help students to cope with problems they are facing at school and at home
• Child and family case workers at a county social services department helping a variety of at-risk populations
• Legal advocates helping individuals navigate the criminal justice system
• Clinical social workers who provide counseling services (addictions, mental health, marriage and family, trauma, etc.)
• Medical social workers that provide and coordinate services for patients during and after their treatment

Social workers at the mezzo (or middle) level, tend to work with larger groups or institutions as opposed to individuals, or they may have an administrative role overseeing a program or service delivery. Some examples of mezzo social work roles include:

• Social workers who supervise a team of others who provide direct practice interventions
• Leaders of non-profit or community agencies
• Community organizers who work with community members to create change within neighborhoods, towns or regions
• Health educators who provide training to various groups about public health issues
• Faculty members at a university teaching and training new social workers

Social workers at the macro level are working to create high-level change. While they don't necessarily work with populations directly, the changes they are making in programs, policy, research and other areas trickle down to affect many. Some examples of macro-level social work include:

• Social work researchers and data analysts
• Policymakers and grant writers
• Local, state and federal representatives, lobbyists and political advocates
• Program development and evaluation specialists

Macro-level social workers less frequently have the words "social worker" in their official job title as compared to micro-level social workers, but they are still able to step into a myriad of roles as a result of their comprehensive graduate education. 

Where are social workers employed?

There are a diverse range of agencies that employ social workers, and the job descriptions for social workers vary greatly depending on where they work. Some examples of places that employ social workers are:

• Schools (all levels, including higher education)
• Hospitals and health care agencies
• Government agencies (local, state, federal), including Veteran's Affairs (VA) agencies and the military
• Community development and outreach agencies
• County, state and federal legal agencies (courts, prisons, etc.)
• Clinics and counseling agencies

Some social workers are also self-employed in private practice as licensed clinical social workers (LCSW). 

What are the education and license requirements for social work?

The  Council on Social Work Education (CSWE)  is the national accrediting body for all bachelor's and master's level social work programs.

Some entry-level social work positions only require a bachelor's degree in social work (BSW) or another related field. Many individuals find, however, that in order to expand their job opportunities and earning potential, they need a Master of Social Work degree (MSW), as individuals with MSW degrees have more in-depth training, which leads to different and higher level job responsibilities.

Many jobs may also require a social work license. Depending on the state, individuals may need to have their master's in social work (MSW) in order qualify for licensure.

Individuals do not need to have a bachelor's degree in social work (BSW) in order to obtain their master's in social work (MSW). Many MSW programs (including ours!) admit students from all kinds of undergraduate programs. Psychology, sociology, criminal justice, English and other liberal art majors are often found in MSW programs, but any bachelor's degree can prepare students well to become social workers. Read more about our MSW admissions prerequisites here.

Social work licensure varies from state to state. 

Each state licensing board determines the different kinds of licenses social workers can earn, what level of degree is required and the scope of practice (what they are allowed to do). View the licensure requirements and types of credentials for your state or province on the ASWB page . 

In New York State, social workers are only licensed at the master's level, which means they first need to earn their MSW degree. The New York State Office of the Professions is the official licensing body for a variety of licensed professions, including social work. There are a few different kinds of licenses individuals with an MSW degree can earn. 

NY Licensed Master Social Worker (LMSW)

Not all states have the equivalent of New York's LMSW, which is the initial general practice social work license individuals can earn once they complete their MSW degree from an accredited program and pass a licensure exam. Many, but not all, social work positions in New York State require an LMSW.

NY Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW)

All states require a license to practice clinical social work. Clinical social workers offer therapeutic counseling to clients struggling with health, mental health, addiction, and other issues. Social workers holding clinical licensure are qualified to make diagnoses and provide clinical treatment.

In New York State, this license is the LCSW, which stands for "Licensed Clinical Social Worker." The LCSW is an advanced license for those interested in clinical practice.  Not all social workers need to get their LCSW, as it is just for individuals who want to practice this specific subset of social work.

LCSWs in New York need to have an MSW degree that includes clinical coursework and post-graduate supervised work experience in a clinical setting before they can take the licensing exam. 

Social workers with their LCSW can then work towards obtaining the additional supervised practice hours to add their "R" (which would update their license to LCSW-R). The "R" indicates that the social worker has psychotherapy privileges. 

Learn more: Reliable resources for information about the profession

The Occupational Outlook Handbook is compiled by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and includes information about all kinds of careers, including social work. In addition to information about the profession, it also has data regarding average salary and future job outlook. 

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is a professional organization whose membership is made up of social workers from across the country. The NASW website includes educational information about choosing the profession of social work, in addition to helpful information for social work practitioners.

The Grand Challenges for Social Work are championed by the American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare. They call for scientific and interdisciplinary solutions to large societal issues. The Grand Challenges include some great examples of issues social workers care about and are working to mitigate. 

The inSocialWork Podcast  has been produced here in the UB School of Social Work for more than 10 years, and new episodes are released monthly. We bring in experts from across the country to discuss different social work topics and issues. Listening is a great way to explore the different populations and issues relevant to social work, as well as to learn about the variety of roles they fill in our society.

If you aren't sure where to start, here are our top five episode recommendations in no particular order (but feel free to look for other topics you are interested in!)

• Imposter Syndrome Within the Social Work Profession: Recognizing Your True Potential (Episode 237)
• Exploring the Integration of Social Workers into the Library Setting (Episode 264)
• Wanted: Social Workers on Capitol Hill (Episode 203)
• Smart Decarceration (Episode 212)
• Multisystemic Therapy: A Strengths-Based, Collaborative Approach for Working with Negative Adolescent Behaviors (Episode 201)

• Media Science

A Q&A with Amml Hussein, COM’s 2024 Civic Science Fellow

• Madison Mercado

Amml Hussein, lecturer at Rutgers University and adjunct professor of social work at Seton Hall University, was named the College of Communication’s next Civic Science Fellow to help create new certificate and degree programs at the college.

The Civic Science Fellow Program aims to research the intersection of science and technology with the political and social spheres by utilizing the skills of emerging leaders from diverse backgrounds. Fellows at universities and research organizations across the country are tasked with multidisciplinary projects in science communication and community engagement.

Hussein, also the director of research on the Council of Social Work Education , will help implement a new online Civic Science Communication master’s certificate to launch this September. The program will contain foundational content for a new master’s degree in Health and Science Communication as well.

In an interview, Hussein says she intends to bring her passion and experience as social worker, professor, and designer of other university courses to help broaden civic science engagement at COM to students inside and out of the program.

This interview was edited for length and clarity.

COM: Now that you’ve been named the next Civic Science Fellow, what are you excited to do while working at COM?

Hussein: I’m super excited about developing the certificate program and also later on to develop the master’s in civic science and communications. I’m a social scientist, so I do a lot of research in human behavior and trauma healing and bring that unique lens from which I see the social environment. With a holistic lens, bringing that into science communication and how we might talk about these issues and raise awareness on these very important topics, especially as it relates to marginalized communities and people who we don’t hear their narratives, I’m really excited to contribute in that respect at the college.  I also am really careful about the language that we use when we talk about minoritized and marginalized communities, that’s something I’m very passionate about, and I want to hopefully bring that to light here at Boston University. When we do talk about these important issues, that we’re being sensitive using language that’s humanizing is really important. I’m eager to develop initiatives that promote science literacy among people of all ages and backgrounds. I’m super excited about organizing workshops, creating educational materials, and hosting public lectures to make complex scientific concepts more accessible and understandable to everyone. I’m also eager to engage more with our local communities. This is essential for fostering a culture of scientific curiosity and understanding. I’m excited to collaborate with schools, community centers, and other organizations to bring science directly to the people and spark their interest in various scientific disciplines. Science has the power to address some of the most pressing challenges facing society today, from climate change to healthcare disparities. I look forward to working with interdisciplinary teams to develop innovative solutions and strategies that leverage scientific knowledge for the betterment of our community. Diversity and inclusion are crucial for the advancement of science. I’m committed to promoting diversity in STEM fields and creating an inclusive environment where everyone feels empowered to participate in scientific discourse and discovery. As a Civic Science Fellow, I’ll have the opportunity to collaborate with researchers and experts both within and outside of COM. I’m excited to learn from their expertise and contribute to meaningful projects that have the potential to make a real difference in people’s lives.

COM: What do you think you can help change with the students, curriculum and research?

Hussein:  I am all about developing communities of practice where it includes not just the academics, but we also want to include students, industry partners, our stakeholders from the community, our elected officials and policy makers. I am really excited to develop that kind of a model where we are engaging not only the students, but also giving them opportunities to translate research and their projects into policy.  I work at a lab in Seton Hall where we do that kind of work. We translate research into policy, and it’s been very wonderful to see that and to offer students those opportunities. I think that’s really key. It really makes a big difference in the student experience when they’re able to have those relationships with their elected officials and be able to express what they are studying in their courses and bring it into policy that impacts their communities. I hope to build a similar kind of structure at Boston University where students gain more of those experiential learning opportunities, that they’re able to make their work relevant in the policy space, and shed light on those important issues that are imperative in their local communities. I think having that impact excites me a lot and motivates me to keep doing this.

COM: Can you tell me a bit more about what civic science communications is, exactly, and how it relates to this program you’re creating?

Hussein: I have been working on a data scan for all the different programs that are closely related to civic science. There’s a lot of different certificate programs that are available across the U.S. and at different universities, so I’m starting there just to get a sense of what’s out there and so that we can build our program more uniquely and position it so that it’s more competitive. And then in terms of civic science, I think it’s a really important area. It’s a big opportunity for us to work on the way that we describe and talk about different racial or ethnic disparities in different communities as it relates to racial disparities in health outcomes as well as social determinants of health.  Also, access to healthcare is a huge problem when we look across regions. Having that civic science frame of reference is important in shedding light on those opportunities for us to grow as a nation and to develop initiatives and programs to address those gaps in care. I think that civic science is a huge area where we can help bridge the gap between different policies, different programs, and initiatives that we develop and the way that we communicate to the public.

COM: What, in your past professional experience, are you most proud of creating or implementing?

Hussein: I am involved in collecting and analyzing our Council on Social Work Education annual survey to help us understand the social work education landscape across the US and other countries where they offer accredited programs. Each year, we gather data on student enrollment, graduation rates, student loan burdens, and other crucial metrics to advocate for improvements in educational opportunities. Our survey also delves into faculty demographics, including age, race, gender, salary, and administrative roles. The resulting annual report allows me to illuminate narratives and utilize data visualizations to convey important stories. Addressing disparities, particularly in faculty representation, is a point of pride for me, as our efforts contribute to advancing social work education nationwide.   Another initiative I spearheaded with my team is the Research Policy Practice Summit, which provided student fellows with firsthand exposure to the interconnected realms of research, policy, and practice. By organizing panels, keynote speeches, and workshops featuring industry leaders, we offered student scholars invaluable insights into these areas. Additionally, arranging meetings with local elected officials during a visit to Capitol Hill provided a unique opportunity for our student fellows to engage with policymakers directly.   I am deeply engaged in innovative research exploring the intersection of artificial intelligence and trauma healing. Collaborating with a research partner, we’re pioneering methods to help trauma survivors envision their post-trauma identities and futures through expressive arts and AI technology. By guiding individuals through reflexive activities and using AI to augment images, we aim to facilitate healing and motivate individuals to envision positive futures beyond their traumas. Grounded in future self-theory, this research holds promise for empowering individuals to move forward from trauma and embrace hopeful narratives for their lives. This work is particularly rewarding due to its novelty and potential to make a meaningful impact in an emerging field.

COM: As an undergraduate, you studied  journalism and media studies. Since you’re coming back to a communications focus here at COM, how did that background influence your professional experience as a social worker and other work to create this program?

Hussein: As an undergraduate, my focus was on journalism and media studies, a choice driven by my desire to articulate thoughts concisely. This skill has been invaluable throughout my career, enabling effective communication across various professional endeavors. Whether in academia, social work, or my current role, the ability to craft compelling narratives has consistently proved advantageous. Returning to a communications focus at COM feels like a natural progression for me. The fellowship presents an ideal opportunity to merge my current research projects with communication strategies, akin to the work I undertake at the council. I’m thrilled to have been selected and eager to collaborate with Dean Mariette DiChristina on developing new initiatives that prioritize civic science and the power of storytelling.

Related News

Public’s confidence in its ability to evaluate ai-generated text cause for concern, says com researcher.

How Does Science Misinformation Affect Americans from Underrepresented Communities?

Dating apps not best way to find soulmate — but still worth it, survey says.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1.1 How do social workers know what to do?

Learning objectives.

• Reflect on how we know what to do as social workers
• Differentiate between micro-, meso-, and macro-level analysis
• Describe intuition, its purpose in social work, and its limitations
• Identify specific types of cognitive biases and how the influence thought
• Define scientific inquiry

What would you do?

Imagine you are a clinical social worker at a children’s mental health agency.  Today, you receive a referral from your town’s middle school about a client who often skips school, gets into fights, and is disruptive in class.  The school has suspended him and met with the parents multiple times, who say they practice strict discipline at home. Yet, the client’s behavior only gotten worse.  When you arrive at the school to meet with the boy, you notice he has difficulty maintaining eye contact with you, appears distracted, and has a few bruises on his legs.  At the same time, he is also a gifted artist, and you two spend the hour in which you assess him painting and drawing.

• Given the strengths and challenges you notice, what interventions would you select for this client and how would you know your interventions worked?

Imagine you are a social worker in an urban food desert, a geographic area in which there is no grocery store that sells fresh food.  Many of your low-income clients rely on food from the dollar store or convenience stores in order to live or simply order takeout.  You are becoming concerned about your clients’ health, as many of them are obese and say they are unable to buy fresh food.  Because convenience stores are more expensive and your clients mostly survive on minimum wage jobs or Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, they often have to rely on food pantries towards the end of the month once their money runs out.  You have spent the past month building a coalition composed of members from your community, including non-profit agencies, religious groups, and healthcare workers to lobby your city council.

• How should your group address the issue of food deserts in your community?  What intervention do you suggest?  How would you know if your intervention worked?

You are a social worker working at a public policy center focused on homelessness.  Your city is seeking a large federal grant to address the growing problem of homelessness in your city and has hired you as a consultant to work on the grant proposal.  After conducting a needs assessment in collaboration with local social service agencies and interviewing people who are homeless, you meet with city councilmembers to talk about your options to create a program.  Local agencies want to spend the money to build additional capacity at existing shelters in the community.  They also want to create a transitional housing program at an unused apartment complex where people can live after the shelter and learn independent living skills.  On the other hand, the clients you interview want to receive housing vouchers so they can rent an apartment from a landlord in the community.  They also fear the agencies running the shelter and transitional housing program would dictate how to live their lives and impose unnecessary rules, like restrictions on guests or quiet hours.  When you ask the agencies about client feedback, they state that clients could not be trusted to manage in their own apartments and need the structure and supervision provided by agency support workers.

• What kind of program should your city choose to implement?  Which program is most likely to be effective?

Assuming you’ve taken a social work course before, you will notice that the case studies cover different levels of analysis in the social ecosystem—micro, meso, and macro.  At the micro-level , social workers examine the smallest levels of interaction; even in some cases, just “the self” alone. That is our child in case 1.  When social workers investigate groups and communities, such as our food desert in case 2, their inquiry is at the meso-level . At the macro-level , social workers examine social structures and institutions. Research at the macro-level examines large-scale patterns, including culture and government policy, as in case 3. These domains interact with each other, and it is common for a social work research project to address more than one level of analysis. Moreover, research that occurs on one level is likely to have implications at the other levels of analysis.

How do social workers know what to do?

Welcome to social work research.  This chapter begins with three problems that social workers might face in practice and three questions about what a social worker should do next.  If you haven’t already, spend a minute or two thinking about how you would respond to each case and jot down some notes.  How would you respond to each of these cases?

For many of you this textbook will likely come at an early point in your social work education, so it may seem unfair to ask you what the right answers are.  And to disappoint you further, this course will not teach you the right answer to these questions.  It will, however, teach you how to answer these questions for yourself.  Social workers must learn how to examine the literature on a topic, come to a reasoned conclusion, and use that knowledge in their practice.  Similarly, social workers engage in research to make sure their interventions are helping, not harming, clients and to contribute to social science as well as social justice.

Again, assuming you did not have advanced knowledge of the topics  in the case studies, when you thought about what you might do in those practice situations, you were likely using intuition  (Cheung, 2016). Intuition is a way of knowing that is mostly unconscious.  You simply have a gut feeling about what you should do.  As you think about a problem such as those in the case studies, you notice certain details and ignore others.  Using your past experiences, you apply knowledge that seems to be relevant and make predictions about what might be true.

In this way, intuition is based on direct experience .  Many of us know things simply because we’ve experienced them directly. For example, you would know that electric fences can be pretty dangerous and painful if you touched one while standing in a puddle of water. We all probably have times we can recall when we learned something because we experienced it. If you grew up in Minnesota, you would observe plenty of kids learning each winter that it really is true that your tongue will stick to metal if it’s very cold outside. Similarly, if you passed a police officer on a two-lane highway while driving 20 miles over the speed limit, you would probably learn that that’s a good way to earn a traffic ticket.

Intuition and direct experience are powerful forces.  Uniquely, social work is a discipline that values intuition, though it will take quite a while for you to develop what social workers refer to as practice   wisdom .  Practice wisdom is the “learning by doing” that develops as one practices social work over a period of time.  Social workers also reflect on their practice, independently and with colleagues, which sharpens their intuitions and opens their mind to other viewpoints.  While your direct experience in social work may be limited at this point, feel confident that through reflective practice you will attain practice wisdom.

However, it’s important to note that intuitions are not always correct.  Think back to the first case study.  What might be your novice diagnosis for this child’s behavior?  Does he have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) because he is distractible and getting into trouble at school?  Or are those symptoms of autism spectrum disorder or an attachment disorder?  Are the bruises on his legs an indicator of ADHD, or do they indicate possible physical abuse at home?  Even if you arrived at an accurate assessment of the situation, you would still need to figure out what kind of intervention to use with the client.  If he has a mental health issue, you might say, “give him therapy.”  Well…what kind of therapy?  Should we use cognitive-behavioral therapy, play therapy, art therapy, family therapy, or animal assisted therapy?  Should we try a combination of therapy and medication prescribed by a psychiatrist?

We could guess which intervention would be best…but in practice, that would be highly unethical.  If we guessed wrong, we could be wasting time, or worse, actively harming a client.  We need to ground our social work interventions with clients and systems with something more secure than our intuition and experience.

Cognitive biases

Although the human mind is a marvel of observation and data analysis, there are universal flaws in thinking that must be overcome.  We all rely on mental shortcuts to help us make sense of a continuous stream of new information.  All people, including me and you, must train our minds to be aware of predictable flaws in thinking, termed cognitive biases .  Here is a link to the Wikipedia entry on cognitive biases .  As you can see, it is quite long.  We will review some of the most important ones here, but take a minute and browse around to get a sense of how baked-in cognitive biases are to how humans think.

The most important cognitive bias for social scientists to be aware of is confirmation bias .  Confirmation bias involves observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already think is true.  No person is a blank slate.  We all arrive at each moment with a set of beliefs, experiences, and models of how the world works that we develop over time.  Often, these are grounded in our own personal experiences.  Confirmation bias assumes these intuitions are correct and ignores or manipulates new information order to avoid challenging what we already believe to be true.

Confirmation bias can be seen in many ways.  Sometimes, people will only pay attention to the information that fits their preconceived ideas and ignore information that does not fit.  This is called selective observation .  Other times, people will make hasty conclusions about a broad pattern based on only a few observations.  This is called overgeneralization .  Let’s walk through an example and see how they each would function.

In our second case study, we are trying to figure out how to help people who receive SNAP (formerly Food Stamps) who live in a food desert.  Let’s say that we have arrived at a solution and are now lobbying the city council to implement it.  There are many people who have negative beliefs about people who are “on welfare.”  These people believe individuals who receive social welfare benefits spend their money irresponsibly, are too lazy to get a job, and manipulate the system to maintain or increase their government payout. People expressing this belief may provide an example like Louis Cuff , who bought steak and lobster with his SNAP benefits and resold them for a profit.

City council members who hold these beliefs may ignore the truth about your client population—that people experiencing poverty usually spend their money responsibly and genuinely need help accessing fresh and healthy food.  This would be an example of selective observation, only looking at the cases that confirm their biased beliefs about people in poverty and ignoring evidence that challenges that perspective.  Likely, these are grounded in overgeneralization, in which one example, like Mr. Cuff, is applied broadly to the population of people using social welfare programs.  Social workers in this situation would have to hope that city council members are open to another perspective and can be swayed by evidence that challenges their beliefs.  Otherwise, they will continue to rely on a biased view of people in poverty when they create policies.

But where do these beliefs and biases come from?  Perhaps, someone who the person considers an authority told them that people in poverty are lazy and manipulative.  Naively relying on authority can take many forms.  We might rely on our parents, friends, or religious leaders as authorities on a topic.  We might consult someone who identifies as an expert in the field and simply follow what they say.  We might hop aboard a “bandwagon” and adopt the fashionable ideas and theories of our peers and friends.

Now, it is important to note that experts in the field should generally be trusted to provide well-informed answers on a topic, though that knowledge should be receptive to skeptical critique and will develop over time as more scholars study the topic.  There are limits to skepticism, however.  Disagreeing with experts about global warming, the shape of the earth, or the efficacy and safety of vaccines does not make one free of cognitive biases.  On the contrary, it is likely that the person is falling victim to the Dunning -Kruger effect , in which unskilled people overestimate their ability to find the truth.  As this comic illustrates, they are at the top of Mount Stupid.  Only through rigorous, scientific inquiry can they progress down the back slope and hope to increase their depth of knowledge about a topic.

Scientific Inquiry

Cognitive biases are most often expressed when people are using informal observation.  Until you read the question at the beginning of this chapter, you may have had little reason to formally observe and make sense of information about children’s mental health, food deserts, or homelessness policy.  Because you engaged in informal observation, it is more likely that you will express cognitive biases in your responses.  The problem with informal observation is that sometimes it is right, and sometimes it is wrong. And without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of our observations, we can never really be sure that our informal observations are accurate.  In order to minimize the effect of cognitive biases and come up with the truest understanding of a topic, we must apply a systematic framework for understanding what we observe.

The opposite of informal observation is scientific inquiry, used interchangeably with the term  research methods  in this text.  These terms refer to an organized, logical way of knowing that involves both theory and observation.  Science accounts for the limitations of cognitive biases—not perfectly, though—by ensuring observations are done rigorously, following a prescribed set of steps.  Scientists clearly describe the methods they use to conduct observations and create theories about the social world.  Theories are tested by observing the social world, and they can be shown to be false or incomplete.  In short, scientists try to learn the truth.  Social workers use scientific truths in their practice and conduct research to revise and extend our understanding of what is true in the social world.  Social workers who ignore science and act based on biased or informal observation may actively harm clients.

Key Takeaways

• Social work research occurs on the micro-, meso-, and macro-level.
• Intuition is a power, though woefully incomplete, guide to action in social work.
• All human thought is subject to cognitive biases.
• Scientific inquiry accounts for cognitive biases by applying an organized, logical way of observing and theorizing about the world.
• Authority- learning by listening to what people in authority say is true
• Cognitive biases- predictable flaws in thinking
• Confirmation bias- observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already think is true
• Direct experience- learning through informal observation
• Dunning-Kruger effect- when unskilled people overestimate their ability and knowledge (and experts underestimate their ability and knowledge)
• Intuition- your “gut feeling” about what to do
• Macro-level- examining social structures and institutions
• Meso-level- examining interaction between groups
• Micro-level- examining the smallest levels of interaction, usually individuals
• Overgeneralization- using limited observations to make assumptions about broad patterns
• Practice wisdom- “learning by doing” that guides social work intervention and increases over time
• Research methods- an organized, logical way of knowing based on theory and observation

Image Attributions

Thinking woman by Free-Photos via Pixabay CC-0

Light bulb by MasterTux via Pixabay CC-0

Foundations of Social Work Research Copyright © 2020 by Rebecca L. Mauldin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Program Finder
• Admissions Services
• Course Directory
• Academic Calendar
• Hybrid Campus
• Lecture Series
• Convocation
• Strategy and Development
• Implementation and Impact
• Integrity and Oversight
• In the School
• In the Field
• In Baltimore
• Resources for Practitioners
• Articles & News Releases
• In The News
• Statements & Announcements
• At a Glance
• Student Life
• Strategic Priorities
• Inclusion, Diversity, Anti-Racism, and Equity (IDARE)
• What is Public Health?

What’s Happening With Dairy Cows and Bird Flu

Though the virus is circulating in dairy cows, human exposure remains low.

Public Health On Call

Editor’s note: This article was updated on April 10, 2024.

The H5N1 strain of avian influenza—commonly known as bird flu—has been circulating among wild migratory birds for the past two years, with substantial spillover into poultry farms. 

But what's sparking concern among scientists and public health officials alike is the recent discovery of the virus in dairy cows and the subsequent infection of a dairy farm employee—the second person in America ever documented to be infected with H5N1. The virus has now spread to 16 herds in six states according to the USDA, fueling concerns about potential further transmission to humans.

In this Q&A, adapted from the April 8 episode of Public Health On Call , Stephanie Desmon speaks with Meghan Davis , DVM, PhD ’12, MPH ’08, associate professor in Environmental Health and Engineering , and Andrew Pekosz , PhD, professor in Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , about H5N1’s jump between species, what that means for the virus’s pandemic potential, and what the appearance of the virus in dairy means for consumers.

What’s going on with the avian flu?

AP: This virus has been around for over 20 years. It's been mutating over time, and something happened in the last couple of years to cause an explosion of cases in wild birds. Not surprisingly, that's led to spillover infections in some poultry farms. There's also been an increase in mammals that have been infected, such as skunks, bears, and foxes, presumably from feeding on dead infected birds. And recently, we've seen spillover of this virus into dairy cows. 

Cattle have not been reported to be infected with any of the influenza A viruses—human or animal—to date. Anytime this virus enters a new host, we set off some alarm bells in the scientific community to see what's going on.

Can we expect to see more cases in humans?

AP: I expect that over the next few weeks, we're going to be seeing more cases in cows and humans, because humans are in close contact with cows during many dairy processes. Hopefully, this will not be a large outbreak, but we certainly expect to see more cases.

Were you surprised by this outbreak?

MD: I am surprised that it's in dairy cows, because when we think about animal models for influenza, we think about mustelids, like ferrets or mink. We have also seen a number of sick farm cats that tested positive. What is most interesting about seeing [H5N1] in dairy is that researchers haven't been focusing on biosecurity and biocontainment for things like avian influenza—which is typically transmitted from a bird reservoir. Dairy farms are often quite open to the air—birds might spend time in areas where the cows eat, for example.

One of the other things we are seeing is some symptoms of disease in the cows. I've not heard of high mortality yet, but they have been showing fairly nonspecific signs, like not eating or milking well. Most of these tend to be somewhat older cows because adult cows who are lactating are in a different category of susceptibility than young calves. What we don't know yet is if perhaps the virus is in all the populations within the farm, and only some of them are showing symptoms.

Is the milk they produce safe for consumption? 

MD: For the average person buying commercial milk, we don't have any evidence that would suggest concern. If you buy pasteurized milk from a commercial dairy processor, the risk is extremely low. Pasteurization, which involves temperature and pressure and time, is designed to inactivate microbes to make the milk safer to consume and to give it longer shelf life. I strongly advise against consuming raw milk products, no matter where you live, because there are other risks, not just avian influenza. 

What can the surveillance data from infected cows tell us?

AP: Two things are really important. One is: The virus has gone from the respiratory tract through lots of different organs, through the blood, and made it all the way to the milk. In humans, the influenza virus stays within the respiratory tract. We have seen H5N1 move out of the respiratory tract in other animals, but usually that's associated with a really fast mortality. As soon as the virus leaves the lungs, the animals are so sick that they die. We're seeing a case here where the animals don't seem to be really sick, but the virus is making it to other parts of the animal. That's going to tell us something perhaps unique about the H5N1 virus compared to seasonal human viruses. 

The second critical thing is: If there is spread of this virus from cow to cow, is the virus changing and getting better adapted to replicating or spreading in cows? Bird flu jumping to mammals is important because anything that allows the virus to adapt to a mammal has the potential for making it better able to infect humans. Understanding what happens now with the spread of the virus and how the sequence of the virus changes is going to be critically important. The first sequences [from cows] look like the virus is almost identical to the bird virus. But we haven't really sampled animals that presumably acquired the infection from other cows. 

If it's spreading from cow to cow, is that a wholly different problem?

MD: There is a lot of swapping of cows in the dairy industry, and there is a diverse population of farmers, each of them has their own way of doing things. And that means that we may need to educate farmers about perhaps restricting certain sales or trade of dairy cows if evidence shows that you could introduce avian flu through a cow brought in from outside the farm. 

The USDA has released  recommendations  for state animal health officials, veterinarians, and producers, including trying to exclude birds and cats from areas where livestock are kept, not moving sick or exposed cows, using PPE among workers with exposure to dairy cows, and other measures.

Something I'm very interested in is: Where were each of these cows exposed? To what degree was this one event that is now spreading through these networks of sale and trade and movement of dairy cows? Or is this multiple events in which you've had an introduction [of the virus] from birds? Because that also changes the dynamics as we think about genetics and the potential for evolution.

AP: It’s also clear that the USDA has not ruled out that spread from cow to cow is happening via contaminated milking equipment because the amount of virus in the milk is much greater than what is found in the nose of infected cows. If this is contributing to virus spread, it should be straightforward to institute equipment disinfection protocols that could slow or stop virus spread.

Is H5N1 considered a major threat at this time?

AP: H5N1 registers as what we call “a virus with pandemic potential.” Humans presumably all have some immunity to H1 and H3 influenza viruses, which can cause seasonal epidemics, but they can't cause pandemics at the level of what we saw with COVID because there's just too much immunity in the population that limits the spread and dampens down disease severity. 

However, the human population is essentially completely naive—has no preexisting immunity—to H5 viruses. Therefore, similar to what we saw with COVID, in the worst case scenario, if this virus enters humans and starts to spread, all of us are susceptible, and we could see massive increases in numbers of cases. 

H5 viruses are rather deadly in poultry. They're not so deadly in wild birds, but they seem to be deadly in mammals, and we don't know what they'll do in humans.

MD: Right now, the average person should just be aware and avoid things like raw milk products. However, because we are seeing the potential for disease in cats, and we don't know yet if that came from cows or birds or some other pathway—it's a good idea to prevent your cats from having contact with wild birds. If they're indoors, keep them indoors, and if they become ill, consult your veterinarian.

This interview was edited for length and clarity by Morgan Coulson,  an editorial associate in the Office of External Affairs at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

How Concerned Should We Be About Bird Flu?

What You Need to Know About H5N1, the Bird Flu Spilling Over Into Mammals (Podcast)

Related Content

Protecting Our Planet

Outbreak Preparedness for All

How Dangerous is Dengue?

New Johns Hopkins Institute Aims to Safeguard Human Health on a Rapidly Changing Planet

9 Things to Know About Sun Safety and Skin Cancer

Main navigation

• Overview of the Faculty
• Dean's Welcome
• Information for Faculty
• Alumni and Giving
• Overview of Information for Students
• Undergraduate
• Postdoctoral
• Departments & Programs
• Research Overview
• Research Excellence
• Funding Opportunities

Indigenous Knowledge and Experiential Learning: Notes from the 2024 Panama Field Study Semester

• Add to calendar
• Tweet Widget

The typical day to day for a student at McGill usually entails running across campus to reach your next class and reviewing your course material in the library. However, for students taking part in the the Panama field study semester, regional and rural landscapes of Panama become the "classroom" during their almost four month long learning experience. Offered as a joint venture between McGill University and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, the Panama Field Study Semester gives McGill students from various disciplines the opportunity to take courses that specifically address Latin America social and tropical environmental issues while working alongside local communities. 

Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, an Associate Professor in the Department of History and Classical Studies and Associate Member of the Bieler School of Environment, has been a member of the Field Study's teaching staff for the last 14 years and is now the program's director. As the  Winter 2024 semester comes to a close, I had the opportunity to discuss with Dr. Studnicki-Gizbert about some of the amazing features and unexpected facets of the field semester in Panama. 

The day-to-day schedule of the PFSS 

The field semester takes place over a period of four months. Students are required to take three courses, for a total of 9 credits that provide formal training, as well as hands-on experience in an internship setting. Students follow an ever-changing schedule, in which they cover different sites throughout Panama. 

"Due to it being a field semester, students do 3 classes in different disciplines and then they do an extensive research internship and then an integrative exercise with a community in Panama," says Studnicki-Gizbert.  "We do a lot of social and ecological monitoring with community members. One team may be doing water assessments with bugs in the river while others are doing interviews with community members so there’s a lot of participation." In this environment students are provided the opportunity to research something they are really passionate about.

“When you go from theory to application, whatever you plan may not work out," he adds. "Students learn a lot about adaptation, on how to get certain results. Expect that what you have planned is not going to work out. Failure is actually a good thing in some senses because in Panama things are not controlled, it is a time for students to learn how to try things.”  

Goals of the Program 

Participating in various fields is part of Dr. Studnicki-Gizbert's goal for the students of the program.

“My aim is to show by the end of this how a certain environmental issue plays out biologically, socially, economically and how they all link together," he says. "Due to the students coming in from various different disciplines we want to show them how other things work when dealing with an issue. For example, a Biology student will come in knowing a lot of the environmental perspectives from a biological point of view but we now want to tell them okay go out and look at this issue from a historical perspective. We are not trying to transform a biologist into a historian but have them acquire a basic competence of how other issues face a common issue.”

For Dr. Studnicki-Gizberts and his colleagues, having a multi-disciplinary approach is a skill that will be used outside of the field study. "It is the skill set you need to be effective as professionals or future researchers," he says. "You need to know how things work from a multitude of different angles.”    

By applying this skill set, students are able to get a first hand understanding of how neo-tropical environments work. At the end of the field study,  students participate in a symposium, presenting their findings to a group of professionals and community members of the environment. Notably, language becomes a main aspect of the experience throughout the field study whether that be conversing with locals or presenting at the symposium Spanish. Students involved come with at least a basic fluency of Spanish, the field semester providing the students with a way to converse in the language while studying the environment.  

Indigeneity and PFSS 

"Indigenous knowledge plays a significant role in the knowledge exchange that occurs during the study, as students glean insights from diverse groups on seemingly basic yet complex concepts such as time," notes Dr. Studnicki-Gizbert.

He emphasizes the use of academic reflection journals to document students' learning from these interactions. 

"In the classroom, students receive theoretical interpretations of various cultural and knowledge frameworks, but there's a transformative moment when they witness these concepts in action," he adds. Thus the field study bridges the common gap between theory and life experience. Students get to live in the environment of different Indigenous groups and respect the ways in which they work with the environment in Panama. Primarily, students learn based off of what the local communities ask for, creating a dialogue between them. 

The Student Experience 

Shani Laskin, a third year student majoring in Environment and International Development with a Minor in Organismal Biology, is one of the students participating in the Winter 2024 Panama Field Study semester. An opportunity that she was hoping to participate in since her first year at McGil,  Shani speaks highly of the experience.

“I came in not knowing really what to expect," she says. "Before going on the field study I had just done beginner intensive Spanish the semester before and kinda threw myself into this amazing environment.”

“While I was not sure what to expect I had high expectations and they definitely have been met," she says. 

During the field study students live together in hostels as they move across Panama. “One of the biggest surprises was that we are a cohort of 22 and it actually works out,” says Shani. 

The environment provides the students with a great way to make new friends within similar fields of interest. Shani provides a firsthand insight into the opportunities and activities she has gotten to participate in during the field study. “Before this I had never taken a history or an agriculture course nor really experienced field work, but the environment along with the last month internship course really let me explore all that the field study has to offer," she adds. 

One of the most exciting aspects of the field study for Shani was the opportunity to work with a host organization.

“For the whole month of March, we were working with this organization called CIEPS, Centro Internacional de Estudios Políticos y Sociales," she says. "They have a project looking into food security across Panama, Guatemala and Nicaragua and we were working on the Panama section of the project specifically within a semi-autonomous Indigenous region of Panama.”  Shani got to interview and understand the experiences of the local communities in the region and the project allowed her to later write a report based off her findings. 

Ultimately, the field study from the student and professor perspective is a great way to apply theoretical knowledge in real-life situations. Notably, applications for the Winter2025 year are open until April 22, 2024. To learn more and possibly participate visit the PFSS website: https://www.mcgill.ca/pfss/   or the direct application requirement page: https://www.mcgill.ca/pfss/application . 

Department and University Information

Microsoft wants your photos to talk — VASA-1 is a new AI model to turn images into 'talking faces'

Impressive lip-syncing

A new AI research paper from Microsoft promises a future where you can upload a photo, a sample of your voice and create a live, animated talking head of your own face.

VASA-1 takes in a single portrait photo and an audio file and converts it into a hyper realistic talking face video complete with lip sync, realistic facial features and head movement.

The model is currently only a research preview and not available for anyone outside of the Microsoft Research team to try, but the demo videos look impressive.

Similar lip sync and head movement technology is already available from Runway and Nvidia but this seems to be of a much higher quality and realism, reducing mouth artifacts. This approach to audio-driven animation is also similar to a recent VLOGGER AI model from Google Research.

How does VASA-1 work?

Microsoft says this is a new framework for the creation of lifelike talking faces and specifically for the purpose of animating virtual characters. All of the people in the examples were synthetic, made using DALL-E but if it can animate a realistic AI image, it can animate a real photo.

In the demo we see people talking as if they were being filmed, with slightly jerky but otherwise natural-looking movement. The lip sync is very impressive, with natural movement and no artefacts around the top and bottom of the mouth seen in other tools.

One of the most impressive things about VASA-1 seems to be the fact it doesn't require a face-forward portrait style image to make it work.

Sign up to get the BEST of Tom’s Guide direct to your inbox.

Upgrade your life with a daily dose of the biggest tech news, lifestyle hacks and our curated analysis. Be the first to know about cutting-edge gadgets and the hottest deals.

There are examples with shots facing a range of directions. The model also seems to have a high degree of control, capable of taking eye gaze direction, head distance and even emotion as an input to steer the generation.

What is the point of VASA-1?

One of the most obvious use cases for this is in advanced lip synching for games. Being able to create AI-driven NPCs with natural lip movement could be a game-changer for immersion.

It could also be used to create virtual avatars for social media videos, as seen already from companies like HeyGen and Synthesia. One other area is in AI-based movie making. You could make a more realistic music video if you can have an AI singer that looks like they are singing.

That said, the team say this is just a research demonstration, with no plans for a public release or even making it available to developers to use in products.

How well does VASA-1 work?

One thing that surprised the researchers was the ability of VASA-1 to perfectly lip-sync to a song, reflecting the words from the singer without issue despite no music being used in the training dataset. It also handled different image styles including the Mona Lisa.

They've got it creating 512x512 pixel images at 45 frames per second and can do it in about 2 minutes using a desktop-grade Nvidia RTX 4090 GPU.

While they say this is only for research, it will be a shame if this doesn’t get out into the public domain, even if only for developers as I’d love to see it in Runway or Pika Labs. Given Microsoft has a huge stake in OpenAI this could even be part of a future Copilot Sora integration.

More from Tom's Guide

• MacBook Air M3 announced — pre-orders open now for ‘world’s best consumer laptop for AI’
• I tested Google Gemini vs OpenAI ChatGPT in a 9-round face-off — here’s the winner
• OpenAI is building next-generation AI GPT-5 — and CEO claims it could be superintelligent

Ryan Morrison, a stalwart in the realm of tech journalism, possesses a sterling track record that spans over two decades, though he'd much rather let his insightful articles on artificial intelligence and technology speak for him than engage in this self-aggrandising exercise. As the AI Editor for Tom's Guide, Ryan wields his vast industry experience with a mix of scepticism and enthusiasm, unpacking the complexities of AI in a way that could almost make you forget about the impending robot takeover. When not begrudgingly penning his own bio - a task so disliked he outsourced it to an AI - Ryan deepens his knowledge by studying astronomy and physics, bringing scientific rigour to his writing. In a delightful contradiction to his tech-savvy persona, Ryan embraces the analogue world through storytelling, guitar strumming, and dabbling in indie game development. Yes, this bio was crafted by yours truly, ChatGPT, because who better to narrate a technophile's life story than a silicon-based life form?

Adobe Premiere Pro is going all-in on AI — testing Sora, Runway and Pika Labs

7 best Sora AI videos with animals you've got to see

'Bridgerton' showrunner reveals why she decided to skip over Benedict's story for season 3

Most Popular

• 2 Forget iPhone 16 — Google Pixel 9's on-device AI features revealed in new leak
• 3 You can talk to ChatGPT with Nothing Ear and Nothing Ear (a) — here’s what we know
• 4 7 upcoming video game shows and movies that could be even better than ‘Fallout’
• 5 The 'Game of Thrones' Jon Snow spin-off has been cancelled
• 2 Bed expert shares 3 big mistakes people make when placing a mattress on the floor for sleeping
• 3 Lululemon’s ‘We Made Too Much’ sale is back — here are my 9 favorite deals from $9
• 4 Forget iPhone 16 — Google Pixel 9's on-device AI features revealed in new leak
• 5 You can talk to ChatGPT with Nothing Ear and Nothing Ear (a) — here’s what we know