and related terms
Video: Search by Themes (YouTube)
(2 min 40 sec) Recorded April 2014 Transcript
Most research articles will identify where more research is needed. To identify research trends, use the literature review matrix to track where further research is needed.
There is no consistent section in research articles where the authors identify where more research is needed. Pay attention to these sections:
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Gaps in the Literature
Is a Gap Worth Researching?
Finding Gaps
Identifying Gaps
Gaps in the literature are missing pieces or insufficient information in the published research on a topic. These are areas that have opportunities for further research because they are unexplored, under-explored, or outdated. Also, it can be a topic that has not yet been addressed, or it has not been researched enough.
It is important to keep in mind that just because you identify a gap in the research, it doesn't necessarily mean that your research question is worthy of exploration. You will want to ensure that your research will have valuable practical and/or theoretical implications. In other words, does answering the research question improve existing practice and/or inform professional decision-making, or could it revise, build upon, or create theoretical frameworks informing research design and practice?
Gaps can be missing or incomplete:
Conduct a thorough literature search to find a broad range of research articles on your topic. Search research databases ; you can find recommended databases for your subject area in research guides by subject for your course or program.
If you do not find articles in your literature search, this may indicate a gap. If you do find articles, the goal is to find a gap for contributing new research. Author's signal that there is a gap within an article by using phrases such as:
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There is a growing investment in the use of co-creation, reflected by an increase in co-created products, services, and interventions. At the same time, a growing recognition of the significance of co-creators’ experience can be detected but there is a gap in the aggregation of the literature with regard to experience. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review is to uncover the breadth of existing empirical research on co-creation experience, how it has been defined and assessed, and its key emotional and psychological characteristics in the context of co-created products, services, or interventions among adults.
The development of the search strategy was guided by the research question, Arksey, and O’Malley’s scoping review methodology guidelines, and through collaboration with members of the Health CASCADE consortium. The results of the search and the study inclusion process will be reported in full and presented both narratively and by use of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for scoping review (PRISMA-ScR) flow diagram. Comprehensive searches of relevant electronic databases (e.g. Scopus) will be conducted to identify relevant papers. Snowball searches to identify additional papers through included full-text papers will be done using the artificial intelligence tool, namely, Connected Papers. All review steps will involve at least two reviewers. Studies in English, Dutch, Chinese, Spanish, and French, published from the year 1970 onwards, will be considered. Microsoft Excel software will be used to record and chart extracted data.
The resulting scoping review could provide useful insights into adult co-creators’ experience of participating in the co-creation process. An increased understanding of the role of emotional and psychological experiences of participating in co-creation processes may help to inform the co-creation process and lead to potential benefits for the co-creators and co-created outcome.
10.5281/zenodo.7665851.
Peer Review reports
Co-creation can be defined as “any act of collective creativity that involves a broad range of relevant and affected actors in creative problem-solving that aims to produce a desired outcome” [ 1 ]. Co-creation is increasingly acknowledged as a promising approach to address complex ‘wicked’ societal problems and develop more contextually relevant interventions to improve outcomes in a variety of settings [ 2 ]. By facilitating communication across sectors, integrating diverse forms of knowledge and expertise, and enabling local ownership, co-creation can be useful in a broad range of fields including, healthcare, community, and education [ 3 ].
The co-creation process is guided by participatory methodologies [ 4 ]. The goal of participatory research is to engage all those who are the subject of the research in all stages of the research [ 5 ]. Participatory research acknowledges the value of their contribution in a practical and collaborative way [ 5 ]. Co-creation builds on these participatory methodologies, to address the power imbalances stemming from social inequities and uses empowerment approaches to address and meet the needs of citizens [ 3 ]. Co-creation is more specific than the broad concept of participation, which also refers to passive involvement [ 6 ]. The ultimate goal of co-creation is to actively involve all relevant and affected stakeholders in all aspects of the co-creation process, such as planning or conducting [ 7 ].
Whilst the co-creation behaviour of participants in a co-creation process is mostly documented in the co-creation literature, the emotional and psychological experience of participating in the co-creation process has been given less attention [ 8 , 9 ]. Co-creation behaviour is argued to comprise multiple behavioural dimensions that fall under two higher-order factors, namely, participation behaviour and citizenship behaviour [ 10 ]. The behavioural dimensions of participation behaviour include information seeking and sharing, responsible behaviour, and personal interaction. The dimensions of citizenship behaviour include feedback, advocacy, helping, and tolerance [ 10 ]. On the other hand, the co-creators’ experiences of participating in the co-creation process, hereby shortened to co-creation experience, capture co-creators’ emotional and psychological states; highlight the interactive component; and involve a continuous process as opposed to a single fixed-time event [ 9 ]. In brief, the co-creation experience, as defined for the purposes of this review, is the co-creators’ emotional and psychological states during active participation and interaction when engaging in the co-creation process [ 9 ]. Co-creation experience differs from co-creation behaviour due to its focus on the feelings and cognitions derived from the act of undertaking the co-creation behaviour [ 9 ].
Research indicates that active involvement in the co-creation process can have profound positive effects on increased health and performance outcomes, satisfaction, and well-being [ 11 , 12 ]. For example, Leask et al. [ 13 ] reported older adults having positive experiences engaging with the co-creation of a health intervention, describing that participants’ role as co-researchers made it enjoyable, interesting, and rewarding. Similar findings from Rooijen et al. [ 14 ] indicated that participants felt empowered, liked the interactive characteristic of meetings, and felt they were valued contributors with a shared responsibility for the project. Positive emotional states like happiness or gratitude can foster trust, which is important for building relationships, whereas negative emotional states, like anger, uncertainty, and frustration, can decrease trust [ 15 ]. Building relationships is an important aspect of the co-creation process, in which experiencing positive emotions helps to create new relationships [ 16 ]. Therefore, positive emotions could also contribute to the functioning of the co-creation group(s) and the successful development of products like intervention components, tools, and further actions.
There are instances when co-creators can experience the co-creation process negatively. There exists some research to indicate how failed co-created services recovered can impact co-creators in terms of future intention to co-create, role clarity, and motivation [ 17 ]. However, there might be a lack of, or a lack of visibility of, literature documenting the negative emotional and psychological experiences associated with the co-creation process because of publication bias. Individual and interpersonal experience including group dynamics are central to the creation of value and innovation and this justifies the need to study the role of human experience in the context of co-creation [ 18 , 19 ]. Figure 1 provides a visual depiction of the proposed connection between co-creation experience and the other elements of co-creation.
Suggested model of the relationship between co-creation experience, processes, behaviour, outcomes, impact, and future co-creation
However, so far, there is a gap regarding the aggregation of the literature pertaining to co-creation experience. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review is to uncover the breadth of existing empirical research on co-creation experience, how it has been defined, and assessed and its key characteristics in the context of co-created products, services, or interventions among adults. As the focus is on the participant’s experience of the process and not the outcome, no limits have been applied to the co-creation context. Scoping reviews are exploratory in nature and systematically map available literature on a broad topic to identify key concepts, theories, sources of evidence, and research gaps [ 20 ]. A scoping review has been identified as an appropriate means to address this broad research question given that, to the authors’ knowledge, there has been no systematic review of co-creation experience literature, the phenomenon is not well understood or utilised, and studies span a wide variety of fields. The aim of the current scoping review is to deliver an evidence-based review of co-creators’ experiences of co-creating. This review will guide future research to advance evidence-based co-creation methods and inform guidance aimed at enhancing positive experiences for those participating in co-creation.
What is the current state of the science regarding adult co-creators’ emotional and psychological experiences of participating in co-creation?
The objectives of this review are to:
Determine the extent of research on co-creation experience.
Uncover the range of and key characteristics of emotional and psychological experiences documented in the literature to date.
Identify any explicit or implicit underlying psychological theories drawn upon to explain the potential mechanism of the experience of co-creation.
Document any tools or technology used during the co-creation process that impacted the experience during co-creation or to make co-creation more successful .
This scoping review protocol is reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols (PRISMA-P) checklist (see Additional file 1).
The search strategy comprises three main stages (see Fig. 2 ). The first stage involved searching the newly created Health CASCADE Co-creation Database. This database was created by members of the Health CASCADE network and was aimed at collecting in one place the entire corpus of literature pertaining to participatory research and co-creation (1). This database was created using CINAHL, PubMed and all databases accessible via ProQuest through Glasgow Caledonian University (GCU) institutional licence (17 databases in total, APA PsycArticles®, APA PsycInfo®, Art, Design & Architecture Collection, British Periodicals, Coronavirus Research Database, Early Modern Books, Ebook Central, Entertainment Industry Magazine Archive, Humanities Index, Periodicals Archive Online, ProQuest One AcademicTrial-Limited time only, PTSDpubs, SciTech Premium Collection, Social Science Premium Collection, Sports Medicine & Education Index, The Vogue Archive, and The Women's Wear Daily Archive). The key search terms used in this search strategy are found in Table 1 . ASReview, an artificial intelligence (AI) aided platform that helps find relevant records was used for screening the records to be included in this database. The AI performs a textual analysis of the provided records, based on active learning and prioritization. Given the large volume of records retrieved from PubMed, CINAHL, and all databases available through ProQuest with GCU access, AI was necessary to speed up the screening process. There are over 13,000 records contained in this database, with all titles and abstracts containing at least one of the search terms.
Stages of search strategy
The Health CASCADE Co-creation Database was searched using free-text terms relating to co-creation experience (see Table 2 ). Search terms have been developed in reference to the research question and through consultation with members of the Health CASCADE consortium. The search will be piloted to check the appropriateness of keywords and to ensure known studies are identified.
The second stage of the search strategy is to use both sets of search terms (see Tables 1 and 2 ) in Scopus using the Boolean operator AND to combine the two sets. This is to provide additional robustness to the search. Due to the large volume of records retrieved (> 35,000) when combining the two sets of search terms, it is necessary to omit some search terms used to create the Health CASCADE Co-creation Database. Four search terms will be retained “co-creat*”, “co-production”, “co-design” and “experience-based design”. These search terms are specifically chosen because co-production and co-design are commonly used interchangeably with the term co-creation [ 21 ]. In addition, “experience-based design” is retained due to the obvious focus on the experience. We will include articles that meet our inclusion criteria for co-creation, regardless of the terminology used to describe the methodology. For pragmatic reasons, sources of unpublished empirical studies (including grey literature, theses, and dissertations) will not be searched for. The draft search strategy for Scopus is available in Additional file 2.
The final stage of the search is to employ snowballing to capture any additional articles that may be potentially missed. An artificial intelligence tool called Connected Papers [ 22 ] will be used to identify papers that (1) the included paper has cited (backward reference searching), and (2) papers that have since cited the included paper (forward reference searching).
The article selection process is considered an iterative process, whereby the search strategy will be initially broad and then refined based on abstracts retrieved and as reviewer familiarity with the literature increases. The concept of co-creation is defined differently depending on the setting and context and is often used interchangeably with similar, yet distinct concepts, but equally lacking a clear universal understanding [ 21 ]. Therefore, to account for the overlaps in terminology a broad scope will be initially implemented.
As recommended by Arksey and O’Malley [ 23 ], decisions on how to set search parameters will be made after a general scope of the field has been gained. Hence, this stage will require the reviewer(s) to engage in a reflexive way and repeat steps to ensure a comprehensive literature search with more sensitive searches [ 23 , 24 ].
All study participants in the included papers must be adults, described as people aged 18 years and over with no upper limit. Children/adolescents are not included in this study as research indicates that there are differences between their emotional experiences in terms of emotional intensity and stability [ 25 ].
Empirical articles (i.e. primary research studies) include any qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method research designs that include a description of the co-created product, service, or intervention and an evaluation of the co-creators’ co-creation experience. Although scoping reviews can draw on evidence from non-empirical sources, this review imposes limits to include empirical sources only as empirical sources would be most useful and appropriate for contributing to an evidence-based understanding of co-creation methods.
Any context that involves the co-creation of a product, service, or intervention will be considered.
The Health CASCADE Co-creation Database is limited to searching records between 1st January 1970 and 1st December 2021. The search in Scopus will include records from 1st January 1970 until the date of the search.
The Health CASCADE Co-creation Database is limited to only include materials that are written in English. However, for the search conducted in Scopus, publications in English, Spanish, Dutch, French, and Chinese languages will also be considered, as the research team has proficient fluency in these languages.
Following the database search, articles will be exported as a CSV file for removal of duplicates in Excel. The articles will be imported and screened in Rayyan. The title and abstract of all studies will be screened independently by several reviewers (LMcC, QA, QL, EW, GRL, RC, and MV) and irrelevant studies will be removed. All titles and abstracts will be double-screened. Full-text articles of studies identified as potentially relevant for inclusion will subsequently be sought and screened by several reviewers (LMcC, QA, QL, EW, GRL, RC, MV, and KM) against the agreed set of criteria. Differences of opinion regarding inclusion or exclusion will be resolved by discussion and reaching a consensus or by a third reviewer. The results of the search and the study inclusion process will be reported in full in the final scoping review and presented both narratively and by use of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for scoping review (PRISMA-ScR) flow diagram.
To determine the extent of research on co-creation experience (objective 1), details about co-creation more generally will first be extracted. This includes:
Study’s definition of co-creation and co-creation experience (if available).
The context or setting.
Data about the participants (number, type, and characteristics of co-creators’ involved).
Description of the co-creation process undertaken (including number of sessions, level of participation).
Purpose of co-creation.
Outcome of the co-created intervention, service, or product.
The key characteristics of psychological and emotional experience including positive and negative components (objective 2) will be extracted.
The psychological theory underpinning the co-creation experience identified by the authors of the studies (objective 3) will be recorded.
Information about the technology or tools that had an impact on the co-creation experience (objective 4) will be extracted.
Additional descriptive information such as discipline and date of publication will also be extracted.
The above-extracted information will be entered into an Excel spreadsheet developed by the authors. This data extraction Excel spreadsheet may be modified and revised as necessary during the process of extracting data from the included evidence sources to ensure that key findings relevant to the review question are addressed.
There exists debate as to whether a scoping review should contain an assessment of study quality [ 26 ]. A quality assessment component will be included in this review in relation to the sufficiency of reporting the process of co-creating an intervention, service, or product. This tool (see Table 3 ) has been adapted from Leask et al.’s [ 4 ] ‘checklist for reporting intervention co-creation’ and Eyles et al.’s [ 27 ] amended version of a checklist for reporting non-pharmacological interventions. The reason for including this checklist is two-fold. Firstly, the scoping review may contain a variety of study designs and the focus is not solely on the outcomes, but rather on the process [ 27 ]. Secondly, as explained above, the concept of co-creation is used interchangeably with other similar overlapping concepts, such that some processes may be described as co-creation when they are in fact not (according to the definition used in this review) or vice versa. Therefore, by incorporating this checklist, it will become clearer as to the type or extent of co-creation processes that were implemented and whether they were clearly reported within each individual source of empirical evidence. However, given that a scoping review aims to present an overview of the extant literature on a particular topic without synthesis from individual studies, no study will be excluded on the basis of the quality of reporting co-created interventions.
The PRISMA-ScR will be used to guide the reporting of the scoping review [ 28 ]. Whilst, the synthesis of the results from included sources of evidence is more appropriately done with a systematic review, the analysis of data in scoping reviews is generally descriptive in nature [ 29 ]. A narrative summary of extracted data will be produced along with the tabulated and/or charted results described in relation to the review question and objectives. Descriptive techniques, such as basic coding of data to particular categories, are recommended as a useful approach when the purpose is to identify concepts or key characteristics related to the concept [ 20 ]. Data will be analysed using the well-established method of thematic analysis [ 30 ]. This method is characterised by identifying and reporting recurring themes within the data and is a suitable analytic method because it allows for patterns of experience to be recorded, such as understanding adults’ experiences of participating in co-creation. We intend to extract relevant co-creation experience data from the result sections of articles, including verbatim participant quotations. For quantitative data, such as questionnaires, we will attempt to extract the item statements and code them alongside the qualitative data.
The purpose of this scoping review is to uncover the breadth of existing empirical research on co-creation experience with a focus on emotional aspects and from a psychological perspective. An increased understanding of the role of experiences of participating in co-creation processes may help to inform the development and use of co-creation processes and lead to potential benefits for the co-creators’ and co-created outcome.
This scoping review has some limitations, which reflect the balance between conducting a wide search to discover the breadth of existing literature and the pragmatic constraints of conducting the review. This scoping review searches for published peer-reviewed work from SCOPUS and the Health CASCADE Co-creation Database. Other databases could be searched but for pragmatic reasons, these two databases were selected for their breadth and relevancy. Another limitation is that it was necessary to restrict the search terms for capturing ‘co-creation’ for the search in Scopus to maintain a manageable number of records retrieved to screen by the research team. However, authors may use different terms or descriptions. For instance, variations of terms like co-creation, co-design, and co-production, whether written with a dash or space can affect the number of articles retrieved. Boundaries on the search terms relating to experience were also formed, for example, specific emotions were not included in the search string, due to the large range of possible emotions that can be experienced, which would make the search unwieldy. We also have not used any of the advanced search features of the databases, such as proximity searching, which could potentially improve the specificity.
A strength of this review is the comprehensive snowballing search strategy to capture additional relevant papers. The results will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and to scientific conferences. The plan for dissemination includes digital science communication platforms and presentations.
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Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols
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The PhD studies of Lauren McCaffrey are funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement n° 956501.
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Lauren McCaffrey, Bryan McCann, Sebastien François Martin Chastin, Quentin Loisel, Mira Vogelsang, Emily Whyte & Philippa Margaret Dall
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Greet Cardon, Sebastien François Martin Chastin & Rabab Chrifou
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LMcC coordinated and conceived the study. LMcC, PMD, BMcC, and MGG have made substantive contributions to developing this protocol and the review question. LMcC, PMD, BMcC, MGG, QA, QL, EW, GRL, MV, RC, and KM jointly developed the search strategy. LMcC drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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McCaffrey, L., McCann, B., Giné-Garriga, M. et al. Adult co-creators’ emotional and psychological experiences of the co-creation process: a Health CASCADE scoping review protocol. Syst Rev 13 , 231 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02643-9
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02643-9
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This work is supported by CHANAKYA Fellowships of IITI DRISHTI CPS Foundation under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical System (NM-ICPS) of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India
Shriprasad Chorghe, Rishi Kumar, Vibhor Pandhare & Bhupesh Kumar Lad
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
Makarand S. Kulkarni
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Chorghe, S., Kumar, R., Kulkarni, M.S. et al. Smart scheduling for next generation manufacturing systems: a systematic literature review. J Intell Manuf (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-024-02484-2
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Received : 19 March 2024
Accepted : 17 August 2024
Published : 09 September 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-024-02484-2
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Multimodal resources and approaches for teaching young adolescents: a review of the literature.
1.1. the seminal and building research on multimodal pedagogies, 1.2. young adolescents and multimodality, 2. materials and methods.
3.1.1. developing language, 3.1.2. developing reading and viewing of multimodal texts, 3.1.3. developing the designing of multimodal texts, 3.2. multimodal pedagogy for content learning, 3.2.1. making content accessible for all students, 3.2.2. teaching reading, writing, and creating with course content, 3.2.3. exploring issues and abstract concepts, 3.3. multimodal pedagogy for expression and identity opportunities, 3.3.1. supporting empowerment and identity development using multimodal pedagogy, 3.3.2. expressing personal responses to literature using multimodal pedagogy, 4. discussion.
Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
First Cycle: Theming the Data | Example from Data Table |
---|---|
Use graphic novels and multimodal texts to increase students’ interest and motivation in reading, expand vocabulary, introduce topics, build background knowledge | scores on quick writes and vocabulary recognition were significantly higher [ ] significant differences in reading enjoyment and interest between graphic novels and heavily illustrated novels and graphic novels and traditional novels [ ] |
Provide students with diverse backgrounds, literacies, and abilities the opportunity to use digital tools for codemeshing, exploring their identities, and describing their life experiences | units promoted the study of social issues that affect the lives of Black girls; units created space across modalities for Black girls to (re)imagine being a learner [ ] students used 3 forms of codemeshing: audio, texts, and images; teachers should explore productive ways students can use their heritage languages [ ] |
Empower students as authors and learners by allowing choice of topics and digital tools | students positioned themselves as community activists; enhanced their ability to produce for different audiences [ ] students created an infographic and website on a social issue of their choice after reading To Kill a Mockingbird [ ] |
Provide student-centered projects with authentic purposes and audiences for designing and sharing multimodal text | helped promote inquiry-based learning; offered multiple perspectives [ ] a Slam Poetry and Citizenship unit allowed students to become experts in their chosen topics [ ] |
Provide instruction on reading and designing multimodal texts | provide multimodal literacies instruction; prepare students to analyze, critique, and challenge images [ ] teachers may need to scaffold students’ use of technology for educational rather than social purposes [ ] |
Use multimodal texts to provide information to students and to check for student understanding | used multiple modes to help in the interpretation of information while researching (e.g., listening to poems, language translations, definitions) [ ] 8th grade students read A Midsummer’s Night Dream and rotated through 5 stations reading, viewing, using QR codes, virtual reality devices, websites, watching YouTube videos, 2 biographies of Shakespeare (one graphic), online or print copy of article [ ] |
Provide opportunities for students to work collaboratively when reading/designing multimodal texts | used multimodalities and collaboration with another student to create the videos (self-representation) [ ] multimodal learning stations allowed students to collaborate [ ] |
Use multimodal texts to illustrate multiple perspectives, promote a critical stance, and develop empathy | use of graphic novels can help humanize history instruction, show different perspectives, and encourage students to care about the past [ ] texts such as these allow for multiple options and fewer answers; critical stances were modeled and encouraged [ ] |
First Cycle: Theming the Data | Second Cycle: Pattern Codes |
---|---|
Provide students with diverse backgrounds, literacies, and abilities the opportunity to use digital tools for codemeshing, exploring their identities, and describing their life experiences Empower students as authors and learners by allowing choice of topics and digital tools | Multimodal pedagogy for empowerment, personal expression, identity |
Provide student-centered projects with authentic purposes and audiences for designing and sharing multimodal text Use multimodal texts to provide information to students and to check for student understanding Use multimodal texts to illustrate multiple perspectives, promote a critical stance, and develop empathy | Multimodal pedagogy for content learning |
Use graphic novels and multimodal texts to increase students’ interest and motivation in reading, expand vocabulary, introduce topics, build background knowledge Provide instruction on reading and designing multimodal texts Provide opportunities for students to work collaboratively when reading/designing multimodal texts | Multimodal pedagogy for language and literacy development |
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Linder, R.; Falk-Ross, F. Multimodal Resources and Approaches for Teaching Young Adolescents: A Review of the Literature. Educ. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 1010. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091010
Linder R, Falk-Ross F. Multimodal Resources and Approaches for Teaching Young Adolescents: A Review of the Literature. Education Sciences . 2024; 14(9):1010. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091010
Linder, Roberta, and Francine Falk-Ross. 2024. "Multimodal Resources and Approaches for Teaching Young Adolescents: A Review of the Literature" Education Sciences 14, no. 9: 1010. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091010
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Lorelei lingard.
Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Health Sciences Addition, Western University, London, Ontario Canada
In the Writer’s Craft section we offer simple tips to improve your writing in one of three areas: Energy, Clarity and Persuasiveness. Each entry focuses on a key writing feature or strategy, illustrates how it commonly goes wrong, teaches the grammatical underpinnings necessary to understand it and offers suggestions to wield it effectively. We encourage readers to share comments on or suggestions for this section on Twitter, using the hashtag: #how’syourwriting?
This Writer’s Craft instalment is the first in a two-part series that offers strategies for effectively presenting the literature review section of a research manuscript. This piece alerts writers to the importance of not only summarizing what is known but also identifying precisely what is not, in order to explicitly signal the relevance of their research. In this instalment, I will introduce readers to the mapping the gap metaphor, the knowledge claims heuristic, and the need to characterize the gap.
The purpose of the literature review section of a manuscript is not to report what is known about your topic. The purpose is to identify what remains unknown— what academic writing scholar Janet Giltrow has called the ‘knowledge deficit’ — thus establishing the need for your research study [ 1 ]. In an earlier Writer’s Craft instalment, the Problem-Gap-Hook heuristic was introduced as a way of opening your paper with a clear statement of the problem that your work grapples with, the gap in our current knowledge about that problem, and the reason the gap matters [ 2 ]. This article explains how to use the literature review section of your paper to build and characterize the Gap claim in your Problem-Gap-Hook. The metaphor of ‘mapping the gap’ is a way of thinking about how to select and arrange your review of the existing literature so that readers can recognize why your research needed to be done, and why its results constitute a meaningful advance on what was already known about the topic.
Many writers have learned that the literature review should describe what is known. The trouble with this approach is that it can produce a laundry list of facts-in-the-world that does not persuade the reader that the current study is a necessary next step. Instead, think of your literature review as painting in a map of your research domain: as you review existing knowledge, you are painting in sections of the map, but your goal is not to end with the whole map fully painted. That would mean there is nothing more we need to know about the topic, and that leaves no room for your research. What you want to end up with is a map in which painted sections surround and emphasize a white space, a gap in what is known that matters. Conceptualizing your literature review this way helps to ensure that it achieves its dual goal: of presenting what is known and pointing out what is not—the latter of these goals is necessary for your literature review to establish the necessity and importance of the research you are about to describe in the methods section which will immediately follow the literature review.
To a novice researcher or graduate student, this may seem counterintuitive. Hopefully you have invested significant time in reading the existing literature, and you are understandably keen to demonstrate that you’ve read everything ever published about your topic! Be careful, though, not to use the literature review section to regurgitate all of your reading in manuscript form. For one thing, it creates a laundry list of facts that makes for horrible reading. But there are three other reasons for avoiding this approach. First, you don’t have the space. In published medical education research papers, the literature review is quite short, ranging from a few paragraphs to a few pages, so you can’t summarize everything you’ve read. Second, you’re preaching to the converted. If you approach your paper as a contribution to an ongoing scholarly conversation,[ 2 ] then your literature review should summarize just the aspects of that conversation that are required to situate your conversational turn as informed and relevant. Third, the key to relevance is to point to a gap in what is known. To do so, you summarize what is known for the express purpose of identifying what is not known . Seen this way, the literature review should exert a gravitational pull on the reader, leading them inexorably to the white space on the map of knowledge you’ve painted for them. That white space is the space that your research fills.
To help writers move beyond the laundry list, the notion of ‘knowledge claims’ can be useful. A knowledge claim is a way of presenting the growing understanding of the community of researchers who have been exploring your topic. These are not disembodied facts, but rather incremental insights that some in the field may agree with and some may not, depending on their different methodological and disciplinary approaches to the topic. Treating the literature review as a story of the knowledge claims being made by researchers in the field can help writers with one of the most sophisticated aspects of a literature review—locating the knowledge being reviewed. Where does it come from? What is debated? How do different methodologies influence the knowledge being accumulated? And so on.
Consider this example of the knowledge claims (KC), Gap and Hook for the literature review section of a research paper on distributed healthcare teamwork:
KC: We know that poor team communication can cause errors. KC: And we know that team training can be effective in improving team communication. KC: This knowledge has prompted a push to incorporate teamwork training principles into health professions education curricula. KC: However, most of what we know about team training research has come from research with co-located teams—i. e., teams whose members work together in time and space. Gap: Little is known about how teamwork training principles would apply in distributed teams, whose members work asynchronously and are spread across different locations. Hook: Given that much healthcare teamwork is distributed rather than co-located, our curricula will be severely lacking until we create refined teamwork training principles that reflect distributed as well as co-located work contexts.
The ‘We know that …’ structure illustrated in this example is a template for helping you draft and organize. In your final version, your knowledge claims will be expressed with more sophistication. For instance, ‘We know that poor team communication can cause errors’ will become something like ‘Over a decade of patient safety research has demonstrated that poor team communication is the dominant cause of medical errors.’ This simple template of knowledge claims, though, provides an outline for the paragraphs in your literature review, each of which will provide detailed evidence to illustrate a knowledge claim. Using this approach, the order of the paragraphs in the literature review is strategic and persuasive, leading the reader to the gap claim that positions the relevance of the current study. To expand your vocabulary for creating such knowledge claims, linking them logically and positioning yourself amid them, I highly recommend Graff and Birkenstein’s little handbook of ‘templates’ [ 3 ].
As you organize your knowledge claims, you will also want to consider whether you are trying to map the gap in a well-studied field, or a relatively understudied one. The rhetorical challenge is different in each case. In a well-studied field, like professionalism in medical education, you must make a strong, explicit case for the existence of a gap. Readers may come to your paper tired of hearing about this topic and tempted to think we can’t possibly need more knowledge about it. Listing the knowledge claims can help you organize them most effectively and determine which pieces of knowledge may be unnecessary to map the white space your research attempts to fill. This does not mean that you leave out relevant information: your literature review must still be accurate. But, since you will not be able to include everything, selecting carefully among the possible knowledge claims is essential to producing a coherent, well-argued literature review.
Once you’ve identified the gap, your literature review must characterize it. What kind of gap have you found? There are many ways to characterize a gap, but some of the more common include:
To characterize the kind of gap, you need to know the literature thoroughly. That means more than understanding each paper individually; you also need to be placing each paper in relation to others. This may require changing your note-taking technique while you’re reading; take notes on what each paper contributes to knowledge, but also on how it relates to other papers you’ve read, and what it suggests about the kind of gap that is emerging.
In summary, think of your literature review as mapping the gap rather than simply summarizing the known. And pay attention to characterizing the kind of gap you’ve mapped. This strategy can help to make your literature review into a compelling argument rather than a list of facts. It can remind you of the danger of describing so fully what is known that the reader is left with the sense that there is no pressing need to know more. And it can help you to establish a coherence between the kind of gap you’ve identified and the study methodology you will use to fill it.
Thanks to Mark Goldszmidt for his feedback on an early version of this manuscript.
PhD, is director of the Centre for Education Research & Innovation at Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, and professor for the Department of Medicine at Western University in London, Ontario, Canada.
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Here are the key takeaways: A research gap is an unanswered question or unresolved problem in a field, which reflects a lack of existing research in that space. The four most common types of research gaps are the classic literature gap, the disagreement gap, the contextual gap and the methodological gap.
Identifying a research gap is an essential step in conducting research that adds value and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. Research gap requires critical thinking, creativity, and a thorough understanding of the existing literature. It is an iterative process that may require revisiting and refining your research questions and ...
Identifying the gap in the literature necessitates a thorough evaluation of existing studies to refine your area of interest and map the scope and aim of your future research. The purpose is to explicitly identify the gap that exists, so you can contribute to the body of knowledge by providing fresh insights.
What is a 'gap in the literature'? The gap, also considered the missing piece or pieces in the research literature, is the area that has not yet been explored or is under-explored. This could be a population or sample (size, type, location, etc.), research method, data collection and/or analysis, or other research variables or conditions.
Step 1: Identify your broad area of interest. The very first step to finding a research gap is to decide on your general area of interest. For example, if you were undertaking a dissertation as part of an MBA degree, you may decide that you're interested in corporate reputation, HR strategy, or leadership styles.
BACKGROUND. Well-defined, systematic, and transparent methods to identify health research gaps, needs, and priorities are vital to ensuring that available funds target areas with the greatest potential for impact. 1, 2 As defined in the literature, 3, 4 research gaps are defined as areas or topics in which the ability to draw a conclusion for a given question is prevented by insufficient evidence.
We considered the various elements of research gaps noted in the literature and identified by the EPCs and organizations. Based on these elements and known important aspects of research questions, we developed a framework for the identification and organization of research gaps. This framework included an explicit determination and ...
Identifying a research gap has many potential benefits. 1. Avoid Redundancy in Your Research. Understanding the existing literature helps researchers avoid duplication. This means you can steer clear of topics that have already been extensively studied. This ensures your work is novel and contributes something new to the field.
Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review.
About this video. Researching is an ongoing task, as it requires you to think of something nobody else has thought of before. This is where the research gap comes into play. We will explain what a research gap is, provide you with steps on how to identify these research gaps, as well as provide you several tools that can help you identify them.
The identification of gaps from systematic reviews is essential to the practice of "evidence-based research." Health care research should begin and end with a systematic review.1-3 A comprehensive and explicit consideration of the existing evidence is necessary for the identification and development of an unanswered and answerable question, for the design of a study most likely to answer ...
These are gaps in the conceptual framework or theoretical understanding of a subject. For example, there may be a need for more research to understand the relationship between two concepts or to refine a theoretical framework. 3. Methodological gaps. These are gaps in the methods used to study a particular subject.
How to identify gaps in literature. You may wonder what would be the best way to come up with some innovative research questions. Though there is no well-defined process to find a gap in existing knowledge, your curiosity, creativity, imagination, and judgment can help you identify it. Here are 6 tips to identify research gaps: 1.
Identifying research gaps is a fundamental goal of literature reviewing. While it is widely acknowledged that literature reviews should identify research gaps, there are no methodological ...
A literature gap, or research gap, is an unexplored topic revealed during a literature search that has scope for research or further exploration. To identify literature gaps, you need to do a thorough review of existing literature in both the broad and specific areas of your topic. You could go through both the Introduction and Discussion ...
Literature Gap. The expression "literature gap" is used with the same intention as "research gap.". When there is a gap in the research itself, there will also naturally be a gap in the literature. Nevertheless, it is important to stress out the importance of language or text formulations that can help identify a research/literature gap ...
Identifying Gaps. If you do not find articles in your literature search, this may indicate a gap. If you do find articles, the goal is to find a gap for contributing new research. Authors signal that there is a gap using phrases such as: Has not been clarified, studied, reported, or elucidated. Further research is required or needed.
A systematic review of the research literature on focused review questions is a key evidence synthesis approach that can inform practice and policy ... we did not include research gaps where the source explicitly indicated that the knowledge gap is due to the lack of primary research. We distinguished 5 evidence gap domains and abstracted gaps ...
To find a gap you must become very familiar with a particular field of study. This will involve a lot of research and reading, because a gap is defined by what does (and does not) surround it. Tips: Search the research literature and dissertations (search all university dissertations, not just Walden!). Understand your topic!
Gaps in the Literature. Gaps in the literature are missing pieces or insufficient information in the published research on a topic. These are areas that have opportunities for further research because they are unexplored, under-explored, or outdated. Also, it can be a topic that has not yet been addressed, or it has not been researched enough.
Databases are accessible in Research by Subject guides, such as Biology, Medical Biology, or Medicine. Conduct an extensive literature search to find a broad range of research articles on a topic. IDENTIFYING GAPS If you do not find articles in your literature search, this may indicate a gap. If you do find articles, the goal is to find a gap ...
Despite the well-researched state of worry about crime, there is a large research gap that has yet to be filled. Most studies on worry about crime examine the phenomenon at a single point in time, while studies that investigate changes in worry about crime over time are scarce (Ditton et al., 2005; Hart et al., 2022).Therefore, the potential impact of macro-level social and political change on ...
However, so far, there is a gap regarding the aggregation of the literature pertaining to co-creation experience. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review is to uncover the breadth of existing empirical research on co-creation experience, how it has been defined, and assessed and its key characteristics in the context of co-created products, services, or interventions among adults.
Research gaps prevent systematic reviewers from making conclusions and, ultimately, limit our ability to make informed health care decisions. While there are well-defined methods for conducting a systematic review, there has been no explicit process for the identification of research gaps from systematic reviews. In a prior project we developed a framework to facilitate the systematic ...
The present work aims to bridge the identified research gaps by conducting a systematic literature review on smart scheduling. This is achieved through the following objectives: To perform a comprehensive analysis of the current state, emerging patterns, research focus, and identification of key attributes for next-generation smart scheduling.
With an increased number of multimodal texts being read, viewed, or designed by young adolescents ages 10-15 years, classroom instruction requires a focus on current research related to multimodal pedagogy. This integrative literature review sought to determine how instruction based on multimodality has been implemented in middle school classrooms. Educational databases were searched to ...
Mapping the gap. The purpose of the literature review section of a manuscript is not to report what is known about your topic. The purpose is to identify what remains unknown—what academic writing scholar Janet Giltrow has called the 'knowledge deficit'—thus establishing the need for your research study [].In an earlier Writer's Craft instalment, the Problem-Gap-Hook heuristic was ...