education expenditure by country

Public spending on education

Public spending on education is the direct expenditure by public entities on educational institutions as well as educational-related public subsidies given to households and administered by educational institutions.

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Public entities include ministries other than ministries of education, local and regional governments, and other public agencies. Expenditure covers spending on schools, universities and other public and private institutions delivering or supporting educational services. It covers education levels from primary, primary to post-secondary non-tertiary and tertiary levels.

This indicator is shown as a percentage of GDP.

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Education spending as a share of total government expenditure

What you should know about this indicator, how is this data described by its producer.

General government expenditure on education (current, capital, and transfers) is expressed as a percentage of total general government expenditure on all sectors (including health, education, social services, etc.). It includes expenditure funded by transfers from international sources to government. General government usually refers to local, regional and central governments.

Limitations and exceptions: Data on government expenditure on education may refer to spending by the ministry of education only (excluding spending on educational activities by other ministries). In addition, definitions and methods of data on total general government expenditure may differ across countries.

Statistical concept and methodology: Expenditure on education, total (% of government expenditure) is calculated by dividing total government expenditure on education by the total government expenditure on all sectors and multiplying by 100. Aggregate data are based on World Bank estimates.

Data on education are collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics from official responses to its annual education survey. All the data are mapped to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to ensure the comparability of education programs at the international level. The current version was formally adopted by UNESCO Member States in 2011. Data on total general government expenditure were previously collected from countries through the annual questionnaire, but are from the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook database since January 2014. Therefore, current data cannot be compared with data in earlier editions.

The reference years reflect the school year for which the data are presented. In some countries the school year spans two calendar years (for example, from September 2010 to June 2011); in these cases the reference year refers to the year in which the school year ended (2011 in the example).

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Sources and processing, this data is based on the following sources, unesco institute for statistics – world development indicators.

The World Development Indicators (WDI) is the primary World Bank collection of development indicators, compiled from officially-recognized international sources. It presents the most current and accurate global development data available, and includes national, regional and global estimates.

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Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP)

Definition: General government expenditure on education (current, capital, and transfers) is expressed as a percentage of GDP. It includes expenditure funded by transfers from international sources to government. General government usually refers to local, regional and central governments.

Description: The map below shows how Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) varies by country. The shade of the country corresponds to the magnitude of the indicator. The darker the shade, the higher the value. The country with the highest value in the world is Cuba, with a value of 12.84. The country with the lowest value in the world is Monaco, with a value of 1.15.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (http://uis.unesco.org/)

See also: Country ranking , Time series comparison

More maps: Africa | Asia | Central America & the Caribbean | Europe | Middle East | North America | Oceania | South America | World |

Development Relevance: The percentage of government expenditure on education to GDP is useful to compare education expenditure between countries and/or over time in relation to the size of their economy; A high percentage to GDP suggests a high priority for education and a capacity of raising revenues for public spending. Note that government expenditure appears lower in some countries where the private sector and/or households have a large share in total funding for education.

Limitations and Exceptions: Data may refer to spending by the ministry of education only (excluding spending on educational activities by other ministries).

Other Notes: Data retrieved via API in March 2019. For detailed information on the observation level (e.g. National Estimation, UIS Estimation, or Category not applicable), please visit UIS.Stat (http://data.uis.unesco.org/).

Statistical Concept and Methodology: Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) is calculated by dividing total government expenditure for all levels of education by the GDP, and multiplying by 100. Aggregate data are based on World Bank estimates. Data on education are collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics from official responses to its annual education survey. All the data are mapped to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to ensure the comparability of education programs at the international level. The current version was formally adopted by UNESCO Member States in 2011. GDP data come from the World Bank. The reference years reflect the school year for which the data are presented. In some countries the school year spans two calendar years (for example, from September 2010 to June 2011); in these cases the reference year refers to the year in which the school year ended (2011 in the example).

Aggregation method: Median

Periodicity: Annual

Note: This page was last updated on December 28, 2019

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Education Spending by Country

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Global Education Monitoring Report

Statistical Tables

2023 - technology in education: a tool on whose terms.

Most data in the statistical tables come from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). Where the statistical tables include data from other sources, these are mentioned in footnotes. The most recent UIS data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in the tables are from the March 2023 release and refer to the school year or financial year ending in 2021.2 These statistics refer to formal education, both public and private, by level of education. The statistical tables list 209 countries and territories, all of which are UNESCO Member States or associate members. Most report their data to the UIS using standard questionnaires issued by the UIS itself. For 46 countries, education data are collected by the UIS via the UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaires.

Statistical Tables ( PDF ) ( Excel )

2021 - Non-state actors: Who chooses? Who loses?

Most data in the statistical tables come from the UIS. Where the statistical tables include data from other sources, these are mentioned in footnotes. The most recent UIS data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in the tables are from the February 2021 release and refer to the school year or financial year ending in 2019. These statistics refer to formal education, both public and private, by level of education. The statistical tables list 209 countries and territories, all of which are UNESCO member States or associate members. most report their data to the UIS using standard questionnaires issued by the UIS itself. For 46 countries, education data are collected by the UIS via the UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaires.

2020 - Inclusion and education: All means all

Most data in the statistical tables come from the UIS. Where the statistical tables include data from other sources, these are mentioned in footnotes. The most recent UIS data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in the tables are from the September 2019 release and refer to the school year or financial year ending in 2018.4They are based on results reported to and processed by the UIS before July 2019. For a limited number of indicators and countries, the UIS updated its database in February 2020 and these updates are also reflected. These statistics refer to formal education, both public and private, by level of education. The statistical tables list 209 countries and territories, all of which are UNESCO Member States or associate members. Most report their data to the UIS using standard questionnaires issued by the UIS itself. For 46 countries, education data are collected by the UIS via the UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaires.

Statistical Tables (EXCEL)

2019 - Migration, displacement and education: Building Bridges, not walls

The most recent UIS data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in the tables are from the September 2018 education data release and refer to the school or financial year ending in 2017. They are based on results reported to and processed by the UIS before July 2018. These statistics refer to formal education, both public and private, by level of education. The statistical tables list 209 countries and territories, all of which are UNESCO member states or associate members. Most report their data to the UIS using standard questionnaires issued by the UIS itself. For 49 countries, education data are collected by the UIS via the UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaires.

2017/8 - Accountability in Education: Meeting our commitments 

The most recent UIS data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in the tables are for the school year or financial year ending in 2015. They are based on results reported to and processed by the UIS before the end of March 2017. A small number of countries submitted data for the school year ending in 2016, presented in bold in the tables. These statistics refer to all formal education, both public and private, by level of education.

Statistical Tables  (ZIP EXCEL)

2016 - Education for people and planet: Creating Sustainable Futures For All

The most recent data on pupils, students, teachers and education expenditure presented in these statistical tables are the reference school and financial years ending in 2014.  They are based on survey results reported to and processed by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) before the end of March 2014. Data received and processed after that date are published on the UIS website and will be used in the 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report.

Statistical Tables for year ending 2014 - long version

Introduction  - Introduction Table

Metadata for literacy statistics related to Statistical Table 10 . Information per country on the source of literacy data, the most recent year statistics are available, and the definition of literacy as used by each country.

2015 - Education for All 2000-2015: achievements and challenges

Statistical Tables for year ending 2012 - long version  |  français

Full introduction

Metadata  for literacy statistics related to Statistical Table 2. Information per country on the source of literacy data, the most recent year statistics are available, and the definition of literacy as used by each country.

2013/4 - Teaching and Learning

Statistical Tables - long version  |  français  (ZIP EXCEL)

Introduction

2012 - Youth, Skills & Work

Metadata  for literacy statistics related to Statistical Table 2.  Information per country on the source of literacy data, the most recent year statistics are available, and the definition of literacy as used by each country.

2011 - Conflict

2010 - marginalization.

Metadata  for literacy statistics related to Statistical Table 2A. Information per country on the source of literacy data, the most recent year statistics are available, and the definition of literacy as used by each country.

2009 - Governance

Metadata  for literacy statistics related to Statistical Table 2A.  Information per country on the source of literacy data, the most recent year statistics are available, and the definition of literacy as used by each country. -  français

GMR 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2005 | 2003/4 | 2002

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Government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP in Portugal 2018-2022

Government spending on the education system in Portugal reached the lowest share of gross domestic product (GDP) during the period analyzed in 2022, at 4.3 percent. The share of government expenditure on education was the highest at 4.7 percent of GDP in 20220 and 2021.

Government expenditure on education as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) in Portugal from 2018 to 2022

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2018 to 2022

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How China Built Tech Prowess: Chemistry Classes and Research Labs

Stressing science education, China is outpacing other countries in research fields like battery chemistry, crucial to its lead in electric vehicles.

By Keith Bradsher

Reporting from Changsha, Beijing and Fuzhou, China

China’s domination of electric cars, which is threatening to start a trade war, was born decades ago in university laboratories in Texas, when researchers discovered how to make batteries with minerals that were abundant and cheap.

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Batteries are just one example of how China is catching up with — or passing — advanced industrial democracies in its technological and manufacturing sophistication. It is achieving many breakthroughs in a long list of sectors, from pharmaceuticals to drones to high-efficiency solar panels.

Beijing’s challenge to the technological leadership that the United States has held since World War II is evidenced in China’s classrooms and corporate budgets, as well as in directives from the highest levels of the Communist Party.

A considerably larger share of Chinese students major in science, math and engineering than students in other big countries do. That share is rising further, even as overall higher education enrollment has increased more than tenfold since 2000.

Spending on research and development has surged, tripling in the past decade and moving China into second place after the United States. Researchers in China lead the world in publishing widely cited papers in 52 of 64 critical technologies, recent calculations by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute reveal.

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• Release calendar
• Methodology

Gross domestic expenditure on research and development, UK: 2022

Estimates of research and development performed and funded by businesses, higher education, government, UK Research and Innovation, and non-profit organisations.

This is the latest release. View previous releases

Contact: Email Research and Development team

Release date: 8 August 2024

Next release: To be announced

Table of contents

• Main points
• Data on Gross domestic expenditure on research and development
• Data sources and quality
• Methodological developments
• Related links
• Cite this statistical bulletin

Print this Statistical bulletin

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1. Main points

Expenditure on research and development (R&D) performed in the UK was £70.7 billion in 2022 (in current prices), an increase of £4.4 billion since 2021 and £12.4 billion since 2018, which is the first period available since the redevelopment of R&D statistics began.

The largest component of R&D expenditure was the business sector, at £49.9 billion (71% of the UK total); followed by the higher education sector, at £16.3 billion (23% of the UK total).

The government sector, including UK Research and Innovation, performed £3.6 billion of R&D (5% of the UK total); the private non-profit sector performed the least, at £0.9 billion (1% of the UK total).

Based on our latest available measure of gross domestic product (GDP), which does not yet incorporate the new R&D methodology, total UK R&D expenditure represented 2.77% of GDP in 2022; this figure is not comparable with previously published estimates, which were last included in the 2019 release.

We have introduced a new sample design and survey methodology to improve our business sector estimates for 2022. The uplift methodology we previously applied in our BERD 2021 release remains in place for the periods 2018 to 2021. More information is available in Section 4: Methodological developments .

2. Data on Gross domestic expenditure on research and development

UK gross domestic expenditure on research and development (designated as official statistics) Dataset | Released 8 August 2024 Annual estimates of research and development in the UK performed and funded by business enterprise, higher education, government, UK Research and Innovation, and private non-profit organisations.

UK gross domestic expenditure on research and development (designated as accredited official statistics) Dataset | Released 8 August 2024 Annual estimates of research and development in the UK performed and funded by business enterprise, higher education, government, UK Research and Innovation, and private non-profit organisations.

3. Data sources and quality

This bulletin provides estimates of research and development (R&D) performed in, and funded by, the following four sectors of the UK economy, as defined in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD's) Frascati Manual, 2015 :

• business enterprise R&D (BERD)
• higher education R&D (HERD)
• government, including UK Research and Innovation, R&D (GovERD)
• private non-profit organisations R&D (PNPRD)

R&D data from these sectors collectively form the gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) measure.

In this statistical bulletin, R&D and related concepts follow internationally agreed standards defined by the OECD , as published in the Frascati Manual 2015. GERD is the OECD's preferred measure of R&D activity for use in international comparisons.

R&D can be measured by the expenditure on R&D performed by an organisation, or the funding received by an organisation for R&D work. These are often, but not always, the same. Performance is regarded as a more accurate measure than funding received, as not all funds received may be used as intended. This bulletin reports on R&D expenditure in UK organisations, irrespective of the country of residence of the ultimate owner or users of the R&D produced.

All figures quoted are in current prices, unless otherwise stated.

4. Methodological developments

In this bulletin, the UK totals and performing sector level research and development (R&D) figures are designated as accredited official statistics, while the remaining figures have official statistics designation.

This methodological approach was introduced in our Gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) 2020 bulletin . This bulletin includes information about the reduction in the available data breakdowns and the redesignation of the lower-level estimates as official statistics because of the interim uplift factor approach used for the business enterprise R&D (BERD) 2021 results. This approach to statistics accreditation has been retained in this bulletin. While some of the detailed breakdowns have been reintroduced in this release, breakdowns by region for the periods 2018 to 2021 are not yet available and will be published in next year's GERD 2023 bulletin.

Business sector

The Office for National Statistics (ONS) identified that there was undercoverage, particularly of small businesses, in our previously published BERD statistics up to the 2020 reference period. As an interim step to adjust for this, we applied an uplift approach in our BERD 2021 release to both the new estimates for 2021 and the previously published results for 2018 to 2020. Further information about this is available in our Options for Transformation of BERD Statistics article .

We have also made further methodological improvements by introducing a new sample design and results methods for the BERD 2022 survey. The new sample has increased the volume of survey data received and ensured that the BERD statistics better reflect business R&D performed in the UK. Because of the increased volume of survey data received, the estimates in the BERD 2022 release are the most robust we have produced, and the most representative of business R&D performed in the UK.

As part of our ongoing work to transform R&D statistics, we are compiling a time series for the business sector, where the 2022 estimates in this release will be comparable with the lower-level breakdowns, as well as UK totals for previous years.

Before the time series becomes available, we would advise users not to compare any of the 2022 estimates in this release below the UK level, with the lower-level values for previous years.

The total and sector breakdowns in GERD retain their accredited official statistics designation. However, the ONS asked the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR) to temporarily pause the accredited official statistics status of the detailed GERD breakdowns, which include the BERD data, because of uncertainty. The suspension of accredited official statistics status will continue until the redevelopment of the BERD statistics is complete.

Higher education sector

Our GERD 2020 bulletin improved the measurement of R&D performed in the higher education sector, by introducing a new data source: the Transparent Approach to Costing (TRAC) . This data source was developed to help cost R&D activity within the higher education sector.

The previous source that was used to measure R&D activity in the higher education sector was not able to fully capture all R&D being performed. The source was compiled based on flows of money into the higher education sector for R&D to be performed, rather than actual R&D performance. Further details of the changes made are available in our GERD 2020 bulletin.

In this release, TRAC continues to be the main data source for R&D performed in the higher education sector. However, we have estimated R&D expenditure in a small number of regions, instead of using the TRAC data. This is because a small number of universities were unable to be included in the TRAC results. No account is made for these universities in the TRAC estimates, as noted in the most recent annual TRAC data publication . For the regions affected by missing institutions in the TRAC results, we have estimated expenditure based on previous growth in those regions. This will mean that estimates in this bulletin are not directly comparable with those in the TRAC publication. However, our estimated values only represent a small proportion of the overall total for the higher education sector.

R&D as a proportion of gross domestic product

Estimates of the percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) spent on R&D performed in the UK were not included in the 2020 and 2021 editions of the GERD statistical bulletin. This is because work to improve the R&D estimates for the business and higher education sectors was still in progress and we had not yet incorporated these improvements into the calculations of GDP.

We stated in our GERD 2021 bulletin that we would reinstate the estimates of the proportion of GDP spent on performing R&D when our improvements to the R&D statistics were incorporated into the National Accounts. However, we have reintroduced the estimates in this release, which is earlier than previously planned. This is so that users can see an estimate of the impact on GDP from our improved methods, now that we have implemented the new BERD sample design. The percentages of GDP should be treated as indicative only, because the R&D estimates based on our new methodology have not yet been incorporated into the calculations of GDP. They should also not be compared with the percentages of GDP last published in our 2019 release, because of our methodology changes to compiling the R&D statistics for the business and higher education sectors.

Methodological improvements to our GERD datasets from 2018 onwards mean that comparing with estimates from before 2018, for total R&D performed in the UK and in the business and higher education sectors, is not possible.

We are currently updating our UK gross domestic expenditure on research and development quality and methodology information (QMI). Our QMI details the strengths, limitations and appropriate uses of our survey estimates.

5. Related links

Business enterprise research and development, UK: 2022 Bulletin | Released 27 February 2024 Spending and numbers employed on research and development by businesses in the UK, including data on sources of funds and regional spread.

Research and development expenditure by the UK government: 2022 Bulletin | Released 30 April 2024 Research and development and related expenditure by UK government departments and devolved administrations.

6. Cite this statistical bulletin

Office for National Statistics (ONS), released 8 August 2024, ONS website, statistical bulletin, Gross domestic expenditure on research and development, UK: 2022

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What is the energy crisis?

Record prices, fuel shortages, rising poverty, slowing economies: the first energy crisis that's truly global.

Energy markets began to tighten in 2021 because of a variety of factors, including the extraordinarily rapid economic rebound following the pandemic. But the situation escalated dramatically into a full-blown global energy crisis following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. The price of natural gas reached record highs, and as a result so did electricity in some markets. Oil prices hit their highest level since 2008. 

Higher energy prices have contributed to painfully high inflation, pushed families into poverty, forced some factories to curtail output or even shut down, and slowed economic growth to the point that some countries are heading towards severe recession. Europe, whose gas supply is uniquely vulnerable because of its historic reliance on Russia, could face gas rationing this winter, while many emerging economies are seeing sharply higher energy import bills and fuel shortages. While today’s energy crisis shares some parallels with the oil shocks of the 1970s, there are important differences. Today’s crisis involves all fossil fuels, while the 1970s price shocks were largely limited to oil at a time when the global economy was much more dependent on oil, and less dependent on gas. The entire word economy is much more interlinked than it was 50 years ago, magnifying the impact. That’s why we can refer to this as the first truly global energy crisis.

Some gas-intensive manufacturing plants in Europe have curtailed output because they can’t afford to keep operating, while in China some have simply had their power supply cut. In emerging and developing economies, where the share of household budgets spent on energy and food is already large, higher energy bills have increased extreme poverty and set back progress towards achieving universal and affordable energy access. Even in advanced economies, rising prices have impacted vulnerable households and caused significant economic, social and political strains.

Climate policies have been blamed in some quarters for contributing to the recent run-up in energy prices, but there is no evidence. In fact, a greater supply of clean energy sources and technologies would have protected consumers and mitigated some of the upward pressure on fuel prices.

Russia's invasion of Ukraine drove European and Asian gas prices to record highs

Evolution of key regional natural gas prices, june 2021-october 2022, what is causing it, disrupted supply chains, bad weather, low investment, and then came russia's invasion of ukraine.

Energy prices have been rising since 2021 because of the rapid economic recovery, weather conditions in various parts of the world, maintenance work that had been delayed by the pandemic, and earlier decisions by oil and gas companies and exporting countries to reduce investments. Russia began withholding gas supplies to Europe in 2021, months ahead of its invasion of Ukraine. All that led to already tight supplies. Russia’s attack on Ukraine greatly exacerbated the situation . The United States and the EU imposed a series of sanctions on Russia and many European countries declared their intention to phase out Russian gas imports completely. Meanwhile, Russia has increasingly curtailed or even turned off its export pipelines. Russia is by far the world’s largest exporter of fossil fuels, and a particularly important supplier to Europe. In 2021, a quarter of all energy consumed in the EU came from Russia. As Europe sought to replace Russian gas, it bid up prices of US, Australian and Qatari ship-borne liquefied natural gas (LNG), raising prices and diverting supply away from traditional LNG customers in Asia. Because gas frequently sets the price at which electricity is sold, power prices soared as well. Both LNG producers and importers are rushing to build new infrastructure to increase how much LNG can be traded internationally, but these costly projects take years to come online. Oil prices also initially soared as international trade routes were reconfigured after the United States, many European countries and some of their Asian allies said they would no longer buy Russian oil. Some shippers have declined to carry Russian oil because of sanctions and insurance risk. Many large oil producers were unable to boost supply to meet rising demand – even with the incentive of sky-high prices – because of a lack of investment in recent years. While prices have come down from their peaks, the outlook is uncertain with new rounds of European sanctions on Russia kicking in later this year.

What is being done?

Pandemic hangovers and rising interest rates limit public responses, while some countries turn to coal.

Some governments are looking to cushion the blow for customers and businesses, either through direct assistance, or by limiting prices for consumers and then paying energy providers the difference. But with inflation in many countries well above target and budget deficits already large because of emergency spending during the Covid-19 pandemic, the scope for cushioning the impact is more limited than in early 2020. Rising inflation has triggered increases in short-term interest rates in many countries, slowing down economic growth. Europeans have rushed to increase gas imports from alternative producers such as Algeria, Norway and Azerbaijan. Several countries have resumed or expanded the use of coal for power generation, and some are extending the lives of nuclear plants slated for de-commissioning. EU members have also introduced gas storage obligations, and agreed on voluntary targets to cut gas and electricity demand by 15% this winter through efficiency measures, greater use of renewables, and support for efficiency improvements. To ensure adequate oil supplies, the IEA and its members responded with the two largest ever releases of emergency oil stocks. With two decisions – on 1 March 2022 and 1 April – the IEA coordinated the release of some 182 million barrels of emergency oil from public stocks or obligated stocks held by industry. Some IEA member countries independently released additional public stocks, resulting in a total of over 240 million barrels being released between March and November 2022.

The IEA has also published action plans to cut oil use with immediate impact, as well as plans for how Europe can reduce its reliance on Russian gas and how common citizens can reduce their energy consumption . The invasion has sparked a reappraisal of energy policies and priorities, calling into question the viability of decades of infrastructure and investment decisions, and profoundly reorientating international energy trade. Gas had been expected to play a key role in many countries as a lower-emitting "bridge" between dirtier fossil fuels and renewable energies. But today’s crisis has called into question natural gas’ reliability.

The current crisis could accelerate the rollout of cleaner, sustainable renewable energy such as wind and solar, just as the 1970s oil shocks spurred major advances in energy efficiency, as well as in nuclear, solar and wind power. The crisis has also underscored the importance of investing in robust gas and power network infrastructure to better integrate regional markets. The EU’s RePowerEU, presented in May 2022 and the United States’ Inflation Reduction Act , passed in August 2022, both contain major initiatives to develop energy efficiency and promote renewable energies. 

The global energy crisis can be a historic turning point

Energy saving tips

1. Heating: turn it down

Lower your thermostat by just 1°C to save around 7% of your heating energy and cut an average bill by EUR 50-70 a year. Always set your thermostat as low as feels comfortable, and wear warm clothes indoors. Use a programmable thermostat to set the temperature to 15°C while you sleep and 10°C when the house is unoccupied. This cuts up to 10% a year off heating bills. Try to only heat the room you’re in or the rooms you use regularly.

The same idea applies in hot weather. Turn off air-conditioning when you’re out. Set the overall temperature 1 °C warmer to cut bills by up to 10%. And only cool the room you’re in.

2. Boiler: adjust the settings

Default boiler settings are often higher than you need. Lower the hot water temperature to save 8% of your heating energy and cut EUR 100 off an average bill.  You may have to have the plumber come once if you have a complex modern combi boiler and can’t figure out the manual. Make sure you follow local recommendations or consult your boiler manual. Swap a bath for a shower to spend less energy heating water. And if you already use a shower, take a shorter one. Hot water tanks and pipes should be insulated to stop heat escaping. Clean wood- and pellet-burning heaters regularly with a wire brush to keep them working efficiently.

3. Warm air: seal it in

Close windows and doors, insulate pipes and draught-proof around windows, chimneys and other gaps to keep the warm air inside. Unless your home is very new, you will lose heat through draughty doors and windows, gaps in the floor, or up the chimney. Draught-proof these gaps with sealant or weather stripping to save up to EUR 100 a year. Install tight-fitting curtains or shades on windows to retain even more heat. Close fireplace and chimney openings (unless a fire is burning) to stop warm air escaping straight up the chimney. And if you never use your fireplace, seal the chimney to stop heat escaping.

4. Lightbulbs: swap them out

Replace old lightbulbs with new LED ones, and only keep on the lights you need. LED bulbs are more efficient than incandescent and halogen lights, they burn out less frequently, and save around EUR 10 a year per bulb. Check the energy label when buying bulbs, and aim for A (the most efficient) rather than G (the least efficient). The simplest and easiest way to save energy is to turn lights off when you leave a room.

5. Grab a bike

Walking or cycling are great alternatives to driving for short journeys, and they help save money, cut emissions and reduce congestion. If you can, leave your car at home for shorter journeys; especially if it’s a larger car. Share your ride with neighbours, friends and colleagues to save energy and money. You’ll also see big savings and health benefits if you travel by bike. Many governments also offer incentives for electric bikes.

6. Use public transport

For longer distances where walking or cycling is impractical, public transport still reduces energy use, congestion and air pollution. If you’re going on a longer trip, consider leaving your car at home and taking the train. Buy a season ticket to save money over time. Your workplace or local government might also offer incentives for travel passes. Plan your trip in advance to save on tickets and find the best route.

7. Drive smarter

Optimise your driving style to reduce fuel consumption: drive smoothly and at lower speeds on motorways, close windows at high speeds and make sure your tires are properly inflated. Try to take routes that avoid heavy traffic and turn off the engine when you’re not moving. Drive 10 km/h slower on motorways to cut your fuel bill by around EUR 60 per year. Driving steadily between 50-90 km/h can also save fuel. When driving faster than 80 km/h, it’s more efficient to use A/C, rather than opening your windows. And service your engine regularly to maintain energy efficiency.

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