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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on May 15, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction . The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis , paper, or dissertation topic , there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes “level 1” headings , or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as “level 2” headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into “level 3” headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper .

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review , Methodology , and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3)!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says “Heading 1.”
• Select “Update Heading 1 to Match Selection.”
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the “References” section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click “OK” and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

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Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select “Update Field.” You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations, and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

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All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction .

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Home » APA Table of Contents – Format and Example

APA Table of Contents – Format and Example

Table of Contents

APA Table of Contents

The APA (American Psychological Association) Table of Contents is a structured outline that provides an overview of the content of a research paper or manuscript. It is typically included in the front matter of the document and lists the major sections and subsections of the paper, along with their page numbers. The Table of Contents is an important organizational tool that helps readers navigate the document and locate specific information quickly and easily.

How to Make APA Table of Contents

Here are the steps you can follow:

• Create a new page for the table of contents. The page number should be the Roman numeral “i”.
• Center the title “Table of Contents” at the top of the page.
• List all the headings and subheadings in your paper in order. Be sure to include all major sections and subsections.
• Align the page numbers to the right margin of the page.
• Use dot leaders to connect the headings to their respective page numbers. Dot leaders are a row of dots that help guide the reader’s eye from the heading to the page number.

I. Introduction ……………………………………………………… i

II. Literature Review ……………………………………………….. 1

A. Subheading ………………………………………………………… 2

B. Subheading ………………………………………………………… 3

III. Methodology ………………………………………………………….. 4

A. Participants ………………………………………………………… 5

B. Procedure …………………………………………………………… 6

IV. Results ……………………………………………………………………. 8

V. Discussion ……………………………………………………………… 10

VI. Conclusion …………………………………………………………….. 12

How to Make APA Table of Contents in MS Words

To create an APA table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Start by typing out your document in Microsoft Word.
• Once you have finished typing your document, place your cursor at the beginning of your document.
• Click on the “References” tab in the top menu bar.
• Click on the “Table of Contents” option on the left-hand side of the menu bar.
• Choose one of the APA table of contents styles from the drop-down menu that appears. There are two options for an APA table of contents: “APA 6th Edition” and “APA 7th Edition.”
• Once you have chosen your preferred APA table of contents style, click on it to insert it into your document.
• Now you need to format your headings to be included in the table of contents. Select the heading you want to include in your table of contents.
• Click on the “Styles” option in the top menu bar.
• Choose the appropriate heading style from the drop-down menu that appears. You can choose from “Heading 1,” “Heading 2,” “Heading 3,” etc.
• Repeat the previous two steps for each heading you want to include in the table of contents.
• Once you have formatted all the headings, go back to the “References” tab in the top menu bar.
• Select the “Update Table” option from the drop-down menu that appears.
• Choose whether you want to update the page numbers only or the entire table of contents.
• Click “OK” to update your table of contents.

Your APA table of contents is now complete!

APA Table of Contents Format

Here’s the general format for creating a table of contents in APA style:

• Start a new page after the title page and abstract.
• Type “Table of Contents” at the top of the page, centered.
• List all the major sections of your paper, including the introduction, body, and conclusion.
• Indent each level of subheading, using either the tab key or your word processor’s formatting tools.
• Use the same font and size for the table of contents as you did for the rest of the paper.
• Align page numbers on the right side of the page, directly after each section and sub-section.
• Include any appendices and references in the table of contents, if applicable.

Here is an example of an APA-formatted table of contents:

Table of Contents Format

Introduction ………………………………………. 1

Literature Review ………………………………… 2

Methods ………………………………………….. 6

Participants ……………………………………. 6

Procedure ……………………………………….. 8

Results ………………………………………….. 10

Discussion ………………………………………. 15

Appendices ………………………………………. 20

References ………………………………………. 21

APA Table of Contents Example

Here is an example of an APA-style table of contents:

I. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 1

II. Literature Review …………………………………………………………….. 3

A. Background………………………………………………………………… 3

B. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………… 5

C. Empirical Studies………………………………………………………… 7

III. Methodology …………………………………………………………………. 10

A. Research Design ………………………………………………………… 10

B. Participants ……………………………………………………………….. 11

C. Materials ………………………………………………………………….. 12 ‘

D. Procedure …………………………………………………………………. 14

IV. Results …………………………………………………………………………. 16

V. Discussion ……………………………………………………………………… 19

A. Summary of Findings …………………………………………………. 19

B. Implications ………………………………………………………………. 21

C. Limitations and Future Directions ………………………………… 23

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 25

VII. References …………………………………………………………………… 27

VIII. Appendices ………………………………………………………………….. 31

When to use APA Table of Contents

You should use an APA TOC when:

• You are writing a research paper or a thesis that is more than 5 pages in length.
• Your document has multiple headings and subheadings that require organization and clarification for the reader.
• You want to make it easy for readers to find specific sections or information within your document.
• You want to comply with the APA style guidelines for formatting and referencing.
• Your document contains complex information that requires a clear structure to make it more comprehensible for the reader.

Advantages of APA Table of Contents

The American Psychological Association (APA) style table of contents has several advantages, including:

• Easy navigation: A well-organized table of contents makes it easy for readers to find the information they need quickly and easily. This is especially important in longer documents such as academic papers, theses, and dissertations.
• Standardized formatting: The APA style table of contents follows a standardized formatting style that is familiar to many academic readers. This makes it easier for readers to understand the structure and organization of the document.
• Consistency : By using the APA style table of contents, authors can ensure that the document is consistent and follows a clear organizational structure. This can help readers to better understand the content and stay focused on the main points.
• Professional appearance : A well-formatted APA style table of contents can enhance the professional appearance of the document. This is particularly important in academic and research settings where a professional appearance can increase the credibility of the work.
• Compliance with academic standards : Many academic institutions require the use of the APA style for academic papers, theses, and dissertations. By using the APA style table of contents, authors can ensure that their work complies with these academic standards.

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• Writing Tips

How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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• May 19, 2022

Table of contents for research papers

• By Max Dade

What’s a Table of Contents?

When writing a research paper, master’s thesis or PhD dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most important elements to include. Why? Because it provides a detailed and accurate list that examiners can use as a map, guiding through each respective chapter, including all relevant sections and subsections of material. Including a Table of Contents (or ToC for short), helps readers understand the general gist of the content. In this article, we will take a look at what goes into a table of contents, what the most important elements are, and how we can create automatically formatted ToCs.

For short articles, such as those published in a scientific journal, a table of contents is not usually required, and if an essay or article forms part of a larger body of writing by other authors, the publisher will generally compile the ToC at a later date before going to print.

Of course, while writing your research paper, it’s worth taking note of all the different heading levels required (e.g., Level 1, 2, 3, etc.).

Modifying the format of each heading level will help you to construct an accurate and professionally formatted table of contents. However, unlike the days before computers, ToCs no longer need to be constructed manually, since word processing programs the likes of Microsoft Word allow the user to create automatic ToCs tailored to specific styles and formats.

Fig 1. An example of heading levels in a typical Table of Contents in Microsoft Word.

So, how do we construct a table of contents? First, start with the title and main chapter headings of the research paper. List all relevant chapters and sub-headings in chronological order from first to last. Under each chapter heading, include any additional subheadings.

For other heading levels, consult the style guide or submission guidelines to note the format of all the heading levels. Then, modify each heading level in Microsoft Word to reflect those specific headings. In academic research papers, dissertations, and other manuscripts , level two and three headings are often indented and placed below chapter headings. In some of the cases, italics may be used, or otherwise a number system (e.g., 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.2.2, etc.).

As is standard practice in all books, the table of contents is positioned after the acknowledgments section and before the introductory section. Depending on the format specified by the institution or publisher, some sections may be left out of the table of contents, such as the abstract and acknowledgment sections. However, concluding sections, such as the references/bibliography as well as any supplementary materials included in the appendix, should also be included.

Now, let’s talk about how to format an automatic table of contents in Microsoft Word. We can use the automatic ToC creator to not only build a list of headings, but also to record accurate page numbers; for example, if you insert material or make changes, the page numbers may not always line up correctly. To get around this, you can use heading levels to specify the importance of each subsection. For example, chapter headings generally fall under a level one heading, and smaller subsections under level 2.

Each heading style can be modified to taste in the ToC formation toolbar in MS Word to apply them automatically. As some headings may require bold for italic text, while some others may be indented, Word can customize each level accordingly.

A note of caution regarding level 3 headings when the main text body follows directly after the heading in the same paragraph. We might run into some problems here, given that automatic ToCs include the entire paragraph as a heading; however, there are ways to get around this, such as by turning on the special characters to see page breaks and line breaks, etc. There are many tools available online to help you with such issues, so there’s no need to worry.

Examples Now, let’s take a look at a few examples of different Table of Contents styles; namely, those used in academic dissertations and theses. Some of these ToCs use numeration to designate the heading level, whereas others are more traditional.

Fig 1. Example of a typical APA-style Table of Contents.

Fig 2. Example of a numerated Table of Contents.

Now, let’s summarize the advantages of creating an automatic table of contents.

• The table of contents forms an essential part of any academic paper.
• Through the use of headings, sub-headings, and page numbers, we can construct an accurate road map to assist reviewers, evaluators, tutors, and general readers.
• The table of contents shows how effective the writer is at dividing the thesis into relevant and manageable sections. Without sections and headings, there would just be a series of unlabeled paragraphs.
• A well-structured ToC allows readers to click on a section and go directly there. This is particularly useful when cross-referencing references and citations or jumping to illustrations and figures.

• Frequently Asked Questions

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Table of Contents Templates

21 table of contents templates & examples [word, ppt].

A table of contents, often abbreviated as a TOC, is found at the beginning of a book or long document, listing all of the chapters or section titles.  A table of contents template helps to guide the reader through a long, complex book or essay with the name of the chapter and the page number they need to find it.

Table of Contents

• 1 Table of Contents Templates
• 2 What is a Table of Contents?
• 3 What is included in a Table of Contents template?
• 4 Table of Contents Examples
• 5.1 Keep the layout simple
• 6.1 Using a Table of Contents template (Word, Google Docs, Apple Pages)
• 6.2 Creating a manual table of contents
• 7 Table of Contents Desings
• 8 How to create a Table of Contents in Microsoft Word
• 9 How to create a Table of Contents in Google Docs
• 10 What is the purpose of a table of contents template?

With this in mind, it is essential that the table of contents template looks visually appealing whilst being easy to use. You can download one of our blank table of contents templates to begin designing your table of contents to be efficient and simple for readers. You can then edit this on MS Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages.

What is a Table of Contents?

A table of contents template is used at the beginning of a lengthy document, such as a dissertation or research paper , or at the beginning of a textbook. The table is a critical part of any extensive research, as it helps the reader to navigate their way through.

A table of contents serves several purposes, with the main purpose being to help the reader easily find information using the correct page number.

Without it, readers can become overwhelmed and thus lose interest in the text itself. When completing research, it can be demotivating to have to sift through pages and pages of irrelevant text before finding what you actually need. That’s why a table of contents template is so essential when writing a long essay, or creating a textbook.

What is included in a Table of Contents template?

A table of contents essentially informs the reader of the book or document’s outline. It tells the reader how many chapters there are, what each section of the book is about, how long the book or document is, and where they can find specific sections or chapters using page numbers.

Here are the three key things you need to include:

• Chapter names
• Specific sections within each chapter
• Page numbers

Additional features to include

Of course, there are many other features you can include to customize your table of contents. These include:

• Different heading levels and indentations
• A brief description of each chapter
• Create hyperlinks to take the reader directly to the page they need

A table of contents no longer needs to be a simple list of chapters and page numbers. There are many ways to make the content templates more engaging for readers.

Table of Contents Examples

What makes a good table of contents template?

It sounds quite simple to just write a list of all the chapters in a book or essay, along with their page numbers along dotted lines.

However, a good table of contents is more than just that.  A good table of contents must be perfectly precise, ensuring that each page number is accurate. It must be formatted in a clear and concise way so that readers are not confused visually. This can be done using simple a heading style, to prevent overwhelming the reader from the first page.

Keep the layout simple

It can be tempting to squash each line on the table of contents together to fit it all on one page. However, a good table of contents template for a long document will use indents to keep information clear and organized. It may even take up more than one page to keep things easy to read.

A good table of contents template is also visually engaging. Using a colorful table of contents may help your document to stand out from other, similar documents, and can help researchers to choose your writing over another’s. Using a unique heading format, along with a pleasing color, can be a great way to design and customize your table of contents template.

How to create a table of contents

There are many types of table of contents and table of contents templates to use. Whether you use MS Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages to write your online document, you can edit a table of contents template using any of these word processors.

The Basic Format

Depending on your preference, you may opt for a classic, basic table of contents template. This will simply list both the heading of each section or chapter of the document, along with the corresponding page numbers along dotted lines. This table of contents format is both easy to create and use.

Adding Detail

However, for your table of contents template, you may choose to name individual sections and then write the chapters included within that section underneath, using different heading levels.

This style is still a very simple design for a title page, and I recommend using one of these formats when creating your table of contents and using a table of contents template. MS Word, Google Docs and Apple Pages all offer these format options.

Using a Table of Contents template (Word, Google Docs, Apple Pages)

Using a table of content template helps to eliminate the standard, boring look of a table of contents. With a table of contents template, you can simply download and input your data using MS Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages.

Remember, the table of contents is likely the first page that readers will see, so you can engage them further by using a unique design for your table of contents page.

It is likely that many academics have looked at many articles or documents before yours, so using an accessible and user-friendly table of contents template will help to keep them engaged in their research and your document.

Creating a manual table of contents

However, you can create a table of contents manually using a word processor, such as Microsoft Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages.

This is an efficient way to create your table of contents, but you are more limited in terms of how visually appealing the table will look. The overall table of contents layout is more restricted by what MS Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages offers.

Table of Contents Desings

How to create a Table of Contents in Microsoft Word

Many people choose to use MS Word to create their table of contents pages. This word processor offers a lot of features to help create the perfect table of contents.

Although I recommend using a table of contents template to format your document, using a word processor such as MS Word or Google Docs is also a simple way to present the table of contents.

MS Word in particular offers built-in heading styles, as well as a range of options for the table of contents layout. You can also download a Microsoft Word table of contents template to input your data using MS Word.

• Apply the desired heading styles group. In MS Word, you can use one of the built-in ‘heading styles’ from the ‘home’ tab for your table of contents. Using a heading style is a great way to get started with a table of contents. However, using custom styles can help your table of contents to stand out, and using a table of contents template can make your title page look more unique. To find a heading style in MS Word, simply select the text that you want to format, and choose a heading from the ‘ Styles’ section on the ‘ Home ’ tab.
• Insert your table of contents. This step only takes a few simple clicks with MS Word. Click the ‘ References’ tab, and then select ‘ Table of Contents .’ From here, you can choose one of the layouts from the menu. This will create a table of contents in your document.  You can edit the font style and size to your desired preference. The built-in styles offered by MS Word are great, and often suit a classic TOC style. An excellent feature that MS Word uses are clickable links within the table of contents. It essentially helps to create hyperlinks for you. Once the table of contents appears in your document, you can hover over each section with your cursor, press CTRL and click , and it will take you to the correct place in the document.
• Update the table of contents. If you create the table of contents whilst the document is still unfinished, then you will need to edit and update your table of contents. To do this, simply click on the ‘ References ’ tab. From here, you can choose to update the page numbers only, or update the entire table, by selecting either option.

How to create a Table of Contents in Google Docs

The most popular word processors to create a table of contents are MS Word, Google Docs and Apple Pages. If you prefer to use Google Docs for your writing, the process of creating a table of contents here is even easier.

Google Docs is a great place to write and edit academic work as an online document, as the work saves automatically if you have an internet connection.

Personally, I use Google Docs for all of my academic writing, and I did so throughout university. MS Word is equally as useful, but creating a table of contents in Google Docs is a really straightforward process.

• Choose your preferred location for your table of contents on the document.
• Click ‘Insert’ and choose ‘Table of contents.’
• Decide on your chosen table of contents format.

And that’s it! Google Docs makes creating a table of contents a really simple process. A benefit of using Google Docs is that it will automatically update the entire table for you once you add additional headings. All you have to do is ‘refresh’ the page.

What is the purpose of a table of contents template?

If you are writing a long document, such as a thesis or any kind of research paper, or if you’re planning on writing a non-fiction book of your own, then you will definitely benefit from using a table of contents template.

• Accessible for the reader. A table of contents template provides the reader with structure and organization when they are reading your work. It helps them to access specific information easily using the correct page number, saving them time and making your document organized and helpful for them. A table of contents template provides a greater user experience for the reader than if they were to read a document without one.
• Reflects the quality of your work. A table of contents is an essential part of any piece of non-fiction writing, so it is important that your table of contents reflects the rest of your document. If the table is messy and difficult to read, users will immediately be put off by the rest of your work. Using a table of contents template helps to eliminate this issue.
• An important tool for students to navigate. In university, students must become familiar with using a table of contents. Research can be daunting, especially when students first begin university.  They must learn not only how to create a table of contents in their own work, but also how to use a table of contents when researching the work of others.

Using a table of contents template in class is a great resource to help students understand and navigate longer pieces of writing or difficult textbooks. You can download our templates, choose to ‘ print ‘ document, and use these as table of contents examples in class for your students.

Whether you’re an academic, a student, or a writer, a table of contents template is a crucial part of the formatting process. It can be easy to forget about, but this simple page at the beginning of your document or book can make all the difference to a reader’s experience.

You can download one of our free table of contents templates to save time manually creating a table of contents yourself. You can then input your data using MS Word, Google Docs or Apple Pages. Make your work accessible, appealing, and clear by selecting the best table of contents template for you.

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How to Create a Table of Contents for Dissertation, Thesis or Paper & Examples

Table of contents

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A dissertation table of contents is a list of the chapters and sections included in a dissertation or thesis, along with their page numbers. It helps to navigate the document easily and locate specific information. Each chapter or section should be listed with its corresponding page number. The table of contents should be formatted according to the guidelines of the specific style guide being used, such as APA or MLA.

We would guess that students usually start working on the table of contents at the last minute. It is quite apparent and makes sense, as this is the list of chapters and sections with page locations. Do you think it's easy? 

From our experience, it can be quite tricky to organize everything according to APA, Chicago, or any other academic writing style. In this blog, we will discuss how to write a table of contents for a research paper , thesis or dissertation in Microsoft Word. We will create it together to guide students through the process. 

Also, here you will find examples of table of contents created by thesis writers at StudyCrumb . Let’s go!

What Is a Table of Contents: Definition

It is obvious that the table of contents (TOC) is an essential manuscript part you can’t skip. If you are dealing with a dissertation, thesis or research paper, you need to know how to build it in accordance with academic guidance. This is a detailed roadmap for your work and outlined structure you can follow for a research presentation. 

In case you are working on an essay or report, you may not include the table of contents, as it is a short academic text. But for the research paper, thesis or dissertation, table of contents is essential and required. It is possible to say the same about any Master’s project. It should be located between the dissertation abstract and introduction chapter. In most cases, it is about 2-3 pages long. 

Our expert dissertation writing service prepared a great template that can be used for your work. Make your research formatting easy with ready solutions!

Types of Table of Contents

How to choose which table of contents will fit your research paper, thesis, dissertation, or report best? Make a decision based on your work length. Some academic writing styles, such as APA paper format or MLA style , have specific formatting for this list. 

However, we will outline the most commonly used typology:

• Single-level table of contents. At this type, we use only chapters. For instance, you will have an Introduction, Literature Review, methodology, and other chapters with page numbers. It can be used for shorter research work. For long writing forms like manuscripts, it can be too broad, and you will need to go into details.
• Subdivided table of contents. The most frequently used form to organize the contents table. It will include not only chapters but also sections — a level 2 subheading for each part. It will help to be more specific about what to expect in each part of your research work.
• Table of contents with multiple levels. This is a more divided structure, including subheadings with a level 3 for each section. Quite often, those subheadings can be rewritten or deleted during the last editing. It is essential to keep them in the right order.

Before you decide which type will work best for you, let us share with you some examples of each formatting style.

Example of Table of Contents With a Single Level

Introduction: The Misinformation Roots ………..…… 3 Literature Review .....................................….....………… 10 Research Methodology and Design ……................. 24 Results.............................................................................. 28 Discussion ....................................................................... 32

Sometimes, you will need to put an extra emphasis on subsections. Check this layout to see how your subheadings can be organized.

Example of Table of Contents Page with Subdivided Levels

Introduction: Information War ............……………….. 3       Background…………………………………….………..…… 4       Current State ……………………………………...…...…… 5       Defining Research Questions………………………. 9 Literature Review………………………...……………..……... 11       The Roots of Information Warfare ………....… 11        Information Wars …………………………….………..… 14        Cyber Wars Research ........................................ 17

If you are working on a lengthy, complex paper, this outline will suit your project most. It will help readers navigate through your document by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable sections.

Multi-Level Table of Contents Page Example

Introduction……………………………………………….......……….… 3       Emergence of Climate Change ………..……....….….. 3       Key Activist Groups in Climate Change .............. 5              Greenpeace International ………..…………......... 9              European Climate Foundation …….……………. 10              WWF ……………………………………….……….............. 11        Significant Movements ……………….………....……… 13 Literature Review ……………………………………......…………. 15

What Sections Should Be Included in a Table of Contents?

To start with, the scientific table of contents should include all chapters and its subheading. It is important to choose the formatting that will give your readers a full overview of your work from the very beginning. However, there are other chapters that you may miss constructing the 2-pager table. So, let's look at all you need to include:

• Dissertation introduction
• Literature review
• Research methodology
• Results section
• Dissertation discussion
• Conclusion of a thesis
• Reference list. Mention a number of a page where you start listing your sources.
• Appendices. For instance, if you have a data set, table or figure, include it in your research appendix .

This is how the ideal structured dissertation or research paper table of contents will look like. Remember that it still should take 2 pages. You need to choose the best formatting style to manage its length.

Tables, Figures, and Appendices in TOC

While creating a table of contents in a research paper, thesis or dissertation, you will need to include appendices in each case you have them. However, the formatting and adding tables and figures can vary based on the number and citation style. If you have more than 3 tables or figures, you may decide to have all of them at the end of your project. So, add them to the table of contents. 

Figures, graphics, and diagrams in research papers, dissertations and theses should be numbered. If you use them from another source, ensure that you make a proper citation based on the chosen style guide.

Appendix in Table of Contents Example

Appendix A. Row Data Set…………………………………… 41 Appendix B. IBR Data………………………………………….… 43 Appendix C. SPSS Data………………………………………… 44

What Shouldn't Be Included in a Table of Contents?

When creating a dissertation table of contents, students want to include everything they have in a document. However, some components should not be on this page. Here is what we are talking about:

• Thesis acknowledgement
• Paper abstract
• The content list itself

Acknowledgement and abstract should be located before the content list, so there is no need to add them. You need to present a clear structure that will help your readers to navigate through the work and quickly find any requested information.

How to Create a Table of Contents for a Research Paper or Dissertation In Word?

It may look like working with this list can take a long. But we have one proposal for our users. Instead of writing a table of contents manually, create it automatically in Microsoft Word. You do not need any specific tech knowledge to do this. Let’s go through this process step-by-step and explain how to make a table of contents for a research paper or dissertation in a few clicks.

• Open Home tab and choose the style for your table of contents (ToC next).
• Apply heading 1 to your chapters, heading 2 to the subheading, and if needed heading 3 to the level 3 heading.
• Next, you are going to create a research paper or PhD dissertation table of contents. Open References and choose ToC.
• Choose the citation style for your work. For example, let’s choose APL for now. Meeting all style requirements (bold font, title formatting, numbers) is essential.
• Define the number of levels for your dissertation or thesis table of contents. In case you want to have 3 levels, choose Automatic Table 2.
• You are done! Click ok, and here is your page with listed chapters!

You see how easy it can be! Every time you make changes to your text or headings, it will be automatic.

Updating Your Table of Contents in MS Word

Table of contents of a research paper or dissertation is created, and you continue to edit your work until submission. It is common practice, and with MS Word, you can automate all the updates. 

Let’s outline this process in our step-by-step guide!

• Right-click on your ToC in a document.
• Update field section is next.
• Choose “update ToC."
• Here, you can update your entire ToC — choose an option that works the best for you!

As you may see, working with automated solutions is much easier when you write a dissertation which has manifold subsections. That is why it is better to learn how to work on MS Word with the content list meaning be able to manage it effectively.

Table of Contents Examples

From our experience, students used to think that the content list was quite a complicated part of the work. Even with automated solutions, you must be clear about what to include and how to organize formatting. To solve the problem and answer all your questions, use our research paper or dissertation contents page example. Our paper writers designed a sample table of contents to illustrate the best practices and various styles in formatting the work. 

Check our samples to find advanced options for organizing your own list.

Example of Table of Contents in Research Paper

As you can see, this contents page includes sections with different levels.

Thesis/Dissertation Table of Contents Example

Have a question about your specific case? Check samples first, as we are sure you can get almost all the answers in our guides and sample sets. 

>> Read more: APA Format Table of Contents

Tips on Creating a Table of Contents

To finalize all that we shared on creating the table of contents page, let’s go through our tips list. We outline the best advice to help you with a dissertation table of contents.

• Use automated solutions for creating a list of chapters for your report, research papers, or dissertations — it will save you time in the future.
• Be clear with the formatting style you use for the research.
• Choose the best level type of list based on the paper length.
• Update a list after making changes to the text.
• Check the page list before submitting the work.

Bottom Line on Making Table of Contents for Dissertations/ Papers

To summarize, working with a research paper, thesis or dissertation table of contents can be challenging. This article outlines how to create a table of contents in Word and how to update it appropriately. You can learn what to include in the content list, how long it can be, and where to locate it. Write your work using more than one table of contents sample we prepared for students. It is often easy to check how the same list was made for other dissertations before finalizing yours. We encourage you to learn how to create a list with pages automatically and update it. It will definitely make your academic life easier.

Not sure if your work 's quality level is enough for getting a top-notch result? We’ve got you covered! Our team of skilled academic writers is always ready to help once you ask “ write my dissertation for me !" Just select your writer, send them your requirements and get a custom study tailored to your instructions.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

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Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

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A Table of Contents in APA Format

General guidelines.

• Table of Contents

APA style does not require a table of contents, but there are cases where you may need to include one. For example, your instructor may specify that your paper must be submitted with a table of contents. A table of contents can be particularly helpful in cases where your paper is lengthy or covers a lot of material, such as a thesis paper or dissertation. Research papers, in particular, may benefit from the addition of a table of contents.

APA style is the official publication style of the American Psychological Association. APA style is used in psychology courses as well as other social science classes including those in social science, behavioral sciences, and education.

The table of contents serves as a basic roadmap of your paper. It should list all of the major headings and subheadings within the body of your paper. For a standard psychology paper, it might include listings for the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of your paper.

While the APA may not specify guidelines for a table of contents, you should use the basic APA format for formatting your table of contents:

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• Use 12-point Times New Roman font
• Double-space

Since APA does not require a table of contents, you should always refer to your instructor’s guidelines when deciding whether or not to include one.

It is also important to note that the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in 2020, and included updated guidelines on many topics.

For example, while the previous edition of the style manual required a running head on each page of a paper, the 7th edition has eliminated that requirement on student papers unless your instructor specifies to include it. Always ask first.

If you are using a standard APA paper format, your table of contents should include the following sections:

• Introduction

The above format may work well for a standard lab report or research paper. However, your table of contents will look much different if you are writing something such as a critique, essay, or case study.

Notice, that the table of contents does not include the abstract or acknowledgments pages. When applicable, it should list the appendices and the lists of tables and figures.

The exact order of your paper depends largely on the type of paper you are writing. In general, your paper should be presented in the following order:

• Main Body of Paper

Table of Contents Format

Because there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to the provided guidelines for your assignment.

If your instructor does not have a preferred format, consider using the following:

• Title the page “Table of Contents” and center the title at the top of the page.
• Most papers should include at least two levels of headings, up to five levels.
• Level one headings will be for main topics, such as chapter titles like "Chapter One; Name of Chapter," or research sections like "Method," "Results," and "Discussion."
• All level-one headings should be flush-left and sub-headings should be indented five spaces deeper than the last. 
• All heading levels should be in title case, capitalizing the first letter of each word. The font type, style, and size stay the same for each level.
• The page number for each heading is formatted flush-right. Include dot leaders between the headings and the page number to improve readability.

While you might not think that following APA format is important, it is one of those areas where students can lose points for making small errors. It pays to spend a little extra time and attention making sure that your paper is formatted in proper APA style.

• If you need help, you can get assistance from your school's writing lab.
• Getting your own copy of the latest edition of the APA publication manual can be very helpful.
• Always refer to any instructions or guidelines that were provided by your course instructor.
• There is a helpful feature in most word processors that you can use to pre-format your paper in APA style. It takes a little effort to set it up, but well worth it in the end, especially for longer documents. You can save the style to apply to your future papers saving you the effort next time.

For those writing a paper to submit for publication, check with the publisher for any specific formatting requirements that they may have.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) ; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Microsoft Word for Dissertations

• Table of Contents
• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• List of Figures/Tables
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• Tips & Tricks
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document
• Take a break

Automatic Table of Contents

An automatic Table of Contents relies on Styles to keep track of page numbers and section titles for you automatically. Microsoft Word can scan your document and find everything in the Heading 1 style and put that on the first level of your table of contents, put any Heading 2’s on the second level of your table of contents, and so on.

If you want an automatic table of contents you need to apply the Heading 1 style to all of your chapter titles and front matter headings (like “Dedication” and “Acknowledgements”).  All section headings within your chapters should use the Heading 2  style.  All sub-section headings should use  Heading 3 , etc....

If you have used Heading styles in your document, creating an automatic table of contents is easy.

• Place your cursor where you want your table of contents to be.
• On the References Ribbon, in the Table of Contents Group , click on the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon, and select  Custom Table of Contents .
• We suggest that you set each level (Chapters, sections, sub-sections, aka TOC 1, TOC 2, TOC 3) to be single-spaced, with 12 points of space afterwards.  This makes each item in your ToC clump together if they're long enough to wrap to a second line, with the equivalent of a double space between each item, and makes the ToC easier to read and understand than if every line were double-spaced. See the video below for details.
• If you want to change which headings appear in your Table of Contents, you can do so by changing the number in the Show levels: field. Select "1" to just include the major sections (Acknowledgements, List of Figures, Chapters, etc...).  Select "4" to include Chapters, sections, sub-sections, and sub-sub-sections.
• Click OK to insert your table of contents.  

The table of contents is a snapshot of the headings and page numbers in your document, and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. At any time, you can update it by right-clicking on it and selecting Update field .  Notice that once the table of contents is in your document, it will turn gray if you click on it. This just reminds you that it is a special field managed by Word, and is getting information from somewhere else.

Modifying the format of your Table of Contents

The video below shows how to make your Table of Contents a little easier to read by formatting the spacing between items in your Table of Contents. You may recognize the "Modify Style" window that appears, which can serve as a reminder that you can use this window to modify more than just paragraph settings in the ToC. You can modify the indent distance, or font, or tab settings for your ToC, just the same as you may have modified it for Styles. 

By default, the Table of Contents tool creates the ToC by pulling in Headings 1 through 3. If you'd like to modify that -- to only show H1's, or to show Headings 1 through 4 -- then go to the References tab and select Custom Table of Contents .  In the window that appears, set Show Levels to "1" to only show Heading 1's in the Table of Contents, or set it to "4" to show Headings 1 through 4.

Bonus tip for updating fields like the Table of Contents

You'll quickly realize that all of the automatic Lists and Tables need to be updated occasionally to reflect any changes you've made elsewhere in the document -- they do not dynamically update by themselves. Normally, this means going to each field, right-clicking on it and selecting "Update Field". 

Alternatively, to update all fields throughout your document (Figure/Table numbers & Lists, cross-references, Table of Contents, etc...), just select "Print". This will usually cause Word to update everything in anticipation of printing. Once the print preview window appears, just cancel and double-check that it updated things.

Table of Contents

Ai generator.

A lot of people like to reread documents and books that have significantly affected a person’s life. One of the ways to offer increased readability for one’s book is to have a table of contents that will list out all the headers and chapters inside the book.

1. Automatic Table of Contents

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2. Creating Table of Contents Automatically

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5. Customizing a Table of Contents

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 6. Formatting the Table of Contents

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9. Create and Customize Table of Contents

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10. Table of Contents in MS Word

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11. Table of Contents List of Exhibits

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12. Creating Custom Table of Contents in RTF Documents

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What Is a Table of Contents

A table of contents is a section in a written document or book that contains a holistic list of all the written content in the document or book. This list will be organized by occurrence and will feature the flow of the contents in the document of the book .

How to Write a Table of Contents

A well-written table of content allows a reader to easily sift through the whole thing. If you require a table of contents template or guidelines to act as your reference, feel free to use any of the articles named Automatic Table of Contents , Creating Table of Contents Automatically , Maintaining Table of Contents , and Update Table of Contents .

Step 1: Create an Outline of All The Contents of The Text

If you have the time, make an outline or a mockup of the table of contents. This will help guide the creation of the final table of contents, due to the structure provided by the outline.

Step 2: Write Down the Sections

Begin by writing down all the sections of the written thing. These sections contain the foreword, introduction, dedication, acknowledgments, list of figures, and list of tables. These sections should be accompanied by roman numerals indicating their page, examples of roman numerals are i, ii, iii, iv, and v.

Step 3: List Out the Chapters

The chapters of the table of contents should go after the sections. List out the individual chapters of the written material, and the accompanying starting pages. If the table of contents is for a research paper or article then the chapters should be labeled with the chapter title.

Step 4: If Needed, Write the Sub Chapters

Some research articles will need the writer to write down the sub-chapters in the table of contents. These sub-chapters should be indented under the chapter heading it is located in.

What is the importance of a table of contents?

The table of contents acts as the location where viewers or readers can reference various significant portions of the book, article, autobiography , biography , report, or research article. This part of the book will also act as a list of all the important headers, topics, and chapters that will comprise the content of the reading material. Because of all of these advantages, the table of contents acts as a good quality of life for the readers as it will help them easily navigate through the contents. Not only that but this quality of life makes readers also reread specific parts of the content without wasting too much time looking for the specific thing.

How do you start a table of contents?

The format of the table of contents is straightforward to mimic and follow . The first part of the table of contents should be a header that labels the specific section that the table of contents will occupy. This header should succinctly have the phrase “Table of Contents” to label the section. Then you will need to put down all the headers and sections that will compose the entire body of the text, alongside the accompanying page it occupies in the whole text.

What are the characteristics of a good table of contents?

A good table of contents should succinctly list all the essential parts of the text. Not only that but if the table of contents is in a book then it should do its best to indicate the various sections and chapters without spoiling the contents for the readers.

The table of contents is a part or section of a text that indicates the location of specific portions or chapters in the text and their accompanying pages. A well-made table of contents will allow the reader to easily navigate through the text, ensuring that a specific amount of quality of life is in the text.

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Published on September 27, 2024 by Emily Heffernan, PhD .

When choosing how to measure something, you must ensure that your method is both reliable and valid . Reliability concerns how consistent a test is, and validity (or test validity) concerns its accuracy.

Reliability and validity are especially important in research areas like psychology that study constructs . A construct is a variable that cannot be directly measured, such as happiness or anxiety.

Researchers must carefully operationalize , or define how they will measure, constructs and design instruments to properly capture them. Ensuring the reliability and validity of these instruments is a necessary component of meaningful and reproducible research.

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Table of contents

Understanding reliability and validity, reliability vs validity in research, validity vs reliability examples, frequently asked questions about reliability vs validity.

Reliability and validity are closely related but distinct concepts.

What is reliability?

Reliability is how consistent a measure is. A test should provide the same results if it’s administered under the same circumstances using the same methods. Different types of reliability assess different ways in which a test should be consistent.

What is validity?

Validity (more specifically, test validity ) concerns the accuracy of a test or  measure—whether it actually measures the thing it’s supposed to. You provide evidence of a measure’s test validity by assessing different types of validity .

Test validity concerns the accuracy of a specific measure or test. When conducting experimental research , it is also important to consider experimental validity —whether a true cause-and-effect relationship exists between your dependent and independent variables ( internal validity ) and how well your results generalize to the real world ( external validity ).

In experimental research, you test a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable and measuring changes in a dependent variabl e. Different forms of experimental validity concern how well-designed an experiment is. Mitigating threats to internal validity and threats to external validity can help yield results that are meaningful and reproducible.

Though reliability and validity are theoretically distinct, in practice both concepts are intertwined.

Reliability is a necessary condition of validity: a measure that is valid must also be reliable. An instrument that is properly measuring a construct of interest should yield consistent results.

However, a measure can be reliable but not valid. Consider a clock that’s set 5 minutes fast. If checked at noon every day, it will consistently read “12:05.” Though the clock yields reliable results, it is not valid: it does not accurately reflect reality.

Because reliability is a necessary condition of validity, it makes sense to evaluate the reliability of a measure before assessing its validity. In research, validity is more important but harder to measure than reliability. It is relatively straightforward to assess whether a measurement yields consistent results across different contexts, but how can you be certain a measurement of a construct like “happiness” actually measures what you want it to?

Reliability and validity should be considered throughout the research process. Validity is especially important during study design, when you are determining how to measure relevant constructs. Reliability should be considered both when designing your study and when collecting data—careful planning and consistent execution are key.

Reliability and validity are both important when conducting research. Consider the following examples of how a measure may or may not be reliable and valid.

• Reliability : This measure is not reliable—two observers might count smiles differently when observing the same meeting, leading to inconsistent results. The measure therefore lacks interrater reliability .
• Validity : Casey’s assumption that smiling signifies teamwork was incorrect. Her measure fails to capture aspects of teamwork like cooperation, communication, and collaboration. It lacks content validity , and its overall construct validity is poor.

Casey can choose a different measure in an attempt to improve the reliability and validity of her study.

• Reliability : This measure has high test-retest reliability . Provided someone has a consistent schedule, they will respond in the same manner each time they answer this question.
• Validity : Casey assesses the convergent validity of her new measure by determining the correlation between people’s responses and their teams’ performance metrics over the last quarter. There is no correlation between the two, which does not support the construct validity of this measure. The number of meetings a team has does not seem to capture how well they work as a team.

Even though the measure in the previous example is reliable, it lacks validity. Casey must try a different approach.

• Reliability : Casey ensures that her questionnaire includes clear, well-defined questions; has participants answer using well-structured Likert scales; and trains team members on how to respond objectively. This helps ensure the interrater reliability and test-retest reliability of her measure.
• Validity: Casey tests the test validity of her questionnaire using several approaches. She has an experienced manager evaluate whether her instrument addresses various aspects of teamwork to confirm content validity . She also once again compares her questionnaire results to team performance metrics and finds a high correlation between the two, indicating convergent validity . Casey also finds that questionnaire responses do not correlate with individual salaries, demonstrating divergent validity . This all provides evidence of the test validity of her questionnaire.

Psychology and other social sciences often involve the study of constructs —phenomena that cannot be directly measured—such as happiness or stress.

Because we cannot directly measure a construct, we must instead operationalize it, or define how we will approximate it using observable variables. These variables could include behaviors, survey responses, or physiological measures.

Validity is the extent to which a test or instrument actually captures the construct it’s been designed to measure. Researchers must demonstrate that their operationalization properly captures a construct by providing evidence of multiple types of validity , such as face validity , content validity , criterion validity , convergent validity , and discriminant validity .

When you find evidence of different types of validity for an instrument, you’re proving its construct validity —you can be fairly confident it’s measuring the thing it’s supposed to.

In short, validity helps researchers ensure that they’re measuring what they intended to, which is especially important when studying constructs that cannot be directly measured and instead must be operationally defined.

A construct is a phenomenon that cannot be directly measured, such as intelligence, anxiety, or happiness. Researchers must instead approximate constructs using related, measurable variables.

The process of defining how a construct will be measured is called operationalization. Constructs are common in psychology and other social sciences.

To evaluate how well a construct measures what it’s supposed to, researchers determine construct validity . Face validity , content validity , criterion validity , convergent validity , and discriminant validity all provide evidence of construct validity.

Test validity refers to whether a test or measure actually measures the thing it’s supposed to. Construct validity is considered the overarching concern of test validity; other types of validity provide evidence of construct validity and thus the overall test validity of a measure.

Experimental validity concerns whether a true cause-and-effect relationship exists in an experimental design ( internal validity ) and how well findings generalize to the real world ( external validity and ecological validity ).

Verifying that an experiment has both test and experimental validity is imperative to ensuring meaningful and generalizable results.

An experiment is a study that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.

In experimental design , the researcher first forms a hypothesis . They then test this hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable while controlling for potential confounds that could influence results. Changes in the dependent variable are recorded, and data are analyzed to determine if the results support the hypothesis.

Nonexperimental research does not involve the manipulation of an independent variable. Nonexperimental studies therefore cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Nonexperimental studies include correlational designs and observational research.

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Table Of Contents Example – Free, Downloadable Templates

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A table of contents , also known as TOC or Contents, is a vital component of any research paper , guiding readers through the intricate structure of the manuscript. By providing an organised listing of chapters and sections with accurate page numbers, a well-TOC enhances readability and ensures that readers can easily navigate the document, grasping the flow of your research. In this article, we offer numerous table of contents examples and templates for academic submissions and other functions.

In what format are you currently required to submit your thesis?

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• 1 Table of contents examples

Table of contents examples

Below, you can find numerous free, downloadable TOC example templates that you can utilize.

Single-level table of contents

For shorter documents, a single level table of contents example can be used. This is a short and succinct table of contents example which utilizes only single-level entries on sections or chapters. Remember, you’ll need to include properly formatted dots to lead the reader’s eye to the page number on the far right. The following table of contents example, available as PDF and Word document, explores this basic structure:

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• Subdivided table of contents

A subdivided table of contents is required for more lengthy papers, offering a subdivision of sections within chapters. These are more detailed and are recommended for higher-level dissertations like a master’s or a bachelor’s thesis.

When formatting a subdivided table of contents, ensure that chapters are listed in bold font whereas that subsections are not. It’s common to denote each subsection by a number (1.1, etc.). You’ll also want to indent the subsections so that they can be read easily. The following table of contents example explores this structure:

• Multi-level table of contents

Adding additional levels to your table of contents is known as a multi-level table of contents. These would be numbered 1.1.1 and onwards. Be aware that while you want to guide your reader through your manuscript, you should only highlight important areas of your manuscript, like sections and subsections, rather than random areas or thoughts in your manuscript. Creating too many levels will make your table of contents unnecessarily engaged and too complex. We have provided a multi-level table of contents example for you below.

Table of contents example: Bachelor’s thesis

A bachelor’s degree thesis has no set word or page limit, and will depend entyrely on your university’s or department’s guidelines. However, you should expect a thesis under 60 pages to be between 10,000 and 15,000 words long.

As such, you won’t be expected to produce a long and detailed table of contents with multiple levels and subsections. This is because your main body is rather limited in terms of word count. At most, you may find yourself using a subdivided table of contents similar to the table of contents example above. A TOC for a bachelor’s thesis can look like the following example:

Table of contents example: Master’s thesis

A master’s table of contents is more complex than a bachelor’s thesis. This is because they average at about 80 pages with up to 40,000 words. Because this work is produced at a higher academic level, it normally includes a subdivision of chapters and subheadings, with a separate introduction and conclusion, as well as an abstract, which should be one paragraph long. If you need guidance on shortening an abstract , we also have a comprehensive article available for you.

A table of contents example for a master’s thesis may look something like this:

Table of contents example: APA

Academic papers in fields of anthropology, sociology, psychology, and other social sciences use the APA style format. Generally, APA guidelines do not require a table of contents; however, if you do provide one for a better reading experience, there is a format you should adhere to. Below, we have provided you with a table of contents example for APA.

Table of contents example: PowerPoint

Table of contents example: portfolio, what is the order of abstract and table of contents.

For an academic paper, the order is as follows:

• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents with page numbers
• List of tables, figures, or illustrations (if relevant)
• List of abbreviations (if relevant)
• List of symbols (if relevant)
• Appendices (if relevant)
• Endnotes (if relevant)

Are references included in table of contents?

Yes, the references are included in TOCs, as you can see from our TOC examples. However, the acknowledgement for thesis and the abstract are usually not included. It is imperative to check with your institution if it is required to follow this format.

What variations of table of content examples exist?

The table of contents can be displayed in the following formats:

• Single level table of contents
• Academic table of contents

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