the problem solving process in social work

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Oct 2, 2020

Practice Model: Problem Solving

Perlman’s model, planned change process model, practice approach based on planned change model

This page has three sections:

Background Material that provides the context for the topic

A suggested Practice Approach

A list of Supporting Material / References

Feedback welcome!

Background Material

Different authors look at the problem-solving model in varying ways.

Murdach (2007) suggests the principal stages of Perlman’s problem-solving model are simply:

problem definition,

problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and

the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action).

Chenowith and Lehmann (2008) describe a planned change process model:

the problem solving process in social work

Chenowith and Lehman also suggest the model outlined in the Practice Approach that follows. It consists of four phases:

The engagement phase involves making contact, exploring needs and setting preliminary goals.

The assessment phase involves collecting information, prioritising issues and agreeing on action.

The intervention phase involves implementing and modifying strategies to achieve goals.

The evaluation phase involves reviewing what has happened, celebrating progress and either concluding the work or negotiating a continued relationship.

Practice Approach

Supporting Material

(available on request)

Chenoweth, L. M. D. (2014). Road to Social Work and Human Service Practice. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/une/detail.action?docID=1696405

Coady, N, & Lehmann, P. (2008). The problem-solving model: A framework for integrating science and art of practice. In N. Coady & P. Lehmann, Theoretical Perspectives for Direct Social Work Practice (pp. 67-86). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/une/detail.action?docID=326279

Murdach, A. D. (2007). Helen Harris Perlman and the problem solving method. Retrieved from https://allisonmurdach.wordpress.com/2011/05/05/helen-harris-perlman-and-the-problem-solving-model/

Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models

Social work theories are general explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. A theory may explain human behavior, for example, by describing how humans interact or how humans react to certain stimuli.

Social work practice models describe how social workers can implement theories. Practice models provide social workers with a blueprint of how to help others based on the underlying social work theory. While a theory explains why something happens, a practice model shows how to use a theory to create change.

Social Work Theories

There are many social work theories that guide social work practice. Here are some of the major theories that are generally accepted in the field of social work:

Systems theory describes human behavior in terms of complex systems. It is premised on the idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people living in the system. According to this theory, families, couples, and organization members are directly involved in resolving a problem even if it is an individual issue.

Social learning theory is based on Albert Bandura’s idea that learning occurs through observation and imitation. New behavior will continue if it is reinforced. According to this theory, rather than simply hearing a new concept and applying it, the learning process is made more efficient if the new behavior is modeled as well.

Psychosocial development theory is an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson. Erikson believed everyone must pass through eight stages of development over the life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Each stage is divided into age ranges from infancy to older adults.

Psychodynamic theory was developed by Freud, and it explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces. This social work theory describes the personality as consisting of the id (responsible for following basic instincts), the superego (attempts to follow rules and behave morally), and the ego (mediates between the id and the ego).

Transpersonal theory proposes additional stages beyond the adult ego. In healthy individuals, these stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism. In people lacking healthy ego development, experiences can lead to psychosis.

Rational choice theory is based on the idea that all action is fundamentally rational in character, and people calculate the risks and benefits of any action before making decisions.

Social Work Practice Models

There are many different practice models that influence the way social workers choose to help people meet their goals. Here are some of the major social work practice models used in various roles, such as case managers and therapists:

Problem solving assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than tell clients what to do, social workers teach clients how to apply a problem solving method so they can develop their own solutions.

Task-centered practice is a short-term treatment where clients establish specific, measurable goals. Social workers and clients collaborate together and create specific strategies and steps to begin reaching those goals.

Narrative therapy externalizes a person’s problem by examining the story of the person’s life. In the story, the client is not defined by the problem, and the problem exists as a separate entity. Instead of focusing on a client’s depression, in this social work practice model, a client would be encouraged to fight against the depression by looking at the skills and abilities that may have previously been taken for granted.

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social workers assist clients in identifying patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that influence emotions.

Crisis intervention model is used when someone is dealing with an acute crisis. The model includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop an action plan, and follow up. This social work practice model is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal ideation.

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Social problem-solving might also be called ‘ problem-solving in real life ’. In other words, it is a rather academic way of describing the systems and processes that we use to solve the problems that we encounter in our everyday lives.

The word ‘ social ’ does not mean that it only applies to problems that we solve with other people, or, indeed, those that we feel are caused by others. The word is simply used to indicate the ‘ real life ’ nature of the problems, and the way that we approach them.

Social problem-solving is generally considered to apply to four different types of problems:

Impersonal problems, for example, shortage of money;
Personal problems, for example, emotional or health problems;
Interpersonal problems, such as disagreements with other people; and
Community and wider societal problems, such as litter or crime rate.

A Model of Social Problem-Solving

One of the main models used in academic studies of social problem-solving was put forward by a group led by Thomas D’Zurilla.

This model includes three basic concepts or elements:

Problem-solving

This is defined as the process used by an individual, pair or group to find an effective solution for a particular problem. It is a self-directed process, meaning simply that the individual or group does not have anyone telling them what to do. Parts of this process include generating lots of possible solutions and selecting the best from among them.

A problem is defined as any situation or task that needs some kind of a response if it is to be managed effectively, but to which no obvious response is available. The demands may be external, from the environment, or internal.

A solution is a response or coping mechanism which is specific to the problem or situation. It is the outcome of the problem-solving process.

Once a solution has been identified, it must then be implemented. D’Zurilla’s model distinguishes between problem-solving (the process that identifies a solution) and solution implementation (the process of putting that solution into practice), and notes that the skills required for the two are not necessarily the same. It also distinguishes between two parts of the problem-solving process: problem orientation and actual problem-solving.

Problem Orientation

Problem orientation is the way that people approach problems, and how they set them into the context of their existing knowledge and ways of looking at the world.

Each of us will see problems in a different way, depending on our experience and skills, and this orientation is key to working out which skills we will need to use to solve the problem.

An Example of Orientation

Most people, on seeing a spout of water coming from a loose joint between a tap and a pipe, will probably reach first for a cloth to put round the joint to catch the water, and then a phone, employing their research skills to find a plumber.

A plumber, however, or someone with some experience of plumbing, is more likely to reach for tools to mend the joint and fix the leak. It’s all a question of orientation.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving includes four key skills:

Defining the problem,
Coming up with alternative solutions,
Making a decision about which solution to use, and
Implementing that solution.

Based on this split between orientation and problem-solving, D’Zurilla and colleagues defined two scales to measure both abilities.

They defined two orientation dimensions, positive and negative, and three problem-solving styles, rational, impulsive/careless and avoidance.

They noted that people who were good at orientation were not necessarily good at problem-solving and vice versa, although the two might also go together.

It will probably be obvious from these descriptions that the researchers viewed positive orientation and rational problem-solving as functional behaviours, and defined all the others as dysfunctional, leading to psychological distress.

The skills required for positive problem orientation are:

Being able to see problems as ‘challenges’, or opportunities to gain something, rather than insurmountable difficulties at which it is only possible to fail.

For more about this, see our page on The Importance of Mindset ;

Believing that problems are solvable. While this, too, may be considered an aspect of mindset, it is also important to use techniques of Positive Thinking ;

Believing that you personally are able to solve problems successfully, which is at least in part an aspect of self-confidence.

See our page on Building Confidence for more;

Understanding that solving problems successfully will take time and effort, which may require a certain amount of resilience ; and

Motivating yourself to solve problems immediately, rather than putting them off.

See our pages on Self-Motivation and Time Management for more.

Those who find it harder to develop positive problem orientation tend to view problems as insurmountable obstacles, or a threat to their well-being, doubt their own abilities to solve problems, and become frustrated or upset when they encounter problems.

The skills required for rational problem-solving include:

The ability to gather information and facts, through research. There is more about this on our page on defining and identifying problems ;

The ability to set suitable problem-solving goals. You may find our page on personal goal-setting helpful;

The application of rational thinking to generate possible solutions. You may find some of the ideas on our Creative Thinking page helpful, as well as those on investigating ideas and solutions ;

Good decision-making skills to decide which solution is best. See our page on Decision-Making for more; and

Implementation skills, which include the ability to plan, organise and do. You may find our pages on Action Planning , Project Management and Solution Implementation helpful.

There is more about the rational problem-solving process on our page on Problem-Solving .

Potential Difficulties

Those who struggle to manage rational problem-solving tend to either:

Rush things without thinking them through properly (the impulsive/careless approach), or
Avoid them through procrastination, ignoring the problem, or trying to persuade someone else to solve the problem (the avoidance mode).

This ‘ avoidance ’ is not the same as actively and appropriately delegating to someone with the necessary skills (see our page on Delegation Skills for more).

Instead, it is simple ‘buck-passing’, usually characterised by a lack of selection of anyone with the appropriate skills, and/or an attempt to avoid responsibility for the problem.

An Academic Term for a Human Process?

You may be thinking that social problem-solving, and the model described here, sounds like an academic attempt to define very normal human processes. This is probably not an unreasonable summary.

However, breaking a complex process down in this way not only helps academics to study it, but also helps us to develop our skills in a more targeted way. By considering each element of the process separately, we can focus on those that we find most difficult: maximum ‘bang for your buck’, as it were.

Continue to: Decision Making Creative Problem-Solving

See also: What is Empathy? Social Skills

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Online MSW Programs / Social Work / 6 Important Theories in Social Work

Six important theories in social work

Social work theories attempt to describe, explain and predict social events based on scientific evidence, studies and research. Social work perspectives draw from psychology, philosophy, economics, education and other fields to attempt to explain what drives and motivates people at various stages of life.

Some social work students studying for a bachelor’s degree in social work or master of social work may wonder, “Why is theory important in social work?” Studying theory ensures that aspiring professionals are both competent and confident when the time comes to apply social work theories to practice.

Why is theory important in social work?

Social work theories help social workers analyze cases, understand clients, create interventions, predict intervention results, and evaluate outcomes. While the theories are constantly evolving as new evidence is produced, referencing social work theories that have been used over time enables social workers to explore causes of behavior and identify potential solutions.

A crucial objective of learning social work theories is to train and encourage social workers to set aside personal assumptions and beliefs when engaging in social work practice. Social workers should use evidence-based theories to investigate issues and drive their decision making.

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Applying social work theory to practice

Social work theory provides a starting point for social workers to address client problems through a research-based lens.

The theories help social workers better understand complex human behaviors and social environments, which influence their clients lives and the challenges they face. A good grasp of theory that is backed by research-based scientific evidence helps guide social workers by providing them with a sense of direction and purpose.

One challenge when applying social work theories to practice is choosing the right theory for the situation. It can be difficult to assign a single theory to complex client issues. Often, it’s more practical to draw upon the knowledge of multiple theories and use that understanding to design multifaceted interventions.

List of important social work theories

The following list of social work theories includes some of the most widely referenced theories used in social work.

1. Social learning theory

Social learning theory , which is also known as social cognitive theory , was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory posits that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior.

In order for social learning to occur, a person must want to emulate the person they’re watching. The individual pays close attention to the action and retains the action in memory. Then, the individual must experience a situation where the behavior can be repeated and must be motivated to repeat the behavior.

Social workers can use this theory to better understand how role models affect the behaviors and emotions of their clients. Social learning theory can also help social workers form intervention strategies that use positive modeling and reinforcement to encourage their clients to engage in new positive behaviors.

2. Systems theory

Systems theory proposes that people are products of complex systems, rather than individuals who act in isolation. According to this theory, behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, religious structure, economic class, and home environment.

Systems theory can be used to treat issues like eating disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, school trauma, and risky behavior. In ecological systems theory, individuals are observed in multiple environments so that behavior is fully understood. Family systems theory examines the family as a social system influencing behavior and thoughts.

Social workers using systems theory will work to understand how their clients are influenced by the systems they’re a part of. Social workers then identify where systemic breakdowns are affecting behavior.

3. Psychosocial development theory

Psychosocial development theory was introduced by German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, who believed personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson created an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development . According to the theory, the eight stages of development that people pass through in life are:

Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus inferiority
Identity versus confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Integrity versus despair

Psychosocial development theory explains that humans pass through these stages as they age. By identifying which stage of development their clients are experiencing, social workers can better understand the challenges their clients face.

4. Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory was introduced by the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. This theory is founded on the idea that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification. The theory states that people do this based on processes that have developed outside of conscious awareness, with origins in childhood experiences. This drive influences everyday behavior, leading to actions like aggression, sex and self-preservation.

In social work, psychodynamic theory can help to explain the internal processes individuals use to guide their behavior , some of which may be unconsciously motivated. Social workers may also examine how early childhood experiences have played a role in influencing their clients’ current behavior.

5. Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory suggests that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis. Each person seeks to maximize their benefits and is expected to reciprocate for the benefits they’ve received. When risks outweigh potential rewards, relationships may be abandoned. When one person in a relationship has greater personal resources than another, that person is predicted to have greater power as well.

Social workers can use social exchange theory to understand their clients’ relationships, including why they continue to maintain certain relationships or abandon them.

Social exchange theory can also be applied to the techniques social workers use to connect with their clients. This theory can influence how social workers position the social worker-client relationship as one that benefits their clients.

6. Rational choice theory

Rational choice theory helps explain why people make the choices they do, by weighing risks, costs and benefits. This theory suggests that all choices are rational because people calculate the costs and benefits before making a decision. Even when a choice seems irrational, there is reasoning behind it.

This theory can help social workers understand the decision-making processes and motivations of their clients.

Six practice models in social work

Social work practice models enable social workers to implement theories in their day-to-day work. Just like a social worker may use various theories to guide their interventions, social workers may also use various practice models depending on the problems their clients encounter.

1. Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on how thoughts and feelings influence behaviors, which can sometimes lead to psychological problems. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy methods help clients identify self-destructive thoughts that influence negative emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used for individuals who are experiencing mental health issues, mental illness or depression resulting from crisis or trauma. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy help their clients eliminate negative thoughts to prevent destructive behaviors and adverse outcomes.

2. Crisis intervention model

The crisis intervention model is used for clients who are experiencing crisis and trauma, such as victims of domestic violence, and for clients who require intervention to prevent physical harm or suicide. Albert R. Roberts, PhD, and Allen J. Ottens, PhD, developed a seven-stage crisis intervention model :

Take a psychosocial and lethality assessment.
Rapidly establish rapport.
Identify the major crisis cause(s).
Enable the client to express their feelings and emotions.
Generate and explore safe alternatives for coping.
Create an action plan.
Follow up after the intervention.

This social work model can be used for clients who are experiencing thoughts of suicide or self-harm or who have undergone an acute crisis, like rape or violence.

3. Narrative therapy

Narrative therapy is the process of helping the individual recognize that they have the power to change their life story, also known as the narrative. Narrative therapy helps individuals realize that they are separate from their problems and can fix them when they view the narrative from an outside perspective.

Using narrative therapy, a social worker can help an individual create a new narrative with different positive actions. The social worker enables the individual to understand how the broader context is contributing to their narrative, so that they can be aware of pitfalls to avoid and can utilize various strategies to tackle their problems.

4. Problem-solving model

The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman , a social worker and author of “Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process.” Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution. Together, the social worker and individual discuss the effectiveness of the problem-solving strategy and adjust it as necessary. The problem-solving model enables the social worker and individual to focus on one concrete problem at a time.

5. Solution-focused therapy

Solution-focused therapy involves the social worker and client identifying a problem and creating a solution based on the individual’s strengths. It’s a short-term practice model that focuses on helping clients cope with challenges using specific behaviors. Instead of focusing on changing who a client is, solution-focused therapy attempts to change a client’s actions in certain situations to achieve more favorable outcomes.

Collaborating to create solutions allows the client to play an active role in implementing necessary actions and achieving positive change.

6. Task-centered practice

Using task-centered practice, a social worker breaks down a problem into manageable tasks. The individual has deadlines to complete the tasks and agrees to meet them. Task-centered practice is a goal-setting form of social work that helps individuals make consistent steps toward improving their lives.

Instead of focusing on the past, this type of practice encourages clients to live in the present and think about how completing certain tasks will positively impact their future.

Resources to explore social work theories

Social work theories have been practiced over decades and continually evolve when new research is completed. Learn more about social work theories by exploring the resources below.

Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work : This journal features research on evidence-based practice in social work and evaluates social work theory, techniques, and strategies.
Journal of Social Work Practice : This journal focuses on psychodynamic and systemic social work perspectives. It features research on theory and practice and includes articles offering critical analysis of systemic and psychodynamic theory.
Journal of Social Work : This journal includes social work research and short “think pieces” on social work theoretical understanding, policy, and practice.
Social Work: This journal is the official journal of the National Association of Social Workers and features articles on social work and social welfare, including new techniques and research.
Clinical Social Work Journal: This journal features peer-reviewed articles on clinical social work practice with individuals, groups, families, and couples. It also has articles on theory developments, practice and evidence-based clinical research.

Introductory books

“A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory” : This textbook by David Howe explains how social work practice is influenced by various social work theories and shows how social work theories have evolved over time.
“An Introduction to Applying Social Work Theories and Methods”: This book by Barbra Teater explains the most prominent social work theories and how those approaches can be used in practice.
“Social Work Theory and Practice”: This book by Lesley Deacon and Stephen J. Macdonald explains how social work theory informs practice for various individuals and contexts.
“Modern Social Work Theory”: This book by Malcolm Payne introduces the major social work practice theories and explains how to apply theory to practice.
“An Introduction to Using Theory in Social Work Practice”: This book by James A. Forte covers 14 social work theories and explains how to use them from engagement through evaluation.

Note: the links in this section on Social Work Theory all go to Google Books and are solely provided for your information. edX does not receive any form of compensation for these links.

Other online resources

NASW Clinical Social Work : This section of the National Association of Social Workers website covers clinical social work practice. It features content, publications, and related resources for clinical social workers, like the “ NASW Standards for Clinical Social Work in Social Work Practice (PDF, 135 KB) .”
Encyclopedia of Social Work: The Encyclopedia of Social Work by the National Association of Social Workers Press and Oxford University Press features tools for applying social work theory to practice. These resources include scholarly articles and bibliographies.
Social Work Today : This publication features articles on current social work trends in categories like behavioral health, addictions, children and family, aging and professional practice.

Science-based social work theory helps social workers and their clients succeed

Social work theory helps professionals in the field identify and implement effective interventions for clients. An understanding of the most prominent social work theories gives social workers the tools they need to provide evidence-based treatment and help their clients overcome their problems. As social work theories continue to evolve and emerge, social workers can apply their multifaceted knowledge to unique situations and clients.

Are you considering a career in social work? Read more about the field of social work and the steps to becoming a social worker , which can vary by location.

Last updated: November 2023

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Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession

January 2023
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Allisonmurdach's Blog

Helen harris perlman and the problem solving model.

Helen Harris Perlman and the Problem Solving Model

Allison D. Murdach LCSW

2942 Hardeman St.

Hayward, Ca. 94541

510-581-6794

[email protected]

Abstract: This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman in developing the problem-solving model of social work direct practice. The origins, development and subsequent spread of this approach throughout social work practice is discussed and the various ways in which this model has been applied in the profession is briefly reviewed. The current status of the model, including concerns about its contemporary viability and usefulness, is examined at the conclusion of the article.

Key Words: Problem-Solving Model, Social Work Method, Social Work History, Direct Practice, Social

Work Profession

“I do claim to be an authority on the Problem-solving model in social work, both in

its methodological aspects and its theoretical roots. I am the originator and developer

of that model.” (Perlman, p. 1, 1980)

This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman (1906-2004) in the development of the problem-solving model of direct practice in social work. As we approach the third anniversary of her death (September 18, 2004), it is important to recognize once again the importance and magnitude of her contribution to the field. Perlman, a prolific social work author as well as a distinguished clinician and educator in social work, always laid special claim to her model, which she developed in the 1950’s. Sadly, although she asserted ownership, her model soon slipped from her hands because of its wide acceptance and became, in the latter stages of her life, often misrepresented and at times unrecognizable.

Perlman and Problem-Solving

Perlman did not start out to be a social worker. Her original intention was to become a college humanities professor. After graduating from the University of Minnesota with honors in 1926 with a B. A. in English literature, she was told that she was unemployable at the college level because she was a woman and especially because she was Jewish. She then found work as a summer caseworker for the Chicago Jewish Social Service Bureau. Later she reported that this first exposure to social work was a revelation. “A whole world opened up to me,” she said, a world in which she also “got a great deal of satisfaction from being able to help people.” ( News & Notes, 2004, p. 1). She continued working in various social work capacities and assignments at increasingly responsible levels until 1933, when she got a scholarship enabling her to enroll in the New York School of Social Work, now affiliated with ColumbiaUniversity. While completing her training in social work in New York, she was in demand as a speaker and often addressed various conferences and professional groups about new developments in social work theory and method. In 1943 she earned her master’s degree in social work from ColumbiaUniversity. She joined the social work faculty of the Schoolof Social Service Administrationat the Universityof Chicagoin 1945. While at the school she became first a national and then an international social work figure because of her writing about social work issues, as well as her teaching, consulting, public speaking, and her innovative development of the problem-solving model of social work practice. She published her classic text, Social Casework, A Problem-Solving Process , in 1957. She officially retired late in her career, but continued to work, teach, write, and do research at the school until just before her death at age 98, even though afflicted near the end of her life with blindness.

Despite her many scholarly achievements, Perlman always remained a clinician at heart. As a professional with broad learning and classical training, Perlman was driven to use the insights derived from her clinical work as inspiration for conjecture about social work method and training. She said her contacts with clients gave her valuable learning opportunities because these relationships involved her in “many cases…(in which) families faced the same kinds of problems and conflicts that one encountered in the great works of literature.” (News & Notes, 2004, p. 5.) She also stated that it was through these experiences that she came to realize that she “had learned much more of the sickness in people than of their healthiness.” She soon recognized that she needed to look beyond client pathology to see instead the great “human potential for recuperation and aspiration” that resided in the many ordinary individuals and families who sought her care and assistance on a daily basis (Perlman, 1971, p. xviii). It was considerations such as these that eventually led to her interest in, and championing of, the importance of processes of everyday human problem-solving in resolving the difficulties in client’s lives (Perlman, 1957).

Development of the Problem-Solving Approach

Before discussing Perlman’s model in detail, it will be instructive to review the intellectual background of her approach to gain a better understanding of the context in which it developed. Prior to the appearance of Perlman’s text in the 1950’s the topic of problem-solving had been, and today continues to be, an area of study in this country in many fields, particularly psychology. In 1907 the psychologist and philosopher William James established problem solving (which he called “ common sense”) as a field of intellectual enquiry by giving it a central place in his doctrine of Pragmatism, a philosophical approach to truth which also sought to develop methods that were “helpful in life’s practical struggles” (James, 1963, p.36). The goal of such methods, James believed, was to help individuals to find their own truth through observation and experience (James, 1963). In 1910 James’ fellow pragmatist John Dewey conceptualized human problem-solving (or, in his terms, “reflective thinking”)as being composed of four central elements: recognizing and formulating a problem, gathering facts that will lead to a solution, testing each proposed solution, and deciding upon a course of action (Dewey). Perlman was the first social work author to use the term “problem-solving” in a social work context and credits Dewey’s writings as her inspiration for the concept (Perlman, 1971).

Social work was at first slow to adopt the pragmatic idea of problem-solving as a style of intervention. Mary Richmond, the founder of social work direct practice method, was influenced more strongly by medical methods of intervention (i.e., “study”, “diagnosis”, and “treatment”) (Richmond, 1917) than the philosophical and psychological approach taken by James and Dewey. Although also a form of problem-solving, the medical approach was, and continues to be, practitioner-driven and assumes the pathology and passivity of the client. The pragmatic approach, on the other hand, has always emphasized client normality and capacity for personal self-determination, which it seeks to enlist in a search for growth and positive change (Perlman, 1957).

The medically-oriented view of the helping relationship prevailed in social work throughout the early twentieth century, largely due toRichmond’s extensive impact on the profession’s development (Garton & Otto, 1964). Due to the growing popularity of the pragmatic point of view in this country (Menand, 2001), the problem-solving mode of thinking began to influence direct social work practice and social work theorists in the 1920’s and social work authors increasingly began to refer to the practitioner’s efforts to involve clients in the helping interaction by engaging the client’s own problem-solving capacities. The following list of recommended worker interventions from classic social work writers over several decades, much condensed, helps to indicate the progress of this development:

a) Help client acknowledge difficulty.

b) Assist client in understanding the meaning of the situation.

c) Aid client in making decision to change. (Sheffield, 1922)

a) Show sympathetic approach with client.

b) Establish rapport.

c) Present and discuss facts of the case.

d) Stimulate the client to action. (Young, 1935)

a) Demonstrate to the client your ability to observe and listen.

b) Begin where the client is.

c) Ask only necessary questions.

d) Take leadership only when needed, otherwise use client’s own resourcefulness.

e) Offer interpretations of client’s situation, as well as resources and direction only as needed.

(Garrett, 1942)

a) Demonstrate acceptance of client.

b) Discuss client request.

c) Gather facts about request.

d) Note and discuss client stresses and patterns of behavior.

e) Offer only interpretations of the situation that can also utilize the client’s own insight and can aid the client to take action. (Hamilton, 1951)

In developing her problem-solving model, Perlman utilized the best features of these intervention schemes but infused them with even greater attention to client problem-solving efforts and capacities (Perlman, 1970). First in a journal article in 1953 (Perlman, 1971b) and finally fully in her book, Social Casework, a problem-solving process (Perlman, 1957), she laid out the intervention stages required by her model. These can be outlined briefly as follows:

a) Ascertaining and clarifying the facts of the problem.

b) Thinking through the facts.

c) The making of some choice or decision. (Perlman, 1957)

Perlman’s problem-solving approach, which appears extremely simple and derivative in bare outline, was actually sophisticated and innovative (Bunston, 1985). Far from being just a rehash of John Dewey, her model was a synthesis derived from a number of sources: her background in the humanities, her philosophical reflections combined with her knowledge of psychodynamics and the social sciences, her extensive clinical experience, and her study of the “functional” version of social work originated by Jessie Taft, with its strong emphasis on the importance of the helping relationship in direct practice (Perlman, 1957, 1970). Building from this foundation, she brilliantly formulated a unique cognitively-oriented and client-centered problem-solving process for social work intervention. In doing so, she highlighted her concepts of “focus” and “partialization”, which described ways of aiding the client to overcome difficulties by tackling small problems first and thus building confidence to move on to more challenging goals.

Though this brief sketch of her work hardly does justice to the power and complexity of Perlman’s accomplishment, it does at least highlight the principal stages of her model: problem definition, problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action) ( Perlman, 1957). This intervention method was initially controversial in the profession. Some thought it a mere social work copy of long existent business and management intervention techniques. Others found it too “rationalistic” and structured, and overly focused on method instead of process, while some in the “diagnostic” social work tradition complained that it was superficial and did not sufficiently address in depth issues of diagnosis, psychopathology, or treatment. It also was buffeted by competing versions of problem-solving and by “adaptations” of her model that both amused Perlman and caused her dismay (Perlman, 1980). However in the end, her brilliant synthesis of cognitive analysis, practicality, and psychodynamic compassion and understanding led her model to triumph over her social work critics and imitators. So successful has the problem-solving approach become that it has now recently been enshrined in the international definition of social work practice (International Definition of the Social Work Profession, Supplement of International Social Work, p. 5, 2007).

Concerns about Problem-Solving

It is ironic that the wide-spread influence, success, and acceptance of Perlman’s model makes her achievement appear today to be almost commonplace and banal. This has even led some to question the method’s apparent efficiency and effectiveness and to seek more in-depth explanations of what actually constitutes problem-solving activity (DeRoos, 1990). The easy accessibility of the problem-solving approach has also caused others to question the accuracy of its empirical foundations (Bunston, 1985). Perlman herself, reflecting on her model’s lack of adornment, was to complain in her later years that many social workers seemed to talk as if the problem-solving method in social work had always existed and “just happened”, that it seemed to have no author or source, and was not even inspired by her work (Perlman, p. 1, 1980). The popularity and appeal of her approach, it seems, did indeed have its price.

In addition to the above, other theorists have raised objections that question the whole notion of using a problem-solving model in helping interventions. In essence, these objections can be boiled down to the following four general statements:

1) In reality problem “solving” doesn’t often happen– Some have claimed that in real life social workers and their clients deal with tremendous uncertainty and rarely with well-identified problems, therefore problem “solving” does not often happens and the most that can be hoped for is problem reduction and management—goals that are more realistic and far easier for clients and workers to achieve (Schon, 1983).

2) Problem- s olving is only one form of thought— Authors in the narrative tradition of social work and therapuetic intervention have worried that fixation on the problem-solving mode of interaction can constrict the client’s ability to freely tell his or her “story” and thus fail to tap into alternate styles of thought and reflection ( Anderson, 1997).

3) The problem-solving model is culture-bound— Since the social work problem-solving approach was developed initially in social work in the context of white, middle-class culture in the United States (though Perlman did have extensive clinical experience working with minority populations, Perlman, 1971a), some have raised concerns that the approach may be unsuitable for clients from other cultures or social groups. It is held this model may be especially inappropriate for individuals from cultures that rely on less organized and less focused methods to address difficulties in social life (such as Native Americans and Mexican-Americans) (Sue, 1981; Galan, 2001).

4) The model is based on non-experimental (i. e., “soft”) evidence— Since Perlman developed her model when social work research was in its infancy, most of her supporting documentation was drawn from clinical and anecdotal sources, plus her own extensive clinical experience. In other words, when developing her approach Perlman made extensive use of the now discredited “argument from authority” in her research (Gambrill, 1999). Although this may put her model on shaky ground in our current social work world of evidence-based practice, it is also true that her problem-solving approach today stands out as a final tribute to the power of “practice wisdom” (DeRoos, 1990) especially as used by a practitioner like Perlman, who possessed a solid liberal arts background as well as infinite discretion and finesse.

Conclusion

Although today no social work author who today used Perlman’s model-building procedures exclusively would be readily considered for academic advancement, the fact that her conceptualizations were generally successful in actual practice appears to bear out psychologist Kurt Lewin’s famous adage that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory.” However, it still needs to be asked how the model measures up today in our current research-heavy climate in social work practice? In general one can answer: pretty well. A number of evaluation research studies done over the past several decades have documented that problem-solving approaches and their variants, such as task-centered treatment and problem-solving therapy, have an impressive record of effectiveness in work with diverse different populations, cultural groups, treatment methodologies, and diagnostic categories (Reid, 1988; Reid & Fortune 2002; Dobson, Backs-Dermott, &

Dozois, 2000). Indeed these research efforts have, for the most part, laid to rest the objections to Perlman’s problem-solving approach mentioned in the previous section. One issue remain still remains, however. As mentioned above, though the many current variants of Perlman’s approach have been demonstrated to have proven efficacy and effectiveness, Perlman’s model itself is based on theory which has never been empirically tested. Although some have tried to develop ways to accomplish this goal (Bunston, 1985), many of her sources now go back as far as seventy or eighty years, and it may never be possible to fully validate Perlman’s claims empirically. However as Perlman, who loved proverbs, would probably note: “the proof of the pudding is in the tasting.” Thus it appears that it is now in the proof offered by actual practice success that we can best find the final validation of her method.

References

Bunston, T. (1985). Mapping practice: problem solving in clinical social work. Social Casework,

66, 225-236.

DeRoos, Y. S. (1990). The development of practice wisdom through human problem-solving

processes. Social Service Review, 64, 276-287.

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath.

Dobson, K. S., Backs-Dermott, B. J. & Dozois, D. J. A (2000). Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral

therapies. In C. R. Snyder & R. E. Ingram (Eds.) Handbook of psychological change , pp. 409-428.

New York: Wiley.

Galan, F. J. (2001). Experiential approach with Mexican-American males with acculturation stress.

In H. E. Briggs & K. Corcoran (Eds.), Social work practice, pp. 283-302. Chicago: Lyceum.

Gambrill, E. (1999). Evidence-based practice: an alternative to authority-based practice. Families in

Society, 80, 341-350.

Garrett, A. (1942). Interviewing. New York: Family Service Association.

Garton, N. R. & Otto, H. A. (1964). The development of theory and practice in social casework.

Springfield,ILL: Charles C. Thomas.

Hamilton, G. (1951). Theory and practice of social case work (2 nd ed.) . New York:ColumbiaUniversity.

International definition of the social work profession (2007). Supplement of International Social Work,50,

James, W. (1967). Pragmatism and other essays. New York:Washington Square.

Menand, L. (2001). The metaphysical club. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

News & Notes (2004). Helen Harris Perlman, social work pioneer and distinguished educator,

p. 1 and p. 5. Chicago: TheSchool ofSocial Service Administration.

Perlman, H. H. (1957). Social casework. Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1970). The problem-solving model in social casework. In R. W. Roberts & R. H.

Nee (Eds.), Theories of social casework , pp. 131-179. Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1971a). A guide to the reader of this book. In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

On social casework , pp. ix-xxiv. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1971b). The basic structure of the casework process. In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

On social casework , pp. 51-64. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1980). Letter to author.

Reid, W. J. (1988). Brief task-centered treatment. In R. A. Dorfman (Ed.), Paradigms of clinical social

Work , pp. 196-219.

Reid, W. J. & Fortune, A. E. (2002). The task-centered model. In A. R. Roberts & G. J. Greene (Eds.),

Social workers’ desk reference , pp. 101-104. Oxford:OxfordUniversity.

Richmond, M. E. (1917). Social diagnosis. New York: Russell Sage.

Schon, D. A.(1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.

Sheffield, A. E. (1922). What is the case worker really doing? The Journal of Social Forces, 1,

362-366.

Sue, D. W. (1981). Counseling the culturally different. New York: Wiley.

Young, P. (1935). Interviewing in social work. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Home / Social Work Resources / Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Private practices. Mental health clinics. Child welfare service agencies. Occupying a variety of professional settings, social workers are united by a shared mission: helping others live better lives.

In order to do that, they must first understand what makes their clients tick. As a social worker, studying different social work theories and social work practice models can help to bring you closer to your clients — equipping you with actionable insights that inform empathetic, evidence-based service.

Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large.

If you’re looking for Social Work Practice Models, jump down here.

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List of Theories Used in Social Work

As a social worker, more knowledge can lead to a more informed approach, and more effective client interactions. Here, we’ll dig into decades of research to share a comprehensive set of social work theories and practice models, including:

Systems Theory

Behaviorism and social learning theory, psychodynamic theory, developmental perspective, rational choice perspective, conflict theory, ecological systems theory, family systems theory, contingency theory.

The 1950s were a decade of global innovation. From barcodes to credit cards, commercial computers to video cassette records, cutting-edge inventions were taking the stage. Around the same time, a new social work development was making its debut: systems theory.

Inspired by major advancements in the fields of psychology, communication, and psychiatry, systems theory is based on the belief that individuals don’t operate in isolation . Rather, the theory positions people as products of complex systems: influenced by a variety of external factors, including other individuals, families, communities, and organizations.

Learn more about System Theory in Social Work.

Developed by the American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner , ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of observing people in multiple environments, or systems, to fully understand their behavior. In his theory, Bronfenbrenner outlines five distinct systems:

The microsystem is someone’s small, immediate environment. For a child, this usually includes direct family, teachers, peers, and caregivers. Relationships in the microsystem are bi-directional—for instance, a parent treating a child with kindness will likely affect how the child treats the parent in return. For this reason, some consider the microsystem to be the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
The mesosystem consists of interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. For instance, between a child’s parent and teacher. A social worker using this theory in everyday practice might ask themselves: “Are the different parts of my client’s microsystem working together towards a positive impact or working against each other?”
The exosystem is an individual’s indirect environment. Consider a child whose father is an active duty soldier. Though the military isn’t a part of that child’s direct environment, it still influences them mentally and emotionally, and can impact their thoughts, relationships, and behavior.
The macrosystem is a society’s overarching set of beliefs, values, and norms. This system often has a cascading effect on behavior in all the other systems, serving as a filter through which an individual interprets their experiences. For instance, a child might grow up thinking their socioeconomic status is a limiting factor in life. This macrosystem-level belief may cause them to behave differently in school — for positive or for negative, depending on the individual.
The chronosystem includes major changes that influence an individual’s development overtime. This could include changes in family structure, employment status, or address, as well as large societal changes like wars, civil rights movements, or economic flux.

Family systems theory was developed in the mid-1950s, while American psychiatrist Murray Bowen was working at the National Institute of Mental Health . Based on his knowledge of family patterns and systems theory, Bowen believed that the personalities, emotions, and behaviors of grown individuals could be traced back to their family interactions. The family, he suggested, is an emotional unit and can therefore play a formative role in development.

Within social work, professionals may enable families to try out different ways of doing things, such as teaching a parent on how to maintain appropriate boundaries with their child. The family is identified as a social system and therapy engages that concept to support the growth of clients.

Contingency theory explains that individual outcomes are contingent on a variety of specific situational factors. In the realm of social work, contingency theory can inspire you to seek understanding by considering all of the internal and external influences that are contributing to a client’s problem.

Systems Theory Related Resources

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) – Systems-Based Practice
Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research
The Bowen Center
The Ecology of Human Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner
Effective Social Work with Children, Young People and Families: Putting Systems Theory into Practice
GoodTherapy – Systems Theory/Therapy
New England Association for Family and Systemic Therapy (NEAFAST) – What is Systems Theory?
Psychology Today – Family Systems Theory
Systems Theory in Social Work

Behaviorism
Cognitive Theory

What drives human behavior? It’s a question that’s been asked for decades on end — and one that’s particularly relevant to the field of social work. Both behaviorism and social learning theory provide social workers with a useful framework for understanding clients.

By learning how past experiences influence present-day behavior, you can develop a research-backed approach to providing targeted care.

Social learning theory was developed by the influential Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandura. In 1961, Bandura conducted his most widely known experiment: the Bobo doll study . In this experiment, children watched an adult shout at and beat a Bobo doll on television.

Later that same day, the children were left to play in a room containing a Bobo doll — and those who’d seen the film were more likely to torment the doll, imitating the behavior they’d been exposed to earlier. As a result, social learning theory posits that learning occurs through observation and imitation.

Learn more about Social Learning Theory in Social Work.

Behaviorism and Behavioral Theory

According to behaviorism, all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. By adding in a conditioned stimulus before an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus will lead to a new conditioned response. In his famous experiment, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to produce saliva at the sound of a metronome. By consistently introducing the metronome before feeding time, he found that the sound alone would lead to salivation — in anticipation of feeding time.

Similarly, humans can be conditioned to respond to specific stimuli. For instance, a child may work harder in school if they are promised a reward for receiving good grades.

Cognitive Theory in Social Work

Cognitive theory uncovers how a person’s thinking influences behavior. This theory places emphasis on dysfunctional thought patterns that influence problematic behaviors — what we tell ourselves after an event. Social works may utilize this approach in therapy sessions to link dysfunctional thoughts that occur after and before behaviors.

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Related Resources

American Psychological Association (APA) – “Albert Bandura to receive National Medal of Science”
Association for Psychological Science (APS) – What Happened to Behaviorism
Berkeley Graduate Division: Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center – Behaviorism
BMC Medical Education – Using Social Learning Theory to Explore the Process of Learning from Role Models in Clinical Settings
Psychology Today – Behaviorism
Psychology Today – Social Learning Theory
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Behaviorism
Social Learning Theory – By Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory in Social Work
Youtube Video from The Curious Classroom – Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Drive Theory

Ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology.

Originally introduced by Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory has a storied history within social work. This theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are intra-psychologically driven to seek gratification and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Psychodynamic theory has four major schools of thought: drive theory, ego psychology, object relations theory and self-psychology.

This psychodynamic theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification of their endogenous drive — and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Per Freud, these primary drives include sex, self-preservation, and aggression. Impositions on these drives may be external or internal via superego and ego; psychic structures introduced by Freud. Social workers who approach clients with theoretical orientation on drive may posit that a client’s actions are based on an innate suppression of, otherwise, socially unacceptable actions.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), ego psychology is an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses, planning, and dealing with the external environment. Freud believed that the ego is weak in relation to one’s id. Ego psychology combines biological and psychological views of development by understanding the influences of socio cultural impacts on function.

Object-relations theory is a branch of psychodynamic thought that suggests relationships are more critical to personality development than individual drives and abilities. Accordingly, social workers may want to study the interactions between a client and the people who played a significant role in their life in early childhood.

Self psychology was introduced by Austrian psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut in the early 1970s and has since become one of social work’s most significant analytic theories. According to self psychology, humans have a distinct set of development needs and transferences: mirroring, idealizing, and alter ego. If a parent fails to meet those needs in childhood, an individual may wind up unable to regulate self-esteem — and therefore, may be overly dependent on others to provide those functions. In the realm of social work, this calls for a careful understanding of early occurrences and shortcomings.

Psychodynamic Related Resources

PsychCentral – Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic Theory – By Kathleen Holtz Deal
Psychology Today – Psychodynamic Therapy
SAMSHA/CSAT Treatment Improvement Protocols – Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse – Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychosocial Development Theory

Transpersonal Theory

Growth. Change. Consistency. By adopting a developmental perspective, social workers can start uncovering the patterns of a person’s life. A large portion of developmental theories focus on childhood, since this is such a formative time.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Inspired by the earlier work of Sigmund Freud, German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development. According to Erikson, everyone must pass through eight stages of development throughout their life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. As a social worker, you may find it useful to identify a client’s current stage to pinpoint what challenges they’re currently facing.

Transpersonal theory suggests the existence of stages beyond the adult ego. These stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism in healthy individuals—but can lead to psychosis in those lacking healthy ego development. In social work, transpersonal theory may be used to treat anxiety, depression, addiction and other mental health concerns. Typically spiritual approaches as used such as meditation, guided visualization, hypnotherapy and more.

Developmental Perspective Related Resources

A Lifespan Developmental Perspective on Psychosocial Development in Midlife – By Tara L. Kuther and Kaitlyn Burnell
Liberty University – Theories of Psychosocial Development
Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development: Setting the Stage for Cognitive and Emotional Health in Late Life – By Johanna C. Malone, Sabrina R. Liu, George E. Vaillant, Dorene M. Rentz, and Robert J. Waldinger
Psychosocial Theory: Erikson – By Doug Davis and Alan Clifton
Psychology Today – Our Hierarchy of Needs
Psychology Today – Transpersonal Therapy
A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy – By Mark C. Kasprow, M.D. and Bryce W. Scotton, M.D.
Social Work and Social Development – Edited By James Midgley and Amy Conley

Social Exchange Theory

Social constructionism, symbolic interactionism.

Rational choice perspective is based on the idea that people calculate risks and benefits before making any decision, since all actions are fundamentally rational in character. Studying this theory can help social workers better understand client behavior. For instance, an action that seems objectively irrational to some, may make more sense upon closer examination of the individual’s context.

Social exchange theory dates back to 1958, when American sociologist George Homans published the paper “Social Behavior as Exchange.” According to Homans, any two-person relationship can be viewed in terms of cost-benefit analysis— what am I giving, and what am I getting in return? The APA defines social exchange theory as a concern of social interactions in exchanges where all participants seek to maximize their benefits. Within social work, professionals may utilize their theory to better understand interactions with their client and others around them — diving into the intrinsic rewards they may receive.

True. False. Good. Bad. Right. Wrong. In social constructionism, these are all relative concepts, entirely dependent on the person who is interpreting them. This concept abandons the idea that one’s mind represents a mirror of reality—rather, it suggests that each of us creates our own world from our individual perceptions and interactions with others in the community.

Symbolic interactionism positions communication as the central way in which people make sense of their social worlds. American psychologist Herbert Blumer introduced three premises of symbolic interactionism:

Humans interact with objects, institutions, and other individuals based on ascribed meanings.
These ascribed meanings are inspired by our interactions with others and society.
The meanings are interpreted by individuals in specific circumstances.

Imagine, for example, that your client professes a love for baking. Adopting a lens of symbolic interactionism, you may dig deeper into the ascribed meaning behind this act. Perhaps your client makes meringues because they used to help their mother do so in childhood — and for them, escaping to the kitchen is an act of comfort and safety.

Rational Choice Perspective Related Resources

Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) – Behavior Analysis and Social Constructionism: Some Points of Contact and Departure by Bryan Roche and Dermot Barnes-Holmes
Cornell University ILR School – Social Exchange Theory of Emotions by Edward J. Lawler and Shane R. Thye
Iowa State University – Social Exchange Theory by Mark V. Redmond
Ontario Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services – Rational Choice and Routine Activities Theory
Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique – Edited by James S. Coleman and Thomas J. Fararo
What is Social Constructionism? – By Tom Andrews

Conflict theory explains how different power structures impact people’s lives. In this theory, life is characterized by conflict—whether that’s oppression, discrimination, power struggles, or structural inequality. In addressing these asymmetrical power relationships, social workers can strive to reduce tensions between different groups.

Practice Models Used in Social Work

Problem solving model.

Task Centered Practice
Solution Focused Therapy

Narrative Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model.

Read on to discover how these practice models are used by social workers in a variety of settings.

Proposed by Helen Harris Perlman in her book Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, the problem solving model. Ms. Perlman posited that “success could be achieved by partializing – or separating into manageable segments – a client’s intertwined problems and focusing on one specific issue the client and social worker agreed needed to be resolved at a given time”, according to The University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration . Utilizing this model, social workers are employed to address one concern of a client as to be resolved, at any given time. This allows for therapy for clients to be more manageable.

Task-Centered Practice

Beginning at the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration, task-centered practice (TCP) is a four step process that trains social workers to work with clients in establishing specific and achievable goals based upon their concern for therapy. Through this model, social workers empower clients to drive their therapy by asking what they most want to work on to address their problems.

Solution-Focused Therapy

Solution-focused therapy was developed out of necessity, as a brief theory, in an inner city outpatient mental health setting bySteve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg and their colleagues. This approach focuses on finding solutions in the from the past, for the present — in hopes of achieving quicker problem resolution. Social workers may use this theory when focusing more on the present and future, asking questions like “What would you be doing this weekend that supports your therapy goals?”.

Narrative therapy can be an effective way of separating a client from their problems. By examining a person’s life story, this social work practice model externalizes struggles, allowing individuals to adopt a new perspective and see the bigger picture. From a distance, they may be able to reframe their situation—recognizing that their self-worth and purpose are separate from their problems. When told from a third-person perspective, a story of hardship may transform into a story of resilience.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the leading treatments for many mental health conditions. This social work practice model focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—encouraging clients to identify patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that impact emotions.

Crisis intervention includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop a plan of action, and follow up. This social work practice model is used when someone is experiencing an acute crisis — and is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal intent.

If you would like to become a social worker, but are not sure what degree options are available for you, explore our list of accredited masters in social worker online programs .

Social Work Lectures

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The Helping / Problem -Solving Process in Social Work

The helping / problem -solving process in social work.

According to John Dewey, the problem-solving behavior is based on reflective thought that begins with a feeling of doubt or confusion.

Steps in SW Helping Process

Initial contact with your client.

The process by which a potential client achieves the status of a client.

Types of Client

Walk-in client
Involuntary client
Reach-out client

A process and a product of understanding on which action in based.

– Max Siporin

Involves the collection of necessary information and its analysis and interpretation in order to reach an understanding of the client, the problem and the social context in which it exist.

Sources of Data/Information

Primary Source ~ the client
Secondary Source ~ significant others
Existing Data ~ information previously collected
Worker’s Own Observation

Link between Assessment and Intervention. Planning process translates the content of assessment into a goal statement. Guided by the SW values and body of knowledge, it allows the worker, with the client’s participation, to move from problem definition to problem solution.

Implementation

Rendering of all the specific and interrelated services appropriate to the given problem situation in the light of assessment and planning. Refers to the composite of activities or tasks that the Social Worker is expected to undertake in order to accomplish the goals agreed upon with the client.

Interventive Roles in Direct Practice

Resource Provider

Social Broker

Counselor/Therapist

Collection of data about the outcomes of a program of action relative to goals and objectives set in advance of the implementation that program.

In SW it is a continual process (Ongoing evaluation). Social Worker has to undertake also a Terminal evaluation (evaluation undertaken before ending the helping relationship.

Types of Evaluation

Summative Evaluation – concerned with outcomes or effectiveness.

Formative Evaluation – concerned with the process of work.

Termination

SW problem-solving relationship does not go on forever. Consists of disengagement after evaluation and stabilization of change.

Reasons for Terminating the Client-Worker Relationship

When the goals set by worker and the client have been reached.
When, after the reasonable period of time, there has been very little movement toward the attainment of the goals formulated, and the prospect for any change in the situation is held unlikely.
When the client thinks that the worker has provided sufficient help so that it is now possible for the client to pursue problem-solving in his own.
When an agency does not have the resources needed by the client or the worker does not get her agency’s approval to provide the services needed by the client.
When the system outside the client make it difficult for the client to continue with the helping relationship or when these systems influence the client to discontinue the relationship.
When for one reason or another, the worker must leave the agency.

The Social Work “Helping Process”- Engagement, Assessment, Planning, Intervention, Evaluation, and Termination ASWB

Meagan Mitchell
March 19, 2022

The Social Work Helping Process on the ASWB Exam

This process will be extremely helpful for you to know and understand for the LCSW and LMSW exams, especially for questions that end in FIRST and NEXT.

What is The Helping Process?

Intervention
Termination

This six-step process is very helpful to have a mastery of when you are taking your exam.

1) Engagement : You cannot build a therapeutic relationship without engaging the client. Also includes intake, confidentiality, consent, and explaining the risks of treatment. Additionally, you’ll be setting boundaries during this session.

2) Assessment : Assessment is when you are determining the client’s presenting problem. This step is used to collect information that will be helpful in treatment. This may include a biopsychosocial assessment. We need to determine strengths and weaknesses so we can identify areas that will be worked on in treatment.

Example: In this phase, you may determine anxiety is the main problem you will work on treatment.

3) Planning : The planning stage refers to planning for treatment. This includes setting goals and objectives. Treatment modality may also be determined in this stage. In this stage, you are making an action plan for the next steps in treatment.

Example: You have determined that you will address the client’s anxiety through 12 weeks of CBT. The goal will be to utilize coping strategies to decrease negative thinking in 3 out of 5 situations.

4) Intervention : This is where the “bulk” of the clinical work will be done. This is when you are actively working with the client. In this stage, you may be utilizing a variety of techniques to work towards established goals. You may also give clients activities to work on outside of the session. Depending on the type of work you are doing, this phase may be long or short-term in nature.

Example: During the intervention phase you will be utilizing CBT. This may include working on distorted thoughts, practicing muscle relaxation, and mindfulness.

Learn more about different intervention methods in this post: Mastering Clinical Social Work Interventions For The ASWB Exam

5) Evaluation : This is where you are looking at the client’s progress. Are they making progress towards established goals? Are there areas that need to be changed? Is the treatment modality working? This is an ongoing process that should be used to determine if changes need to be made in the treatment process.

Example: Is my client making progress towards a decrease in negative thinking? Are the CBT techniques and strategies helping the client cope with anxiety?

6) Termination : Termination is signaled by the close or ending of the therapeutic relationship. Ideally, termination occurs once the client and therapist agree that the treatment goals have been met and services are no longer needed. However, a client can terminate at any time. Termination should be discussed early and clients should have time to prepare for the end of treatment.

Learn more about the Termination stage in this post: Termination Of Clients On The ASWB Exam

** For some people termination is signaled by joy and pride. For others, it is more challenging and may be signaled by fear and anxiety. Support your client’s through the termination phase.

Want to learn more about the different stages of the helping process? Watch the video below!

Learn more about my course here: https://agentsofchangeprep.com/

A little bit about me: I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker and I have been providing individualized and group test prep for the ASWB for over three years. From all of this experience helping others pass their exams, I have created a course to help you prepare for and pass the ASWB exam!

Find more from Agents of Change here:

► Facebook Group: https://www.facebook.com/groups/aswbtestprep

► Podcast: https://anchor.fm/agents-of-change-sw

#socialwork #testprep #aswb #socialworker #socialwork #socialworktest #socialworkexam #exam #socialworktestprep #socialworklicense #socialworklicensing #licsw #lmsw #lcsw #aswbexam #aswb #lcswexam #lmswexam #aswbtestprep #aswbtest #lcswtestprep #lcswtest #lmswtestprep #lmswtest #aswbcourse

Disclaimer: This video content has been made available for informational and educational purposes only. This content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical or clinical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Journaling for Social Workers: A Guide to Reflection, Growth, and Well-being

Build Your Personalized ASWB Study Plan (Powered by AI)!

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Mastering the ASWB Exam: Simulation Exercises for Social Work Scenarios

ASWB Exam Preparation for Non-Traditional Students

ASWB Exam Study Plans 30, 60, and 90-Day Strategies

ASWB Exam Study Plans: 30-Day, 60-Day, and 90-Day Strategies

The Economics of Social Work: Understanding Budgets and Funding for ASWB Exam

Social Work Advocacy: Preparing for Related ASWB Exam Questions

Navigating Ethical Dilemmas with Technology on the ASWB Exam

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August 12, 2024

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One way social work researchers can better understand community needs—and move the field forward

by Matt Shipman, North Carolina State University

Researchers are calling on the social work community to begin incorporating a methodology called "discrete choice experiments" (DCEs) into their research, to better understand the needs and preferences of key stakeholders. This technique is well established in other fields but is rarely used in social work.

The paper, " How to Use Discrete Choice Experiments to Capture Stakeholder Preferences in Social Work Research ," is published in the Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research .

"Social workers need to engage with a wide variety of stakeholders, from policy makers to the people who use social services ," says Alan Ellis, an associate professor of social work at North Carolina State University and corresponding author of a paper introducing social work researchers to the DCE methodology.

"But social work, as a research discipline, has not identified a standard technique for eliciting the preferences of those stakeholders—even though this is a critical issue," Ellis says.

"Although traditional survey methods can be used to evaluate stakeholder perspectives, the DCE is one of several methodologies that were specifically designed to assess the degree to which people prioritize one thing over another. In this paper, we propose that social work researchers adopt DCEs as a robust tool for capturing stakeholder preferences on any number of issues."

In a DCE, researchers ask participants to complete a series of choice tasks: hypothetical situations in which each participant is presented with alternative scenarios and selects one or more.

"For example, social work researchers may want to know how parents and other caregivers prioritize different aspects of mental health treatment when choosing services for their children," Ellis says. "A DCE can explore this question by presenting scenarios that include different types of mental health care providers, treatment methods, costs, locations and so on. Caregivers' stated choices in these scenarios can provide a lot of information about their priorities."

DCEs were first developed by marketing researchers and are now widely used in fields ranging from transportation to health care.

"We know that DCEs effectively capture preferences on a wide variety of subjects," Ellis says. "We simply want to begin using them more consistently to address issues that are important to stakeholders in social work.

"From a pure research standpoint, having a better understanding of stakeholder needs and preferences can move the field forward by helping us develop better research questions and better studies," says Ellis. "Beyond that, having a better understanding of our clients' preferences and goals will make us better social workers. Adopting DCEs can strengthen the link between social work research and practice—and ground our research , policy, and practice in the values that are important to the people we serve.

"I'm optimistic that DCEs could help us collaborate with stakeholders to effect positive change."

The paper was co-authored by Qiana Cryer-Coupet of Georgia State University, Bridget Weller of Wayne State University, Kirsten Howard and Rakhee Raghunandan of the University of Sydney, and Kathleen Thomas of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Provided by North Carolina State University

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IMAGES

Problem Solving Model
Problem Solving Process Social Work Practice Ppt PowerPoint Presentation Portfolio Files Cpb
Social work helping models and approaches
Pin on Mental Health: Counseling & Case Management
Map of Social Work “Problem Solving Process with areas are left blank...
problem solving steps social work

COMMENTS

The social worker's role in the problem-solving process
The Problem-Solving Process The problem-solving process is a systematic approach used to identify, analyze, and resolve issues or challenges. It typically involves several steps: Identification of the Problem: The first step is to clearly define and identify the problem or issue that needs to be addressed. This involves understanding the symptoms and root causes of the problem, as well as its ...
Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model
This chapter examines the task-centred model to illustrate the application of problem-solving theory for social work intervention. First, it provides a brief description of the problem-solving model. Its historical development and key principles and concepts are...
(PDF) Problem Solving in Social Work Practice: Implications for
Abstract An examination of the way in which social workers use knowledge suggests an instrumental approach to knowledge use. This approach has important implications for moving the profession ...
The problem-solving model: A framework for integrating the science and
In this chapter we (a) review the early development of the problem-solving model for social work practice; (b) discuss the later development of the problem solving model in terms of its extension to and further elaboration by generalist models of social work practice; (c) provide an overview of how the problem-solving model allows for the integration of the scientific and artistic elements of ...
Practice Model: Problem Solving
Murdach (2007) suggests the principal stages of Perlman's problem-solving model are simply: the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action). Chenowith and Lehmann (2008) describe a planned change process model: Chenowith and Lehman also suggest the model ...
Problem Solving in Social Work Practice: Implications for Knowledge
Abstract An examination of the way in which social workers use knowledge suggests an instrumental approach to knowledge use. This approach has important implications for moving the profession toward greater accountability in the practice of social work. Unless educators can motivate practitioners to change the way in which they ask questions and make predictions, it is unlikely that ...
PDF The Social Work Process
e Social Work Process 3S ocial workers traditionally use a series of steps or processes to help clients. resolve their problems. These steps include collecting informa-tion about the client (assessment), making sense out of the information (diagnosis), collaborating with the client to develop a plan to change the problems being experienced (the ...
Social Problem Solving
Definition Social problem solving is the process by which individuals identify and enact solutions to social life situations in an effort to alter the problematic nature of the situation, their relation to the situation, or both [ 7 ].
PDF Problem-Solving Theory: The Task-Centred Model 9
This chapter examines the task-centred model to illustrate the application of problem-solving theory for social work intervention. First, it provides a brief description of the problem-solving model. Its historical development and key principles and concepts are presented. Next, the chapter offers a general overview of the crisis intervention model. The task-centred model and crisis ...
(PDF) Social Problem Solving: Theory and Assessment
Abstract In this chapter we describe the social problem-solving model that has generated most of the research and training programs presented in the remaining chapters of this volume.
The Roles of the Social Worker & Client in Problem Solving
The Social Worker-Client Relationship System In the process of treatment for problems, social workers and clients have connected but separate roles.
Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models
Social Work Practice Models There are many different practice models that influence the way social workers choose to help people meet their goals. Here are some of the major social work practice models used in various roles, such as case managers and therapists: Problem solving open_in_new assists people with the problem solving process.
Social Problem Solving
Social problem-solving is generally considered to apply to four different types of problems: Impersonal problems, for example, shortage of money; Personal problems, for example, emotional or health problems; Interpersonal problems, such as disagreements with other people; and. Community and wider societal problems, such as litter or crime rate.
6 Important Theories in Social Work & 6 Practice Models
The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman, a social worker and author of "Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process." Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution.
Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession
There have been a number of professions in the world, but social work is central among them. It has a scientific base and problem-solving theories and processes.
PDF Chapter 2 Models of Social-Work Practice
It seems to me, therefore, that the problem-solving model of social-work practice, besides making an important contribution to social-work thinking in its own right, has also laid the foundation for some of the more recent attempts at conceptualising social-work practice to which reference will be made later in this chapter.
Helen Harris Perlman and the Problem Solving Model
Abstract: This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman in developing the problem-solving model of social work direct practice. The origins, development and subsequent spread of this approach throughout social work practice is discussed and the various ways in which this model has been applied in the profession is briefly reviewed.
PDF Client System Assessment Tools for Social Work Practice
Johnson features the Stages of the Problem-Solving Process: Stage 1 - Preliminary statement of the problem. Stage 2 - Statement of preliminary assumptions about the nature of the problem. Stage 3 - Selection and collection of information. Stage 4 - Analysis of information available. Stage 5 - Development of a plan.
PDF Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession
Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession
What Are The Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work?
Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large.
The Helping / Problem -Solving Process in Social Work
The Helping / Problem -Solving Process in Social Work According to John Dewey, the problem-solving behavior is based on reflective thought that begins with a feeling of doubt or confusion.
The Social Work "Helping Process"
The Social Work Helping Process on the ASWB Exam This process will be extremely helpful for you to know and understand for the LCSW and LMSW exams, especially for questions that end in FIRST and NEXT. What is The Helping Process?
One way social work researchers can better understand community needs
Researchers are calling on the social work community to begin incorporating a methodology called "discrete choice experiments" (DCEs) into their research, to better understand the needs and ...

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Practice Model: Problem Solving

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The skills required for positive problem orientation are:

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Journaling for Social Workers: A Guide to Reflection, Growth, and Well-being

Build Your Personalized ASWB Study Plan with Agents of Change AI!

Mastering the ASWB Exam: Simulation Exercises for Social Work Scenarios

ASWB Exam Preparation for Non-Traditional Students

ASWB Exam Study Plans: 30-Day, 60-Day, and 90-Day Strategies