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Solar Research: MSc theses

Ecosystem services and solar landscapes.

'Designing a multifunctional solar landscape near the Millingerwaard by deploying ecosystem services', Tine Lambert, 2022

The urgency of energy transition often leads to solutions that do not relate to the existing landscape, putting ecosystems under pressure. The challenge is to ensure that the implementation of renewable energy does not adversely affect ecosystem services, but instead improves them. This master’s thesis investigated how a multifunctional solar landscape near the Millingerwaard in the municipality of Berg and Dal (NL) can improve spatial quality through the deployment of the concept of ecosystem services. First, 16 spatial guidelines were obtained from the literature. Current ecosystem services in the area were analyzed, resulting in a map that shows the trade-offs, synergies and hotspots between ecosystem services and energy generation. Next, expert surveys were used to assess and value the spatial quality of various function combinations with PV. All findings were incorporated into a design which shows that a multifunctional solar landscape can bring about positive changes for spatial quality. The use of the different methods stimulates designing sustainable projects that connect people, energy and biodiversity, based on the synergy of different ecosystem services.

Energy on the Edge

'Building smart strategies for the uncertainties of energy and housing development on the edge of Nijmegen', Tim Kisner, 2022

Integration of energy transition with other societal goals is slowly becoming a more widespread approach. In recent years, combinations of energy with agriculture, nature and infrastructure have been proposed regularly. The combination of energy and these functions often implies a focus on the open landscape: outside the city, far from where the energy is consumed. This regularly leads to opposition. To spare these landscapes, opponents often suggest to ‘use every roof’ for solar energy generation. Although it is arguable whether this will satisfy the energy demand of the entire nation, locating energy generation near the user seems tangible and fair. To investigate the opportunities of bringing production and consumption together, this master thesis investigated the true integration of energy and housing development. An ‘Energy on the Edge’ approach is developed, reaching for integration beyond mere utilizing of roof space. The approach is employed to study synergies between energy and housing development at the western city edge of Nijmegen. Here, electricity production is used to stimulate housing development while coping with future uncertainties regarding both functions. Instead of ‘outsourcing’ energy development to the countryside, it is brought into the city. This master thesis establishes a new concept for living with renewable energy: Living in the Power Plant. The concept utilizes energy to improve urban landscape quality - a promising approach to address opposition to conventional, often monofunctional interventions for energy transition in our rural landscapes.

Forestvoltaics

'Photo Forestry - Exploring design principles for multifunctional carbon mitigation landscape development', Sam van den Oetelaar, 2022

Afforestation is becoming politically popular to boost biological carbon sequestration to reduce climate change effects. Similarly, the use of solar panels is also getting popular. In densely built and planned countries, multifunctionality of the landscape is a significant factor for the spatial quality of the landscape. Therefore, with an afforestation challenge that has large spatial implications, there is a need for proper forest design for climate, nature and human activities. This master examines the potential synergies between silviculture and renewable energy production. The research consists of two parts: [1] research for design (RFD) and [2] research through designing (RTD). RFD yielded 11 design considerations covering carbon sequestration, forest health, recreation and Forestvoltaics (FV) - a promising function combination between photovoltaic energy production and forest development. RTD yielded a landscape design in which an FV system is integrated in a multifunctional carbon mitigation landscape. Four general design principles are defined; they expand the knowledge base on designing multifunctional carbon mitigation landscapes. It is concluded that the FV system is suitable for creating synergies. However, the proposed concept is novel and conceptual, and additional studies are required to examine its full potential.

Empowering energy estates

'empowering energy estates: a new estate as a means for sustainable energy in wijhe, overijssel' joost andréa, 2021.

In order to realign and better embed renewable energy technologies in the landscape, inspiration is found with the estate (landgoed), as it is an integrative production landscape that unifies agricultural, cultural-historical, recreational, and ecological values. In the last decade several (suggestive) designs were made for ‘energy estates’ (energielandgoederen) in the Dutch landscape. Although a promising concept, the elaboration into design guidelines for specific landscape types is still lacking. This thesis has the objective to develop design guidelines for a sustainable energy estate in the landscape context of West Overijssel. It builds upon the existing knowledge of sustainable energy landscape design as well as the activation of the design knowledge embedded in the historical estate type that is found in the region. By a comparative case study, thirteen essential spatial characteristics of the this estate type were identified. The final design illustrates that it is indeed possible to employ the estate as a means for designing sustainable energy landscapes and that the estate type characteristics possess enough flexibility to adjust them to the contemporary program. 

Solarchipelago

'solarchipelago: designing energy transition in the ijmeer along ecosystem change' david de boer, 2020 climate change mitigation calls for a transition towards more sustainable energy sources. however, allocating the space for renewable energy technologies like pv systems in complex and dense metropolitan regions is no easy task. this is the case for the ijmeer between amsterdam and almere as well. the ijmeer is also an ecosystem under pressure. the objective of this research is to design an energy transition in the ijmeer that aligns with the way that ecosystems change, such as through the process of succession. a method of research through designing is used to come to useful design principles and guidelines. a design for the ijmeer was created using a modular approach. two modules are presented that combine both renewable energy generation as well providing an infrastructure for succession to occur. multiple stages of succession simultaneously present in these modules allow for more habitat diversity for flora and fauna. the modules performance is based on constant working principles but include variables as well to provide different system responses. the modules variables and composition can adapt to the characteristics of multiple areas of the ijmeer, while also supporting other metropolitan functions like infrastructure and urban expansion while providing renewable energy. the resulting design guidelines were evaluated together with the principles in the conclusion., not just another solar field, 'not just another solar field: a multifunctional energygarden for mastwijk, the netherlands' florian becker, 2020 by 2030, the regional energy strategy (res) u16 regio around utrecht demands to provide 3.6twh of renewable electricity. in more concrete terms, this means a surface of 3,600 hectares of solar fields that are arising in the landscape within the next nine years. though this goal might not be realistic, even the appearing of a single hectare of solar field in the landscape should not go without careful planning anymore. plenty of research has demonstrated that solar fields can host many additional functions without decreasing their productivity. especially in densely populated regions like the res u16, scarce surfaces should not simply be allocated to single function land uses. this master thesis builds upon existing knowledge on multifunctional solar fields to identify a set of design guidelines. these are combined with guidelines of garden design to inform the recent concept of energygardens. after forming a set of design guidelines, a fraction of them is tested in a design for an energygarden of mastwijk in the province of utrecht. the energygarden mastwijk is a real project, which is currently developed and planned to be implemented in 2022., the bright side of solar energy.

'The bright side of solar energy: How solar energy can be used as a tool to improve landscapes,' Coos van Ginkel, december 2019 It is estimated that roughly 30,000 hectares of solar fields will be required on land in the Netherlands by 2050. Landscape experts urge that this energy transition should not harm the existing landscape but rather be used to improve spatial quality. The objective of this project was to explore how an integral design for a 1,500ha multifunctional solar landscape in the Northwest Haarlemmermeer can improve the spatial quality of the region.

Eco solar corridor

'Eco solar corridor: Discovering the symbiotic strength of utility-scale solar energy systems and ecological networks in Brummen, the Netherlands,' Dominik Kriska, december 2019

While the need for utility-scale solar energy systems in landscapes is rising to reach the national climate goals, the rivalry with agriculture and the development of nature is increasing too. The combination of solar panels and agriculture was already tested in several projects, however the possible combination of solar energy with ecological networks has not been researched in depth yet. The objective of this research was to explore potential synergies arising from the implementation of solar fields in a gap of an ecological networks at Brummen, the Netherlands.

Circular urban energy park

'Circular urban energy park: Transformation of the Hemwegcentrale,' Yingzi Wang, augustus 2019

According to the recommendations by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Netherlands need to achieve an 95% reduction of CO2 emissions by 2040 compared to 1990. One of the measures that are taken is the closure of powerplants running on fossil fuels, like the Hemwegcentrale in the harbour of Amsterdam. This project explored the potentials of the Hemwegcentrale area as a sustainable urban energy landscape, in the complex context of a dynamic urban development in the next two decades.

Perceiving without grieving

'Perceiving without grieving: shaping solar energy for an energy neutral Zeeburgereiland (Amsterdam),' Tom van Heeswijk, March 2016

Amsterdam decided that all new construction projects, from 2015 on, must be energy neutral by avoiding fossil fuels in building-related energy consumption, while increasing the energy efficiency. The neighbourhood Zeeburgereiland in Amsterdam is planned as a dynamic and attractive island for dwelling and recreation, which aims to be energy-neutral by promoting renewable energies. This thesis investigated which physical and psychological attributes influence people’s liking and disliking of renewable energy, consequently formulating implications for design that could account for public preference.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Solar empowerment in agriculture: investigating photovoltaic energy’s impact on efficiency among wheat farmers.

• 1 College of Economics and Management, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
• 2 College of Public Administration, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
• 3 College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China

Persistent electricity shortages in Pakistan, causing prolonged grid power load shedding, have adversely impacted various sectors, notably agriculture and the livelihoods of rural farmers. Literature suggests that adopting photovoltaic solar energy can mitigate these issues. This research aims to measure the impact of photovoltaic solar energy on the technical efficiency of food productivity in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, applying data from 580 respondents. Addressing self-selective bias through ESR and stochastic frontier production function model is utilized to assess technical efficiency. The findings of this study reveal that farmers using solar energy experience a significant improvement in technical efficiency, with 15.8 percent of them achieving a 7.643 percent increase, after accounting for self-selection bias. Furthermore, the positive effects are more pronounced among larger farms and those with greater farming experience. This study underscores the importance of evidence-based approaches in implementing solar energy solutions, highlighting their potential to foster sustainability and equitable development at the grassroots level. The research culminates with policy recommendations that underscore the importance of promoting the photovoltaic solar energy use among farmers to improve food security and increase agricultural productivity.

Graphical Abstract .

1 Introduction

The utilization of photovoltaic solar energy (PSE) technology stands out as a distinctive innovation within the realm of renewable energy technologies (RETs). Acknowledged as a clean energy source, PSE offers a notable advantage by reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared to non-renewable fossil fuel-based energy. The global appeal of PSE-based power generation technology has surged in recent years, becoming a focal point for economies aiming to enhance their energy portfolios and embrace green development practices ( Ahmar et al., 2022 ). This technology serves as an expedient and viable solution, particularly in off-grid or under-electrified areas, enabling entities to produce and self-consume electricity with minimal maintenance ( Palm, 2017 ; Khan et al., 2021a ). At the household level, PSE systems have not only contributed to the rising prominence of RETs but have also facilitated their integration into the “energy ladder.” In the context of advancing agricultural production, a critical focus on technical efficiency (TE) is imperative. In the face of a worldwide energy dilemma marked by an increasing dependence on finite resources, the pursuit of sustainable alternatives emerges as imperative ( Sunny et al., 2023 ). The pervasive utilization of fossil fuels has aggravated carbon emissions and led to progressively centralized food systems and energy infrastructures, making them susceptible to disruptions. Current challenges such as heatwaves, prolonged droughts, and the socioeconomic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic have significantly impacted agricultural systems, potentially heightening the risk of food crises and driving up global food and energy costs ( Khan et al., 2021b ; Ben Hassen and El Bilali, 2022 ; Khayyam et al., 2022 ; Sunny et al., 2023 ). In South Asia specially in Pakistan, where predominantly agricultural societies heavily depend on pump irrigation fuelled by groundwater, the adoption of energy-efficient technologies becomes imperative for resilience and sustainability.

The energy-irrigation relationship in South Asia, particularly evident in Pakistan’s farming industry, is intimately linked with the region’s extensive use of groundwater. South Asia’s position as the largest consumer of groundwater worldwide, with an annual extraction of nearly 210 cubic kilometers, underscores the importance of this association ( Mukherji and Shah, 2005 ; Ali and Behera, 2016 ). The extraction of groundwater not only influences agricultural yield but also has far-reaching consequences for family income and poverty reduction. In the context of Pakistan, where the energy system is a vital basis for irrigation, the reliance on high-efficiency methods and tube well irrigation further intensifies the connection between energy and agriculture ( Khan et al., 2024 ). Unfortunately, the prevalent use of costly and environmentally detrimental sources like petroleum and coal for energy needs in irrigation contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. In Pakistan, where agricultural systems reliance on subterranean water ranks third globally, the situation is striking. Approximately 73 percent of its land area is sustained by the extraction of a staggering 60 billion m 3 of groundwater annually ( Shahid et al., 2017 ). The substantial presence of over 1.2 million tube wells, largely powered by diesel (84%) and electricity (16%), accentuates the importance of the energy-irrigation relationship, with the majority concentrated in the Punjab province of Pakistan ( Hussain et al., 2023 ).

Despite Pakistan’s ample solar irradiation, estimated at around three thousand sunny hours per year, with levels ranging from 5 to 7 kWh/m 2 , the acceptance of PSE has been sluggish ( Jahangiri et al., 2020 ). Specific information reveals a considerable PSE power potential, ranging from 1,200 to 2,100 kWh/kWp annually. Pakistan’s expensive terrain and bountiful solar ray coverage unveil a remarkable solar system potential, eclipsing current electricity demands by more than fivefold, as highlighted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( Rafique et al., 2020 ). With the capability to unleash over (10,000) gigawatt-hours (GWh) of solar power, solar energy is a beacon of reliability for remote and off-grid locales, thereby illuminating pathways to enhanced electricity accessibility ( Shah et al., 2019 ). Notably, Pakistan could feasibly satisfy its present electricity needs by harnessing a mere 0.071% of its land for PSE, revealing a treasure trove of untapped promise ( Tahir et al., 2018 ; Ullah et al., 2023 ). However, despite these promising signs, the acceptance and implementation of PSE in Pakistan have been slow, hindering the realization of solar energy benefits for the agriculture sector, households, and businesses ( Hassan et al., 2018 ). The gradual pace in embracing solar solutions highlights the need for accelerated efforts to unlock Pakistan’s solar potential, offering sustainable solutions that align with broader objectives related to agricultural productivity and energy resilience in the region.

In Pakistan’s agricultural economy, a reliable energy supply is imperative for fostering growth, enhancing employment opportunities, and improving incomes for the rural area population. Factually, hydroelectric and thermal power have formed the core of Pakistan’s energy base. However, severe power outages, stemming from significant supply gaps and burgeoning energy demand in industrial and agricultural sectors, have created a critical energy disparity that hampers economic progress ( Sandilah and Yasin, 2011 ; Asif, 2012 ; Rafique and Rehman, 2017 ). The energy disparity has resulted in increased power costs, significantly impacting the accessibility of reasonable and adequate energy for most of Pakistan’s rural inhabitants. Given that more than 60.3 percent of the nation’s 180 million people live in rural parts and count on agriculture, the sector’s significant contribution to the national gross domestic product (GDP), employment, and exports underscores its crucial position in the economy.

Recognizing Pakistan’s climatic advantages that allow efficient cultivation of various crops, including maize, rice, and wheat, underscores the importance of securing a reliable and consistent energy supply for the agriculture sector ( Ali and Behera, 2016 ; Finance, M.O, 2021 ). Despite being self-sufficient in wheat production, the demand for secure food supplies and poverty reduction necessitates the successful cultivation of crops like rice and maize ( Ali et al., 2017 ). The association between irrigation systems and energy is paramount, impacting the overall success of these sectors. An inadequate and inconsistent energy supply poses a threat to agricultural potentials and rural livelihoods.

Severe energy shortages in Pakistan, resulting in frequent power outages and escalating electricity prices, have adversely affected farmers who rely on pumped irrigation. The shortage of both energy and water poses challenges to the effective application of agricultural inputs, with profound effects on agricultural production and food security. In response to these challenges, farmers are increasingly turning to alternative energy sources for water pumping, transitioning from electrically powered systems to those driven by diesel, solar, and biogas.

This shift not only expands the options available to farmers for irrigating their crops but also presents a more cost-effective and pragmatic alternative in contrast to electricity-driven pumps. With conventional energy sources becoming progressively more costly and scarce, there exists a substantial opportunity to harness energy from sustainable sources for irrigation in rural Pakistan ( Bhutto et al., 2012 ; Ali and Behera, 2016 ; Abbas et al., 2017 ). Biogas, windmill pumps, and PSE systems can, to a certain extent, replace conventional fuel and power in the water pumping sector. In regions where grid energy is either insufficient or unavailable, solar system pumping emerges as a viable substitute to fulfill agricultural and potable water requirements ( Arab et al., 1999 ; Belaud et al., 2020 ; Raza et al., 2022 ). The potential for water pumping technology based on renewable energy sources holds significant promise in Pakistan, given its heavy dependence on groundwater for agriculture, the existence of remote communities without grid access, and an average of approximately 300 sunny days per year ( Aziz and Abdulaziz, 2010 ; Tariq et al., 2021 ; Raza et al., 2022 ). However, the extensive acceptance of environmentally friendly water pumping techniques hinges on their financial feasibility and environmental benefits ( Purohit, 2007 ; Ali and Behera, 2016 ). Understanding the factors influencing the uptake and usage of water-pumping technology in Pakistan necessitates considering the knowledge, demographics, and socio-economic backgrounds of the farmers involved. The existing study aims to explore the utilization of PSE systems and evaluate their influence on technical efficiency in crop production.

This article is structured as follows: it commences with the introduction, Section two presents the methodology. Results and discussions are presented in section three. The final parts concludes, highlighting implications and study limitations.

2 Literature review

Many studies have highlighted the benefits of adopting PSE-based irrigation systems over traditional irrigation systems. For example, studies conducted in the United States and Spain have shown that solar water pumping systems are more cost-effective for rural farmers, providing high performance, reliability and customer satisfaction while being environmentally sustainable for agricultural irrigation ( Arias-Navarro et al., 1871 ; García et al., 2019 ; Sunny et al., 2023 ). In northern Benin, a study found that farmers using commercial-scale solar drip irrigation systems achieved significantly higher agricultural yields compared to farmers using traditional methods ( Alaofè et al., 2016 ). Similarly, in China, the use of solar water pumping systems increased feed productivity, met local demand, and reduced carbon emissions ( Luo et al., 1895 ; Campana et al., 2017 ). These findings highlight the economic, environmental, and productivity advantages of PSE-based irrigation systems. Not only provide farmers with a cost-effective and reliable solution, but also contribute to sustainable farming practices by reducing their carbon footprint. The improvements in yields and resource efficiency observed across different regions further support the viability of solar irrigation systems as a superior alternative to conventional irrigation methods. Therefore, wider adoption of PSE-based systems can play a vital role in promoting sustainable agriculture and addressing the challenges faced by farmers in different environmental contexts.

In the Philippines, an analysis of the impact of PSE shows that these systems not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 26.5 tons of CO2e/ha/year, but also contribute to significant energy savings ranging from 11.4 to 378.5 liters per hectare of diesel per year, the average return on investment is 315% ( Guno and Agaton, 2022 ). However, in Pakistan, the adoption PSE significantly reduced operating costs, increased farmers’ income, reduced CO2 emissions by 17,622 tons per year, and saved 41% of water consumption ( Raza et al., 2022 ). In addition to irrigation and power generation, the PSE addresses drinking water needs in water-scarce areas and promotes gender empowerment by reducing the labor-intensive demands of diesel systems, allowing women to participate in more productive activities ( IRENA, 2016 ; Agrawal and Jain, 2019 ). A study on PSE adoption in Bangladesh shows that when economic returns are considered in terms of internal rate of return (IRR), the most profitable approach is to establish a small SIF (20%), followed by a large SIF (10%).

Conversely, small PSEs have the highest net environmental benefit per kilowatt peak (kWp) of 86,000, followed by medium PSEs with 67,184 kWp and large PSEs with 65,392 kWp ( Islam and Hossain, 2022 ). Furthermore, research shows that PSE adopters can reduce irrigation costs by up to 2.22%, have a return on investment (ROI) that is 4.48 to 8.16% higher than non-adopters, and reduce total production costs by almost 1% ( Sunny et al., 2022 ). Although the initial investment of PSE is higher than that of diesel powertrains, lower maintenance and zero fuel costs make PSE a more economical option in the long run ( Rana et al., 2021 ). Overall, switching to PSE-based irrigation systems has many advantages, ranging from economic benefits and increased agricultural productivity to environmental sustainability and social impact. These systems have proven to be a viable alternative to traditional irrigation methods, especially in rural and water-scarce areas. This study aims to address research gaps by providing fresh insights into the impact of PSE-based irrigation on the TE of wheat production in Pakistan. It also examines the variability in these effects across different farm sizes and levels of farming experience. The study’s contributions to the literature are threefold. First, it specifically investigates how PSE irrigation influences TE in wheat production, offering more relevant policy implications for enhancing food security through PSE development. Second, it delves into the heterogeneity of these effects, considering both farm size and farming experience. Third, the study tackles the self-selectivity issue in farmers’ decisions to use PSE irrigation, ensuring unbiased estimation results.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 study area description.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province is located in northwestern Pakistan, covering an area of almost 101,741 square kilometers. Its terrain is varied, from rugged mountains to fertile valleys. KP provides significantly to Pakistan’s economy, particularly in agriculture, with its fertile plains and valleys growing a variety of crops ( Khan et al., 2022a ). While many areas of the province offer favorable conditions for agricultural activities, several challenges prevent it from reaching its full potential. Farmers across the province are generally worried, with more than 81% of farmers expressing concern about issues such as power and water shortages, which have adverse effects on agricultural productivity ( Ashraf and Routray, 2013 ). In the administrative structure of Pakistan, provinces are the highest level of governance and each province has its provincial government. Districts serve as secondary administrative divisions within the province, and Tekes serve as subdivisional administrative units within the districts. Union Council (UC) represents the smallest administrative unit within a tehsil.

3.2 Data collection and variables selection

3.2.1 data collection.

The research conducted from July 2023 to December 2023 focused on the KP province in Pakistan. Data collection involved distributing 580 questionnaires to wheat farmers, employing multistage random sampling techniques. The aim was to investigate the impact of PSE on wheat production efficiency. The study progressed through seven stages: firstly, Pakistan was selected, followed by KP becoming the primary study area in the second stage. Subsequently, study data were categorized into four districts based on agricultural production proportions in the third stage. The fourth stage entailed selecting ten tehsils from the four districts to administer a predetermined questionnaire. Twenty UCs were then chosen from tehsils in the fifth stage. The sixth phase involved randomly monitoring twenty villages from these UCs, engaging a total of 580 farmers in the seventh stage ( Figure 1 ). The questionnaire was initially created in English and then translated into Urdu to suit the needs of the farmers. We collected data from wheat growers through interviews and questionnaires. Given the complexity of the questionnaire, in-depth interviews were conducted. To eliminate ambiguities, a pretest was conducted. The survey included detailed information on farmers’ socio-economic characteristics, PSE and other related variables. The illustrative size of the sample was determined utilizing a sample size computation equation adopted by Yamane (1973) , which is considered ideal for the same population. The Equation (1) and the resulting number of samples are provided below:

Figure 1 . Map of the study area ( Khan et al., 2022b , c ).

Where: n is the needed example size; N  = size of the population or total number of rural households living in the study areas; e  = precision level which is assumed to be 5%, as standard.

3.2.2 Variables selection

The study focused on estimating the dependent variable, TE in crop production, utilizing a stochastic frontier production function (SFPF). Key inputs for this function comprised organic, chemical fertilizers, pesticide use, cost of agricultural machinery, and manual labor per hectare, with crop yield serving as the output metric. The primary independent variable of attention was binary, distinguishing whether a farmer utilized irrigation for crop production sourced from a PSE ( Table 1 ). To address potential endogeneity concerns, an instrumental variable approach was adopted. Specifically, a dummy variable was introduced to denote whether a farmer’s neighbors employed PSE-based irrigation for crop production. This instrument was chosen based on the premise, as suggested by prior research, that there exists a peer effect influencing farmers’ technology adoption decisions ( Khan et al., 2022d ). Thus, it was proposed that a farmer may be more likely to embrace PSE-based irrigation if neighboring farmers adopted it. Consequently, the instrumental variable was deemed very associated with a grower’s choice about the adoption of PSE-based irrigation. Furthermore, as the neighbors’ irrigation method choice was assumed not to directly impact the focal farmer’s crop production efficiency but rather correlated with their adoption of similar irrigation methods, it was considered a valid instrumental variable. Thus, the presence of neighboring farmers utilizing PSE-based irrigation was posited to serve as a credible instrument for the focal farmer’s adoption of such irrigation methods.

Table 1 . Description of variables.

3.3 Empirical approaches

The existing research adopted a multifaceted three-step evaluation strategy. Initially, we quantified the TE in wheat production using a SFPF model. Following this, we employed an endogenous switching regression (ESR) technique to analyze the determinants influencing farmers’ choices regarding the adoption of irrigation, with a specific emphasis on PSE. This phase also investigated the influence of PSE and other variables on TE concerning wheat production and the diversity in irrigation practices. Additionally, instrumental variable (IV) validation was carried out in this phase. Lastly, we conducted rigorous robustness tests and investigated heterogeneity to ensure a thorough assessment.

3.3.1 Stochastic frontier production function model

TE computation employed the SFPF model, chosen over data envelopment analysis due to its ability to accommodate random elements like extreme weather occurrences. In Equation (2) the development of the SFPF model adhered to the following:

where the output Q i is modeled as a product of the function Q( X i ; α ) and the exponential of the difference between the random error factor ( v i ) and nonnegative efficiency factor ( u i ). This formulation allows for the inclusion of both deterministic factors (captured by the function Q( X i ; α )) and stochastic factors (captured by the random error term v i ) in the modeling of wheat output for the i -th farmer. The efficiency factor u i reflects the efficiency level of the farmer in converting inputs into wheat output ( Chen et al., 2022 ). The TE of wheat production can be computed by applying the following Equation (3) : Where Effi symbolizes the TE of the i -th farmer. It is imperative to note that TE values for farmers range from zero to hundred percent.

3.3.2 Endogenous switching regression technique

It is essential to recognize that the farmers’ choice to employ PSE for irrigation systems may lead to a form of self-selection, potentially introducing bias into the analysis. To mitigate this self-selection bias, previous studies have commonly employed the ESR technique, comprising one treatment and two outcome equations ( Di Falco et al., 2011 ; Azmi, 2015 ; Huang et al., 2015 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). In current research, a stochastic utility framework has been applied to investigate growers’ decisions regarding the adoption of PSE for wheat crop irrigation. The Equation (4) suggests that D i ∗ signifies the disparity in utility among crop irrigated by PSE and those irrigated by alternative technologies. When D i ∗ > 0, farmers are inclined to choose PSE for crop irrigation, while when D i ∗ ≤ 0, farmers are less likely to opt for PSE. Consequently, the decision of growers to adopt PSE for crop irrigation can be expressed as:

Here, D i ∗ represents a binary variable, taking the value of one if the farmers opt for irrigation through PSE and zero else. T t encompasses factors influencing growers’ decisions to utilize PSE for grain irrigation, with β representing the coefficients to be determined, and ω i indicating the random error with a mean of zero. As well, as irrigation from PSE, various other factors contribute to TE. Therefore, two outcome Equations (5) , (6) have been formulated ( Chen et al., 2022 ):

In this context, the binary variable 1 denotes farmers adopting PSE for crop irrigation, while 0 signifies those who do not. The efficiency in wheat production for farmers utilizing PSE and those not utilizing it is represented by E f f 1 i and E f f 0 i , correspondingly ( Ullah et al., 2023 ). Z i accounts for exogenous variables influencing efficiency and the estimated coefficients are denoted by δ 1 and δ 0 . Additionally, υ 1 i and υ 0 i are random error terms with mean values of 0.

Given the presence of inherent self-selection bias, the computed mean TE values in both real-world and hypothetical situations for wheat growers employing PSE to irrigate their crops are as follows in Equation (7) :

In this context, σ ω υ 1 represents the covariance between ω i and v 1 , while σ ω υ 0 denotes the covariance between ω i and υ 0i . The term λ 1 i is defined as φ ( T i β )/Φ( T i β ), representing the inverse Mills ratio. It is essential to highlight that φ(•) denotes the standard normal probability density function, and Φ(•) denotes the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution ( Chen et al., 2022 ). The ATT, which signifies the disparity between the estimated average TE of crop production under both authentic and counterfactual conditions among cultivators applying PSE for crop irrigation, is calculated in Equation (8) as:

Representing the standard deviations of ω i , v 1 i , and v 0 i by σ ω , σ υ 1 , and σ υ0 , respectively, we can express correlation coefficient between ω i & υ 1 i as ρ ωυ 1 = σ ωυ 1 / ( σ ωσυ 1), and the correlation coefficient between ω i and υ 0i as ρ ωυ 0  =  σ ωυ 0 / ( σ ωσυ 0 ). Noteworthy self-selectivity bias is indicated by significant ρ ωυ 1 and ρ ωυ 0 values. To compute the ESR model, it is essential to incorporate at least one IV, denoted as T i and excluded from Z i . This IV should be linked to farmers’ decisions to adopt PSE for irrigation but should not be associated with TE unless influenced by PSE. The estimation of the ESR method in the current research uses the FIML method ( Zhang et al., 2021 ; Zhu et al., 2021 ).

4 Results and discussions

4.1 descriptive statistics.

Table 2 provides crucial variables, illustrating that 15.8% of participants utilize PSE. Most household heads in the sample (85%) are male, with an average age of approximately 55 years and an average schooling level of around seven years. Notably, only 29% of farmers possess tube wells, signifying a thriving ground-water market in the research area, where 70% rely on borrowed water for irrigation. In the context of common challenges faced in rural areas, load shedding exceeds, significantly limiting activities that rely on modern inputs and adversely impacting crop production. The research reveals that a projected 49% of farmers are surviving below in poverty line. In terms of energy bases, electricity is the preferred choice for several growers, followed by diesel and PSE. On average, the grown land per family is 1.85 ha, and wheat yield stands at 1997.6 kg/ha. These findings underscore the complex socio-economic and environmental factors influencing agricultural practices and livelihoods in rural Pakistan, underlining the essential for targeted interventions to address challenges and enhance sustainable development.

Table 2 . Overview of variables’ descriptive data.

4.2 Analyzing contrasts: PSE impact on farmers’ practices and characteristics

Variances between wheat farmers utilizing PSE for wheat productivity and those who do not are presented in Table 3 . The comparison reveals significant variations across various aspects between these two growers groups. Those employing PSE irrigation exhibit higher wheat yields, reduced herbicide usage, increased agricultural machinery adoption, and lower dependence on human labor compared to non-PSE users. However, there are no substantial differences observed in the use of organic and chemical fertilizers among the two growers’ categories. PSE irrigated growers tend to be younger, possess higher levels of education, and own more extensive crop farmhouses in terms of both individual and plantation characteristics. These notable distinctions may indicate the presence of self-selection bias. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of PSE in enhancing agricultural outcomes and the need for targeted interventions to promote its adoption among a broader range of farmers.

Table 3 . Contrasts in farmers’ usage of PSE.

4.3 Estimation of technical efficiency

The SFPF method was employed to approximate the Cobb–Douglas and translog specifications, as detailed in Table 4 . An essential step in identifying the optimal description involved conducting a likelihood ratio test. The χ 2 statistic, with a value of 216.240, did not reach statistical significance (Prob>2 = 0.580). This outcome indicates the translog design of Cobb–Douglas SFPF is nested within it. To SFPF method, 1 % enhance in the cost of technology, chemical, and organic fertilizer results in enhancements of crop yield by (0.003%), (0.0017%), and (0.007%), correspondingly. Conversely, labor-intensive input exhibits a notable detrimental influence on crop production. Distinguishing the production influence of labor from other contributions becomes challenging because of collinearity among labor contribution and other factors. Given the rapid development of technology in the farming sector, there is an increased likelihood of agricultural labor surplus, potentially leading to a marginal productivity of workforce contribution approaching zero. Furthermore, when comparing hybrid and non-hybrid varieties the crop yield average from hybrid is observed to be (5.9%). Noteworthy is the observation that irrigation from PSE appears to influence the TE of crop yield in the inefficiency calculation.

Table 4 . Results of the SFPF technique.

4.4 Variation in TE among farmers adopting and not adopting PSE

Moreover, the outcomes presented in Table 5 demonstrate a noteworthy improvement in overall efficiency with the adoption of the PSE in wheat cultivation. Farmers adopting PSE exhibited an average TE that was 84.655% higher than farmers who did not adopt this advanced system, achieving a TE of 81.802%. These results underscore the significance of applying measures to enhance TE of wheat yield. Embracing PSE and other innovative irrigation methods holds the potential to boost productivity for farmers and address the escalating requirement for crops in a sustainable method. The improvement of TE in crop productivity assumes paramount importance for safeguarding food security and optimizing the use of accessible incomes. In assumption, the variation in TE among farmers adopting and not adopting PSE highlights the transformative potential of advanced irrigation methods in improving productivity, sustainability, and food security in agriculture.

Table 5 . Variance of TE amid growers adopting and not adopting PSE.

4.5 Factors influencing the adoption of PSE

Table 6 displays the results from this analysis using the ESR method. The significant χ 2 statistic from the Wald test suggests a relationship between the treatment and two outcomes calculations, indicating interdependence. Likewise, the significance of correlation coefficients ( ρ ωυ 1 & ρ ωυ 0 ) indicates the occurrence of self-selectivity bias due to observed and unobserved features. This underscores the suitability and necessity of employing the ESR in this analysis. Additionally, illustrates the statistical significance and impact of the designed constant for features influencing wheat growers’ decisions to adopt a new irrigation system for the farming sector utilizing PSE in the ESR method. The coefficient for a grower’s age was significantly negative, suggesting that older growers were less likely to adopt PSE for agricultural sector production. This finding aligns with the notion that older farmers may face challenges in utilizing PSE effectively. Furthermore, the coefficient for a grower’s level of education was substantial at the 1 % level, indicating that a higher level of schooling positively influences farmers in adopting PSE for farming development. This interpretation is reasonable as more well-informed growers are likely more proficient in utilizing PSE in the agriculture system.

Table 6 . Evaluation results of the ESR method.

4.6 Exploring influencing factors on technical efficiency

Various factors influencing TE in wheat production are outlined in Table 6 . The outcomes from the ESR method offer additional insights into the impact of these variables. Notably, male growers utilizing PSE for irrigation demonstrated a TE 7.641 percentage points higher than their female counterparts employing the same technology. For farmers not utilizing PSE for irrigation, TE amplified via 0.080 percentage points for each additional year of age. Education’s influence on TE showed variability based on PSE utilization. Surprisingly, higher education did not significantly enhance the TE of growers utilizing PSE for irrigation. In contrast, each additional year of formal education increased the TE of growers not utilizing PSE for irrigation via 0.265 percentage points. The authenticity of the IV was substantiated through a rigorous falsification test. A comprehensive overview of falsification test outcomes is provided in Table 7 . Notably, the IV demonstrated a markedly positive correlation with growers’ choices to embrace irrigation employing PSE. However, no statistically significant correlation emerged with TE for farmers who refrained from utilizing PSE for irrigation. This observation underscores the credibility and reliability of the IV in the study.

Table 7 . Results of falsification test on independent variable valuation.

4.7 The influence of employing PSE for irrigation, along with its interactions with various factors, on TE

The findings from the ESR method provide evidence that farmers can experience enhanced TE in wheat production through the utilization of PSE. By leveraging the assessment outcomes of the ESR method ( Table 8 ), to assess the potential TE values for cultivators who received irrigation for their crops from PSE under both actual and counterfactual conditions. This analysis facilitated the assessment of the treatment effect of PSE-based irrigation on TE in crop production. Further results illustrate that the irrigation facilitated by PSE in crop production has the potential to elevate TE in wheat yield. Specifically, the TE among smallholder growers utilizing the PSE for irrigation systems was found to be 7.643 percentage points higher associated with those who did not adopt this modern technology. This suggests that PSE contributes to an improvement in TE in wheat production. The outcomes of this study imply that employing PSE for irrigation may not only enhance TE in wheat crop productivity but could also prove beneficial for other vegetables and crops.

Table 8 . Average treatment effect on the treated irrigation from PSE for wheat growers.

4.8 Heterogeneity analysis

Through the utilization of the ESR method, existing studies explored the variability in the effects of a wheat irrigation system using PSE on TE in output among small growers, based on farm size and agricultural practices, as shown in Table 9 . The impact of PSE on TE in crop output varied according to farm size. Specifically, PSE enhanced TE by 9.139% for growers with farms larger than one hectare, while it showed a lower improvement of 4.386% for those with farms smaller than or equal to one hectare. This indicates that smaller farms benefit less from PSE for crop irrigation compared to larger farms.

Table 9 . ATT of PSE-based irrigation on TE for farmers, categorized by group.

Additionally, the analysis considered farming experience. Farmers with more than thirty-five years of experience saw a TE boost of approximately 7.712%, whereas those with less experience saw a more substantial improvement of around 11.257%. This suggests that growers with less farming experience can gain greater advantages from using PSE for wheat irrigation. The positive impact of PSE on TE among wheat producers also varied across different districts, with Swat and Charsadda showing a TE increase of 10.18%, while Mansehra and Dera Ismail Khan had a smaller improvement of 3.259%.

4.9 Robustness check

In existing research, we sought to validate the findings by employing a treatment-effect model. It is crucial to highlight this approach, which comprises both an outcome and a treatment equation, as it has been widely utilized in past studies to address self-selective bias. A noteworthy distinction between the treatment effect and ESR method lies in the presence of both outcome equations in ESR compared to just a single treatment result. The consequences of the treatment effect evaluations given in Table 10 , indicate a substantial dependence between the treatment and outcome formulas as evidenced via the Wald test for independence calculations. The adverse correlation coefficient ( ρ ωυ ) suggests that growers with less than average TE were more inclined to seek water for crop productivity through PSE, indicating the occurrence of self-selective bias stemming from observable and unobservable influences. Moreover, the optimistic coefficient associated with irrigation from PSE implies an increase in the TE in crop production among smallholder growers via 5.540%. This suggests a positive impact of utilizing PSE for irrigation on the overall efficacy of crop yield.

Table 10 . Estimation result of treatment effect method.

5 Conclusion and implications

This research, based on a dataset from 580 wheat growers in rural areas of Pakistan, examines the influence of PSE on wheat production’s TE. Utilizing the PSE and an ESR model to address self-selection biases, the study identifies a 7.643% enhancement in TE for the 15.8% of surveyed wheat producers adopting solar technology. This improvement varies based on factors such as farm size, farming experience, and geographic location. The analysis holds crucial policy implications for promoting PSE adoption in crop production in rural areas. The research proposes that the PSE system can boost TE by reducing irrigation costs and enhancing water quality. Government initiatives, including tax incentives or grants for growers adopting PSE, could make it more accessible, particularly for smallholder growers. Promoting awareness through the Agr-extension department, cooperative services, training and motivation programs, and public and private campaigns is essential. Further support for research and development, in collaboration with the private sector and academic institutions, along with investment in infrastructure, would facilitate the distribution of modern PSE solutions. The investigation acknowledges some main drawbacks. Caution is needed when encompassing outcomes for other crops due to variations in agricultural extension services. Future research should explore solar technology’s impact on diverse crops and differences in extension requirements. The small sample size and regional concentration in the KP province suggest caution in generalizing findings to other provinces. Increasing the sample size through multi-province selection or national survey data utilization could address this limitation. Additionally, overcoming the challenges of cross-sectional data, future research employing panel data would offer a dynamic observation of PSE’s influence on TE over time.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the (patients/participants OR patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin) was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

NK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. XX: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. FA: Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was funded by “The National Natural Science Foundation of China, Grant Number 72073084”.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abbreviations

PSE, Photovoltaic solar energy; RETs, renewable energy technologies; TE, Technical efficiency; GWh, Gigawatt-hours; KP, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; UC, Union Council; SFPF, Stochastic frontier production function; ESR, Endogenous switching regression; IV, Instrumental variable; GDP, Gross domestic product; IRR, Internal rate of return; ROI, Return on investment; kWp, Per kilowatt peak.

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Keywords: photovoltaic power, solar energy, crop, technical efficiency, rural development

Citation: Khan N, Xu X and Ahsan F (2024) Solar empowerment in agriculture: investigating photovoltaic energy’s impact on efficiency among wheat farmers. Front. Sustain. Food Syst . 8:1426538. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1426538

Received: 01 May 2024; Accepted: 01 August 2024; Published: 14 August 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Khan, Xu and Ahsan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Xuanguo Xu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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How to Start An Essay- Steps with Examples

Once you have a single idea to anchor your essay, build the entire piece around it. Starting an essay can be challenging; it's like revving up the engine and keeping your ideas flowing throughout. But I've got a foolproof plan for you. In this article I will show you how to start an essay and write a powerful, impactful piece for your class.

What is the Process of Writing an Essay?

Just like any task that requires organization, writing an essay follows a structured process. If you want to ensure that your essay is well-organized and not just a free flow of ideas, consider the following process:

Read and Understand the Prompt: Begin by carefully reading the essay prompt to fully grasp what is being asked of you. Break it down into manageable parts to ensure you cover every aspect in your essay.

Plan Your Essay: Take time to brainstorm and organize your ideas. Creating an outline or a web of your ideas and supporting details will make the writing process much smoother. This will help you structure your essay logically and ensure all your points are well thought out.

Use and Cite Sources: Conduct thorough research to gather information and evidence to support your arguments. Use quotes and paraphrases from credible sources, but always avoid plagiarism by properly citing your sources.

Write a Draft: Start by writing a rough draft. As Ernest Hemingway said, “The first draft of anything is always crap.” This stage allows you to get all your ideas down without worrying about perfection. Drafts are essential for organizing your thoughts and refining your arguments.

Develop a Strong Thesis: Your thesis statement is the main argument of your essay and the most important sentence you'll write. Make it clear and compelling, setting the stage for your entire essay.

Respond to the Prompt: Once you've refined your draft, ensure that you are directly addressing every part of the prompt. Your final draft should be a polished version of your ideas, with a clear and logical flow.

Proofread: Review your essay carefully to catch any grammatical errors, typos, or awkward sentences. Proofreading is crucial because even small mistakes can undermine the professionalism and clarity of your essay.

What is the Structure of an Essay?

Although more advanced academic papers have their own unique structures, the basic high school or college essay typically follows a standardized five-paragraph format:

1.Introduction

Writing a well-structured essay is crucial for clearly conveying your ideas and arguments. While advanced academic papers may have complex structures, the basic high school or college essay typically follows a standardized five-paragraph format. This format includes an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, each serving a specific purpose to guide the reader through your argument.

The introduction paragraph is where you start by grabbing the reader’s attention with an engaging "hook," such as a relevant quote or a surprising fact. Following this, you introduce your thesis statement, which is the central argument or point of your essay. To set the stage for the rest of the essay, you provide a brief preview of the three main points that will be covered in the body paragraphs.

The first body paragraph begins with a topic sentence that introduces the first subtopic related to your thesis. This paragraph includes supporting details or examples that illustrate your point, followed by an explanation of how these details or examples support your thesis. This structured approach ensures clarity and coherence, making your argument more persuasive.

The second body paragraph follows a similar format. It starts with a topic sentence that introduces the second subtopic. Again, you provide supporting details or examples and explain their relevance to your thesis. This repetition of structure helps reinforce your argument and makes it easier for the reader to follow your reasoning.

The third body paragraph introduces the third subtopic with a topic sentence. Just like the previous paragraphs, it includes supporting details or examples and explains how they support your thesis. This consistent format throughout the body paragraphs ensures that each point is clearly presented and thoroughly examined.

3.Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph begins with a concluding transition, such as "in conclusion," signaling that you are wrapping up your essay. You restate your thesis in a new way to reinforce your main argument. Then, you summarize the key points discussed in the body paragraphs, tying them back to your thesis.

Finally, you end with a "global statement" or call to action, leaving the reader with a final thought or suggestion related to your topic. This structured approach to essay writing helps ensure that your arguments are clear, cohesive, and compelling from start to finish.

How to Start an Essay [3 Steps with examples]

Starting an essay can bring a mix of thoughts: how to begin, how to end, what supporting points to use. This confusion often leads students to produce subpar essays. Writing an essay is a process that requires structure, which is why learning how to start an essay is crucial.

From my experience, the first tip is to analyze the question and begin brainstorming. This is followed by a series of steps I'll discuss to help you craft an essay that communicates your message effectively. Let's explore how to start an essay, including examples, samples, and techniques like opening with a thought-provoking question. Whether you're looking for "how to start an essay with examples" or a "how to start an essay sample," these tips will guide you towards a strong introduction that sets the tone for your entire piece.

1.Writing the Introduction

Your introduction sets the tone for your entire essay. It's your opportunity to grab the reader's attention and provide a roadmap for what's to come. Let's break down the key components following up with how to start an essay examples:

The hook is your opening statement that captivates your audience. It should be intriguing, thought-provoking, and relevant to your topic. A strong hook can take various forms, such as a startling statistic, a provocative question, or a vivid anecdote. The key is to pique your reader's curiosity and make them eager to read more.

a) "Imagine a world where your morning coffee could power your entire house for a day. While this might sound like science fiction, recent advancements in bioenergy are bringing us closer to this reality."

b) "In the time it takes you to read this sentence, over 200 species will have gone extinct. The alarming rate of biodiversity loss is not just a statistic—it's a call to action that we can no longer ignore."

Context / Background

After hooking your reader, provide context that helps them understand the significance of your topic. This background information should bridge the gap between your hook and your thesis statement. Explain why your topic matters, touch on recent developments or historical context, and set the stage for your main argument.

"The concept of artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved from the realm of science fiction to a cornerstone of modern technology. Over the past decade, AI has permeated various aspects of our lives, from voice assistants in our homes to complex algorithms driving social media platforms. As AI continues to advance at an unprecedented pace, it raises profound questions about the future of work, privacy, and even what it means to be human. Understanding the implications of this technological revolution is crucial as we navigate an increasingly AI-driven world."

Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the cornerstone of your essay. It clearly articulates your main argument or purpose, providing a preview of what you'll discuss in the body of your essay. A strong thesis should be specific, arguable, and concise. It sets expectations for your readers and guides the structure of your essay.

"This essay will examine the ethical implications of AI development, arguing that while artificial intelligence offers tremendous benefits in fields such as healthcare and environmental protection, it also poses significant risks to privacy, job security, and social equality. By analyzing these challenges and proposing a framework for responsible AI development, I aim to demonstrate that proactive ethical considerations are essential to harnessing AI's potential while mitigating its dangers."

Overview Ending (Optional)

To round off your introduction, you might choose to provide a brief overview of your essay's structure. This can help orient your readers and give them a clear idea of what to expect. However, be careful not to give away too much—you want to maintain some element of anticipation.

"In exploring the ethical landscape of AI, we will first delve into its transformative potential across various sectors. Then, we'll critically examine the challenges and risks associated with widespread AI adoption. Finally, we'll propose a set of ethical guidelines and policy recommendations aimed at fostering responsible AI development. Through this analysis, we'll uncover how balancing innovation with ethical considerations is crucial for creating an AI-enhanced future that benefits all of humanity."

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2.Writing the Body

The body of your essay is where you develop your arguments and provide evidence to support your thesis. It's the meat of your essay, where you dive deep into your topic and showcase your knowledge and critical thinking skills.

Present and develop the main arguments that support your thesis statement. Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea or argument that contributes to your overall thesis. This structure helps your reader follow your logic and understand your points clearly.

Let's say your thesis is about the impact of renewable energy on climate change mitigation. One argument could be:

"The widespread adoption of solar power technology has significantly reduced carbon emissions in countries that have invested heavily in this renewable energy source."

Support each argument with solid evidence that reinforces your point. Evidence can include facts, statistics, research findings, expert opinions, or examples from real-life situations. The stronger and more varied your evidence, the more convincing your argument will be.

"According to a 2023 report by the International Energy Agency, countries with high solar power adoption have seen an average reduction in carbon emissions of 15% over the past five years. For instance, Germany, a leader in solar energy, has cut its carbon emissions by 28% since 2010, with solar power contributing to more than half of this reduction."

Ideas (Paragraphs)

Organize your ideas into coherent paragraphs. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. Follow this with your evidence and analysis, explaining how this information supports your argument and relates to your thesis.

Topic sentence: "Beyond reducing carbon emissions, solar power adoption also stimulates economic growth and job creation in the renewable energy sector."

Evidence and analysis: "A study by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that solar panel installer will be the fastest-growing job in the United States over the next decade, with an expected growth rate of 52%. This surge in employment opportunities not only helps to offset job losses in traditional energy sectors but also contributes to overall economic resilience. For example, in California, the solar industry has created over 86,000 jobs, boosting the state's economy while simultaneously reducing its carbon footprint."

This structure is followed for each body paragraph added. So, if you think you have 3 sub-topics, you will have 3 body paragraphs, stating the sub-topic followed by evidence to back your argument.

Transitions

Use transitions to link your paragraphs and ideas together smoothly. These can be words or phrases that show how one idea leads to another or how different viewpoints contrast. Good transitions help your essay flow logically and coherently.

"While solar power demonstrates significant benefits for both the environment and economy, it's essential to consider other renewable energy sources that complement its strengths and address its limitations."

Here is how a body paragraph would look like:

3.Writing the Conclusion

Your conclusion is your final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your reader. It should tie together all the threads of your essay and reinforce your main points.

Summary / Synthesis

Summarize the main points you have discussed throughout the essay. This reminder helps solidify your arguments in the reader's mind.

"Throughout this essay, we've explored the multifaceted impact of renewable energy, particularly solar power, on our fight against climate change. We've seen how solar technology significantly reduces carbon emissions, stimulates economic growth through job creation, and complements other renewable energy sources. Moreover, we've examined the challenges of energy storage and distribution that come with increased reliance on solar power."

Importance of Your Topic

Explain why your topic is important or relevant. Connect the discussion back to the broader context or implications of your thesis statement.

"The transition to renewable energy sources like solar power is not just an environmental imperative; it's a pivotal moment in human history. As we face the growing threats of climate change, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and biodiversity loss, our energy choices today will shape the world for generations to come. The widespread adoption of solar and other renewable energy sources offers a path to a more sustainable, resilient, and equitable future."

Strong Closing Statement

End your conclusion with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a call to action, a prediction, or a thought-provoking question.

"As we stand at this critical juncture, the choice is clear: embrace the power of the sun and other renewable sources, or continue down a path of environmental degradation. By investing in solar technology, supporting policies that encourage renewable energy adoption, and making conscious energy choices in our daily lives, we can harness the immense potential of renewable energy. The future of our planet is bright - if we choose to make it so. Will you be part of this solar revolution?"

The final conclusion, including all the main functions, would look something like this:

Bonus Tips: How to Polish your Essay with WPS AI

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FAQs About Starting an Essay

1. what is the purpose of the introduction in an essay.

The purpose of the introduction in an essay is to familiarize the reader with the topic, highlighting its significance and relevance. It captures the reader's interest while providing essential background information. Additionally, the introduction outlines the main points of the essay and presents the thesis statement, which acts as the core argument that forms the foundation of the entire essay. By laying out these components, the introduction clarifies the importance of the topic and prepares the reader for what lies ahead in the essay.

2. What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence is a statement that conveys the primary idea of a paragraph. It conveys the main point and establishes the paragraph's focus, ensuring that all subsequent sentences are connected to this key idea. Every paragraph in your paper should include a topic sentence to clarify its purpose.

3. Why do I need a thesis statement?

A thesis statement is crucial because it defines the main argument of an essay, guiding the writer's direction and helping the reader understand the central focus. It serves as a roadmap for the content that follows, ensuring that all points are relevant to the main idea.

4. How can I make my essay introduction stand out?

To create a memorable essay introduction, begin with an engaging hook, such as an intriguing fact, a thought-provoking quote, or a vivid illustration. Additionally, ensure that your introduction is concise, focused, and directly related to the main topic of the essay. This approach will draw the reader in and establish a solid foundation for your argument.

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Holistic analysis of the impact of power generation plants in mexico during their life cycle.

1. Introduction

2. power generation in mexico, 3. materials and methods, 4. multi-criteria decision-making methods, 4.1. analytical hierarchy process.

• Structured Framework: simplifies complex decisions by organizing them hierarchically;
• Multiple criteria: considers both qualitative and quantitative factors;
• Group decision-making: facilitates consensus among groups;
• Consistency check: ensures logical and reliable judgments;
• Flexibility: adaptable to various fields and scenarios;
• Prioritization: focuses on the most critical factors;
• Transparency: provides a clear audit trail;
• Quantification: converts subjective assessments into quantitative data;
• Comprehensive analysis: offers a holistic view of the decision problem.

AHP Methodology

5. criteria for the evaluation of generation plants, weighting of criteria, 6. life-cycle assessment.

• Comprehensive evaluation: assesses environmental impacts throughout the entire life cycle;
• Informed decision-making: guides strategies for improvement and sustainability;
• Comparison of alternatives: helps choose the most sustainable option;
• Identification of trade-offs: balances various sustainability goals;
• Regulatory compliance: supports adherence to environmental regulations;
• Market differentiation: enhances reputation and competitive advantage;
• Resource efficiency: identifies inefficiencies and reduces costs and environmental burdens;
• Transparency and credibility: ensures reliable and credible results through standardized methodologies;
• Stakeholder engagement: provides clear data to communicate sustainability efforts.

6.1. LCA Methodology

6.1.1. definition of objectives and scope, 6.1.2. inventory analysis.

• Combined cycle plant—[ 25 ];
• Thermoelectric—[ 25 ];
• Coal electric—[ 26 ];
• Turbo gas—[ 15 , 27 ];
• Wind energy—[ 28 ];
• Hydroelectric—[ 28 ];
• Photovoltaic plants—[ 29 ];
• Geothermal—[ 30 ];
• Efficient cogeneration—[ 31 , 32 ];
• Nuclear—[ 33 ].

6.1.3. Impact Evaluation

• Global warming;
• Ionizing radiation;
• Ozone formation and human health;
• Ozone formation and terrestrial ecosystems;
• Stratospheric ozone depletion;
• Fine particulate matter formation;
• Freshwater eutrophication;
• Freshwater ecotoxicity;
• Water consumption;
• Marine eutrophication;
• Marine ecotoxicity;
• Human non-carcinogenic toxicity;
• Human carcinogenic toxicity;
• Terrestrial acidification;
• Terrestrial ecotoxicity;
• Mineral resource scarcity;
• Fossil resource scarcity.

6.1.4. Interpretation

7. ahp simulations and results, 7.1. results by categories, 7.1.1. ranking of power plants: environmental category, 7.1.2. results according to the first group of people surveyed, 7.1.3. results according to the second group of people surveyed, 7.2. overall results, 7.2.1. global ranking according to the first group of people, 7.2.2. global ranking according to the second group of people, 8. discussion of the results, 9. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Ovalle Flores, D.L.; Peña Gallardo, R.; Palacios Hernández, E.R.; Soubervielle Montalvo, C.; Ospino Castro, A. Holistic Analysis of the Impact of Power Generation Plants in Mexico during Their Life Cycle. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167041

Ovalle Flores DL, Peña Gallardo R, Palacios Hernández ER, Soubervielle Montalvo C, Ospino Castro A. Holistic Analysis of the Impact of Power Generation Plants in Mexico during Their Life Cycle. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167041

Ovalle Flores, Diana L., Rafael Peña Gallardo, Elvia R. Palacios Hernández, Carlos Soubervielle Montalvo, and Adalberto Ospino Castro. 2024. "Holistic Analysis of the Impact of Power Generation Plants in Mexico during Their Life Cycle" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167041

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First Solar: Expansion Goes As Planned. Political Risks Create Upside And Downside Risks

• First Solar's results are generally in line with our expectations. The business is protected by the large backlog.
• We expect IRA 45x payments to start in 2025, which will have a positive impact on the balance sheet.
• Management has mentioned a potential IRA cut for the first time, which is a significant risk for the company at all levels.
• Patent infringement by FSLR's competitors could be an additional source of revenue for the company, although it is not yet clear how the investigation will proceed.
• There's still significant positive upside for the stock, which is why we maintain our BUY rating. However, the political backdrop and a possible IRA cut are major risks for the company.

Investment thesis

First Solar ( FSLR ) remains a compelling investment due to its robust financial performance, strong backlog extending through 2030, and significant upcoming U.S. capacity expansions. Despite potential risks from changes in U.S. renewable energy policies, the company's ability to maintain high margins, coupled with opportunities from patent enforcement, positions it well for long-term growth. The recent adjustments in EBITDA forecasts reflect prudent management, balancing rising costs with the ongoing expansion. Investors should consider the company's strong market position and potential regulatory headwinds when evaluating its future prospects.

2Q FY2024 report overview

We've been covering First Solar since 2022. Our previous article version is accessible via this link .

Overall, Q2 2024 results were slightly better than expected due to the usual shipment delay:

• Revenue totaled $1,010 mln (+24.7% y/y), in line with the forecast of $1,049 mln.
• Adjusted EBITDA totaled $470 mln (+95% y/y), up 7% from the forecast of $438 mln on the back of lower selling and marketing expenses, as well as higher gross margin driven by the rising average selling price of modules.
• The management maintained its guidance for 2024 financial results. First Solar continues to see significant additions of new orders, with the backlog now stretching through 2030.

First Solar

In-depth glance at the financials

The business's core operating metrics are in line with our expectations:

• Module selling price averaged $0.30/W (+3.6% y/y) in 2Q, which beat our expectations of $0.27/W. Previously, we expected that deliveries on some of the older contracts would have a one-off negative impact on the average selling price, but this did not happen. An EU customer, which is exiting US operations, terminated its contract with First Solar and made a termination payment. The de-booked order was for a total of about 400 MW, but given the strong demand and large contract backlog, we assume that First Solar will simply deliver an equivalent amount to other customers. The event will not affect the company's financial results in the short or long term.
• The cost of module production, excluding IRA 45X tax credits, averaged $0.23/W (-3.3% y/y), slightly above the forecast of $0.224/W. But gross margin topped expectations, driven by a higher selling price. The metric reached 49.4% (+11.1 pp y/y), compared with the forecast of 41.7%.
• Module production totaled 3 720 MW (+32.6% y/y). The expansion of the Ohio plant (+0.9 GW/year) was completed in July. A significant expansion of US capacity is expected in the second half of 2024 with the start-up of the Alabama plant (3.5 GW/year). The start-up of the Louisiana plant is set to happen in the second half of 2025. This means that over the time span of 1 1/2 years, First Solar's production capacity in the US will almost double.

Amid accelerated factory start-ups and the reinforcement of the research and development team, we have raised the forecast for the relevant expense items. As such, the forecast for total cash costs went up from $2,475 mln (+15% y/y) to $2,497 mln (+16% y/y) for 2024, and from $2,777 mln (+12.2% y/y) to $2,930 mln (+17.3% y/y) for 2025.

IRA 45x tax credits haven't been paid out yet and are added to the balance sheet as debt owed to the company by the government. That's why First Solar is still generating a negative cash flow, despite the high margins. We expect the payouts to start in 2025.

We are lowering the forecast for adjusted EBITDA from $2,052 mln (+75.8% y/y) to $1,999 mln (+71.3% y/y) for 2024, and from $2,991 mln (+45.8% y/y) to $2,838 mln (+41.9% y/y) for 2025 on the back of rising expenses for production start-ups and research.

Company data, Invest Heroes calculations

Regulatory background

For the first time ever, First Solar's management mentioned there is uncertainty about renewable energy and trade policies, which is associated with the potential for greater Republican control over the government. The company noted that the IRA stimulates the US economy and helps fight China's dominance in the international market, so it expressed hope that the legislation will remain in effect.

In our view, a potential reduction in the IRA poses a significant risk to First Solar, which currently expects its EBITDA margin to rise to 52.8% by 2026. However, a reduction in the IRA production tax credit reduces this to 29.8%, or 23% of EBITDA margins.

For the same price, the removal of the IRA could also have a significant impact on demand, and therefore on financials even more than the bottom line.

Invest Heroes calculations

However, there's also a positive regulatory aspect. Additional momentum in First Solar's financial results could come from its patent portfolio. In July, the company began investigating rivals for potential infringement of its patents concerning the TOPCon technology (which stipulates embedding a thin layer of tunnel oxide into the panel to improve energy yield).

The possible outcomes of the investigations remain unclear, but the company could potentially start earning money by levying fines on rivals or collecting royalties from the use of the patents.

We are evaluating the FSLR price based on the discounted at 13% EV/EBITDA 2025 multiples method. For valuation purposes, we're also projecting free cash flow and accounting it in projected net debt. We are reducing the target price of the shares from $311 to $292 due to:

• The increased EBITDA forecast for 2025.
• The shift of the valuation period (we are evaluating the company by its projected results in 2025 that are discounted at a rate of 13%, which have become closer by one quarter).

Based on the new assumptions, we are maintaining the rating for the shares at buy .

We are evaluating the company by its projected results in 2025, when most of the manufacturing capacity will come online. The target price of $311 was achieved by discounting the price of 2025 at the rate of 13% per annum.

The discount rate of 13% is the average growth of the S&P 500 Index over the past 20 years. In other words, when we value a company based on its long-term results, it is important to us that the company's growth exceeds the average growth of the index.

First Solar's Q2 2024 results demonstrate its strong market position, bolstered by solid revenue growth, improved margins, and a substantial production increase. While potential regulatory challenges and rising costs pose significant risks, the company's strategic capacity expansions and opportunities in patent enforcement offer promising avenues for sustained growth. Investors should weigh these factors carefully, considering both the potential headwinds and the long-term growth prospects driven by First Solar's resilient business model and strong market demand.

To manage the position, we suggest keeping an eye on the financial statements of FSLR and its competitors and industry research (e.g., EIA, IRENA, Wood MacKenzie).

This article was written by

Analyst’s Disclosure: I/we have no stock, option or similar derivative position in any of the companies mentioned, and no plans to initiate any such positions within the next 72 hours. I wrote this article myself, and it expresses my own opinions. I am not receiving compensation for it (other than from Seeking Alpha). I have no business relationship with any company whose stock is mentioned in this article.

Seeking Alpha's Disclosure: Past performance is no guarantee of future results. No recommendation or advice is being given as to whether any investment is suitable for a particular investor. Any views or opinions expressed above may not reflect those of Seeking Alpha as a whole. Seeking Alpha is not a licensed securities dealer, broker or US investment adviser or investment bank. Our analysts are third party authors that include both professional investors and individual investors who may not be licensed or certified by any institute or regulatory body.

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