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178 Communication Research Topics For Your Paper

Imagine what the world would be without communication! How would we get along? I guess there would be no sense in existing after all. That is just a tiny snippet of how important communication is in everyday life. Exchanging information is a key component of coexistence as it creates order and a sense of satisfaction in the end.

However, communication as a discipline cuts across all other niches in the academic world. Students from an Engineering course would also take up communication as a unit of study. Students delve into the transmission, representation, reception, and decoding of information communicated to a greater extent.

Situations When You May Need To Write A Communication Paper

Various scenarios call for a communication paper either as an assignment or a research project in college. The communication papers needed for every situation vary in format and outline. Here are some of the cases when communication papers are necessary:

When writing a resume or cover letter In presentations and reports Internal or external communication in a company Writing a thesis statement

When writing communication papers in these different scenarios, students can develop the following aspects:

Understand the various communication phenomena Ability to direct communication messages towards accomplishing individual and organizational goals Understand various types of communication such as rhetoric, interpersonal or organizational

Such an assignment is peculiar because it deals with students’ communication processes. Therefore, the student can easily relate a communication assignment to the real-world environment.

You will have to conduct extensive digging before writing your paper like any other research project. In writing a communication research paper, you will benefit from the importance of communication in general, such as building better relationships and finding the right solutions to various problems.

It takes a lot of time to create a high-quality writing, so you have all the right to ask dissertation writers for hire to help.

Guidelines On Structure And Step By Step Tips On Writing

To have an award-winning communication paper, you need to understand that structure is always at the heart of it all. A great communication paper follows the structure below:

Solid intro : Begin by presenting a captivating introduction by highlighting the facts, questions, or problems that you will explore in the body. The reader should find more than a million reasons to proceed with your essay by reading the first two lines. A strong thesis statement is also necessary for the introduction. An insightful literature review : It shows the theoretical basis of your research project, thus giving it validity. An in-depth literature review will give room for exploration and further research. Main body : This is where we expect to find all your findings, methodological steps, concepts, analyses, and the outcome. Discussion and conclusion : Depending on your professor’s instructions, you can divide this into two parts or put it as one. In either case, this section will consist of the strengths and weaknesses of your research and any future development or improvements. You could also compare the results found in your research with what other authors have discovered.

Provided you have all your facts at hand, a communication research paper will be the easiest you will ever handle in college. Nonetheless, you can order a custom paper from various online writing experts.

If you want to make an impression with your communication research paper, here are some tips to consider:

Select a thought-provoking and captivating research topic Have a working outline with all the arguments and examples/evidence in place Ensure that you exhaust reading all the possible research materials on your topic Such papers are always in the first person except in unique cases

You can review some of the samples on our essay writer to familiarize yourself with the structure and outline of a communication research paper.

Let’s now explore 178 of the hottest communication research topics to ace your project:

World-Class Communication Research Topics For College Students

Understanding the historical research methods in communication
Discuss the relationship between technology, media, and culture
Evaluate the various revolutions in human communication
Discuss the developments made in the invention of human speech and language
The role of image-making, cinema, and media entertainment in communication
How to overcome communication barriers among students
Steps in encouraging participation in meetings
How employees contribute to the information flow in organizations
How to evaluate a report based on its findings
Sources of error during nonverbal communication
How the media can match the channels of communication to their audience
Ensuring audience attention during a presentation
The impact of graphics in communication strategies
How to interpret non-verbal signals
Developing communication methods that match a given purpose

Possible Topics For Communication Research

How to develop realistic communication strategies
Discuss the economics of finance in communication processes
How exposure to radio and TV impacts communication
How to manage controversial issues in communication
Why speaking with confidence is still difficult for many people
The effectiveness of communicating with words and body language
Why defining your purpose is key in any communication process
Why explanatory communication is more difficult than informative communication
The place of communication in long-distance relationships
Communication strategies that influence people
How to use communication effectively for conflict resolution
Developing your self-esteem for effective communication
Effects of redundancy in communication processes
The place of responsibility in developing communication messages
How to acquire effective communication skills in college

Latest Communication Topic For Research

The role of persuasive dialogue in negotiations
Why everyone must learn proper expression strategies
Effects of emoji and other characters in enhancing textual conversations
The role of propaganda in shaping communication tones
Evaluate the unique political language used in America versus Africa
The continuing impact of the internet on interpersonal communication
How images are enhancing communication
Discuss the effects of gender victimization on communication
Evaluate the development of modern digital communication
How to effectively communicate during a war or crisis
How hacking is transforming communication of encrypted messages
Effects of stereotyping in developing communication messages
Is virtual reality ruining effective communication?
Evaluate language as a barrier in communicating messages
The role of empathy in communicating to victims of a disaster

Top-Notch Communication Research Paper Topics

The role of diplomacy in fostering better relations among countries
Why aided communication may not achieve the intended purpose
Effects of using a translator in the communication of critical messages
Evaluate the development of audio-visual devices for communication
The dangers of failing to notice barriers to communication
How stigma and prejudice impact effective communication
Discuss the impact of having a common language in a country
How social classes affect communication messages
Factors that hinder communication between fighting political sides
How to develop strong communication skills in a marketplace
Why opinions may prevent one from seeing the true picture
Discuss the role of fantasy and exaggeration in communication
Differences between oral and verbal messages in conveying information
The role of attitude and mood in enhancing effective message delivery
How the media sets the communication pattern of a given society

Highly Rated Mass Communication Research Topics

Discuss the essence of social media among PR practitioners
The role of mass media in rebranding a nation
Challenges to media freedom and their impact on proper communication
Discuss the effects of news commercialization and their credibility
How TV advertisements impact children and their development
Compare and contrast between animation and real-people adverts in mass media
How the internet affects professionalization in news media
How mass media messages contribute to the development of religion in Africa
Evaluate the radio listenership patterns between men and women
How does mass media contribute to an emerging democracy
Discuss how the media enlightens the public on issues of concern
The role of mass media in communicating development messages
Why mass media is critical before, during, and after elections
Assess the influence of community radio in remote areas
How mass media contributes to national integration

Good Communication Research Topics

What determines consumer preference patterns in the 21 st century?
Effective communication strategies for creating awareness against drug abuse
Prospects and challenges of local dialects in communication
Evaluate the influence of television on public opinion
Discuss the growing cyberactivism in the digital age
How social media is contributing to misleading information
Challenges facing teachers when communicating to pre-school students
Discuss the impact of information overload on the credibility of information
Evaluate communication patterns among the youth in the US
Assess the effects of the Russia-Ukraine conflict on communication patterns
How public perception influences communication strategies
Explain how mothers learn to communicate with and understand their babies at such a tender age
The role of music in shaping communication models
How to overcome the challenge of top-down communication in companies
Management of information on online media for effective use

Business Communication Research Paper Topics

Discuss the increasing role of influencers on brand marketing
Why company blogs are essential in attracting new clients
Evaluate the differences between face to face and virtual business meetings
The growing popularity of social media in business marketing
Why every company should have a partner relations department
Dealing with complaints in a relaxed and useful manner
Why online project management is the future of business
Discuss why it is necessary to have company retreats
Explore the role of digital document sharing in speeding up business communication
Effects of relying on online communication at the expense of physical meetings
The role of effective business management in the performance of an organization
How staff motivation improve the overall working environment
Discuss the place of corporate social responsibility in a company
Effective ways of handling crisis in a large company
Explain why trust is important in any business partnerships

Intercultural Communication Research Topics

Discuss how Muslims interact with Christians at a social level
Evaluate the reception of instructions from a man to a woman
How Americans interact with Africans at the basic level
Discuss how an American Democrat would associate with a Chinese politician
Discuss the impact of marginalization in developing communication messages
How migration and immigration affect communication patterns
Effects of social stereotyping in communication
How do Western communication models differ from those of Africa?
Impact of discriminatory communication messages
How to organize an effective intergroup come-together
How the media represents various groups in its communication
Effects of the growing intercultural norms
The role of language attitudes in inhibiting effective communication
Evaluate how ethnographic perspectives affect communication messages
Why it is difficult to solve intercultural conflicts

Additional Interpersonal Communication Topics For Research Paper

The role of interpersonal communication in team member satisfaction
How collaboration and teamwork enhances business success
Discuss how interpersonal communication enhances problem-solving skills
The role of trust in interpersonal communication
Effects of confusion, negativity, and conflicts on interpersonal communication
How to deal with workplace miscommunication effectively
The role of personalizing information
How to improve internal communication channels in a company
Discuss the role of interests in communication patterns
Challenges when implementing modern communication solutions
Evaluate how jargon and inattention make internal communication difficult
The role of feedback in interpreting messages correctly
Discuss the influence of environmental factors in communication
Why miscommunication may result in a disconnect among a group of people
Discuss the role of skills and knowledge in effective communication among leaders

Interesting Communication Research Topics

How can effective interpersonal communication be a catalyst for action
Why a focused and intentional approach is necessary for effective communication
Discuss why online dating is not successful in most cases
Evaluate the role of non-verbal communication and customer satisfaction
Why is it important to have a list of communication networks?
Effects of lack of personal contact when it comes to communication
Discuss the various forms of human interactions and their influence on communication
The role of clear communication during an organizational change process
Why online communication is not as effective as physical meetings
Evaluate the roles and issues involved in a nurse-patient communication
The role of TV shows in determining how people relate to each other in the society
Effects of the digital divide in communication paradigms
The relationship between quality leadership and effective communication
Why is email still not yet an effective communication medium?
Effects of integrating marketing communication

General Communication Studies Research Topics

Discuss the differences in body language between male and female
The role of communication in familiarizing with someone
How online gaming communication affects one’s interpersonal communication
Why a leader without proper communication skills may not succeed
The role of communication in achieving an organization’s vision
How mobile phone conversations are turning around interpersonal communication
Discuss the role of different personality types in communication
Is there a difference between language and communication?
Discuss how communication in the military is different from that in a normal setting
Compare and contrast between written and spoken forms of communication
Why family communication is critical for a peaceful coexistence
Shortcomings to understanding foreign languages
Discuss the effectiveness of web-based communication

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100 Communication Research Topics

Table of contents

1 What Is Communication Research?
2.1 Top Research Topic Ideas
2.2 Research Topics for College Students
2.3 Business-Focused Research Topics
2.4 Social Media Research Topics
2.5 Mass Communication Research Topics
2.6 Interpersonal Communication Research Topics
2.7 Intercultural Communication Research Topics
2.8 Virtual Communication Research Topics
2.9 Health-Related Research Topics
2.10 Interesting Communication Research Topics
3 Coming up with a Thesis Statement
4.1 How to Create Strong Questions for Your Paper?
4.2 How to Find the Right Research Topics?
4.3 What Makes a Research Paper Topic Strong?
4.4 Tips for Structuring and Writing Your Paper
5 Conclusion

All fields of study have fresh and intriguing new research paper topics to explore. Within the subject of communication, there are loads of possibilities for research papers . This is thanks to the development of mass media and the growing popularity of various modern communication methods.

This article covers a broad range of effective research paper topics that are both interesting and relevant for this field. Any of them would make a suitable focal point for any research paper to do with how we interact with one another.

What Is Communication Research?

This is the study of how we interact with one another. It includes how the way we interact is affected by technology, culture, and individual differences. Researchers in this field use a variety of methods to study the way we converse and interact with each other, including surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments.

Research in this area can be used to improve communication skills in personal relationships, in the workplace, and in other settings.

Lists of Key Communication Research Topics

The range of research paper topics in this field is extensive, to say the least. Below are 100 relevant topics that are arranged in groups of 10.

They cover a broad selection of modern communication issues and debates, from corporate and computer mediated communication to effective interpersonal communication, communication strategies, and more.

Research Topics for College Students

These topics are ideal for college students. They focus on how communication processes can influence someone’s mental health and personality traits. Both of these are important since they can influence a student’s academic progress.

How does communication shape our identities?
How do we use it to build relationships?
What role does it play in influencing our emotions?
How is our thinking influenced by it?
In what ways do we use it to manage conflict?
How is our behavior influenced by it?
What factors influence the effectiveness of communication?
In what way is it impacted by technology?
What influences do cultural differences have on it?
How does it shape our physical and mental health?

Business-Focused Research Topics

Having effective business communication is necessary for any sort of commercial activity to improve its marketing value. Both business to business communication and interactions with the public have to get the right message across. Below are some potential areas to do with organizational communication and public relations.

The impact of new communication technologies.
The use of social media and external communication.
What effects does globalization have?
How organizational communication is used in virtual teams.
The impact that intercultural communication has.
The way humor is used.
What are the effects of gender?
How we use non-verbal communication.
The effect that technology has on corporate communication etiquette.
The way we use business communication in crisis situations.

Social Media Research Topics

The focus of these topics is on social media, and it affects the way we communicate with one another. Using social media and being exposed to social media marketing can both have significant effects on practical communication skills. These topics focus on the way modern digital platforms influence our interactions.

The effect of social media on communication practices and patterns.
How social media changes relationship development.
What influence does social media have on how people interact with each other?
The effect of social media on the way people share information.
How social media impacts the way people interact with businesses.
The effect of social media on the way people interact with governments through proper communication channels.
What consequences does social media have on online interactions?
The effect that social media has on the way people interact with each other offline.
Social media’s influence on the way people interact with each other in different cultures.
What effects does social media have on the way people interact with each other in different age groups?

Mass Communication Research Topics

Mass communication is when you share information with a large number of people at the same time. Topics to do with mass communication are very relevant, thanks to the internet, social media platforms, and other kinds of mass media. The purpose of mass media is simply to inform loads of people about something as quickly and conveniently as possible.

What effect do social media platforms have on mass communication?
How does new technology affect it?
The impact that advertising has on it.
How news media influences it.
Ways in which propaganda impacts it.
The influence that public relations have on it.
How it’s impacted by digital media and print media.
Globalization’s impact on it.
How new forms of media affect it.
The ways it’s influenced by social networking.

Interpersonal Communication Research Topics

This is a broad term that refers to the exchanging of information between people. It’s when you use effective communication skills to share thoughts, ideas, and facts with at least one other person. The topics in this section look at some of the latest interpersonal communication trends.

The effect of technology on interpersonal communication.
The effect of culture on it.
How gender influences it.
The effect of age on it.
How someone’s interaction style may impact it.
The way context may influence it.
How relationships can influence it.
How it can be influenced by social apprehension.
The effect of social competence on it.
How it’s impacted by satisfaction.

Intercultural Communication Research Topics

This is when people from different cultures exchange information. Things like different languages, traditions, and even artifacts affect intercultural communication. The topics below look at intercultural communication and how culture shapes the many ways we interact with one another.

How culture influences the ways we interact with one another.
The impact of intercultural communication styles on relationships.
How culture impacts our perceptions of interaction.
The effect that interaction has on business relationships.
How culture influences the way we interpret nonverbal communication.
The impact of culture on our way of interpreting speech.
How culture influences our information processing.
The way culture impacts our process of making decision.
The impact of culture on how we solve problems.
How culture influences our interactions with others.

Virtual Communication Research Topics

Are virtual communication skills essential? You have to be just as proficient at virtual dialogue as you are at spoken words. Mastering interactive online communication is key for anyone who wants to succeed, and the topics below delve into this further.

The impact on the development of personal relationships.
The use of virtual dialogue in the business world.
How it influences the way we think and learn.
The benefits of virtual communication for people with social anxiety.
The way it’s used in education.
How it impacts our mental health.
Ways in which it influences family relationships.
How it’s used in the workplace.
The effect it has on relationships.
The advantages and disadvantages of virtual communication.

Health-Related Research Topics

It’s essential to have effective communication strategies in any sort of healthcare setting. Having interpersonal communication competence is vital so that practitioners can speak with patients clearly and effectively. The topics below look at how internal and external communication in the healthcare industry affects and is affected by different factors.

The effectiveness of health communication campaigns in changing health behaviors.
The impact of social media on interactions in the health industry.
How humor is used in it.
How storytelling is used in it.
What effects it has on reducing health disparities.
What effects it has on increasing health literacy.
How new media technologies are used in it.
How it influences public health outcomes.
The role it plays in health education.
The impact it has on patient satisfaction.

Interesting Communication Research Topics

This last batch of topics looks at how both spoken words and non-verbal communication affect different things. Some of the topics are about how we interact with one another in different areas of life.

The impact of new communication technology on social interactions.
The way it is used in the workplace.
How we use it in education.
Ways in which it is used in marketing.
How people use it in healthcare.
The way it affects personal relationships.
The effects it has on organizational cultures.
How it impacts individual productivity.
Its effects on consumer behavior.
The influences it has on the environment.
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Coming up with a Thesis Statement

Once you have come up with a potential research topic, you should start writing. Your first step is to write an effective thesis statement .

Your thesis statement is the argument or main point you want to make about your topic. It’s a summary of what your paper is going to be about. The purpose of it is to show the reader what you will be discussing and invite them to read your work.

Once you have your thesis statement, start writing your paper. Make sure to include evidence from scholarly sources to support your work.

Topic Selection and Writing Tips

How to create strong questions for your paper.

This question doesn’t have a single answer, as the best way to create strong questions for your paper will vary depending on the specific research project and its goals.

However, some tips on how to create strong questions include:

Start by thinking about the specific goals of your research project. What are you trying to learn or understand?
Draft a few potential research questions that can help you answer your goals. Be sure to make them as specific as possible.
Test your research questions by asking them to others to see if they are clear and understandable. Are they interesting to people outside of your field of study?
Revise and refine your research questions as needed. Be sure to keep them concise and easy to understand.

How to Find the Right Research Topics?

When writing a communication research paper, first, you should decide what topic you want to learn more about.

Do the effects of social media and mass media on communication interest you?
What about the role of communication in a competitive global business environment?
What is the impact of new technology on the ways we exchange information?
Whether effective communication is necessary to ensure credible reporting?
How do improved relations make broadcasting media laws effective?

Once you have a general topic in mind, you can begin to narrow it down by focusing on a specific aspect of this field that interests you.

For example, if you are interested in the communication importance in a business market, you might want to focus on the impact of effective business interactions on employee productivity or customer satisfaction.

Alternatively, you could look at how private media ownership is affecting mass media, bringing journalism ethics into the discussion, and how journalists are ensuring credible reporting.

What Makes a Research Paper Topic Strong?

There is no one answer to this question, as it depends on the individual and the specific research goals. However, some factors that could make a research topic strong include its relevance to current events or real-world issues, its potential to generate new and innovative ideas, and its ability to generate interesting and valuable research findings.

Additionally, a strong topic should be interesting and engaging to read and write about, and it should be something that the researcher can be passionate about.

Tips for Structuring and Writing Your Paper

When writing communication research papers, it is important to structure your argument in a manner that’s clear and concise. Your paper should have a clear research paper introduction , body, and conclusion. Within the body of your paper, there should be a strong thesis statement, evidence that supports your argument, and a conclusion summarizing your argument.

Additionally, throughout the research paper writing process, it is significant to use clear and concise language. Use communication tips to help you put your own points across more effectively.

Deciding what to focus your research paper doesn’t have to be daunting. There are a huge number of research topics available. Finding the right one is easy.

First, think about the ideas that interest you the most. Which part of communication studies are you most passionate about? Is it media ethics, mass media, or something else?

When you’ve settled on one of the research topic ideas , start the research paper writing process. Find key sources such as books and academic articles. Think about what needs addressing in your research paper.

Now, it’s time for you to produce an excellent communication research paper.

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COMM 3020: Communication Research Methods

Literature Reviews
Identifying & Using Scholarly Articles
Search Strategies
Find Articles
Find Statistics & Data

Library Help

What is a literature review.

While reviewing published literature on your topic, you may discover a "gap" in the research, such as little or no research focusing on a specific demographic or no research on a potential intervention for a problem. Finding a "gap" can help guide the direction of your research. It’s OK if you can’t find an article that exactly aligns with your proposal—that's actually a good thing, because it demonstrates a need for your own research and how you can contribute to the scholarly conversation surrounding your topic!

A good literature review in a research proposal will:

Inform readers of the existing research surrounding your topic, including major concepts and trends they need to know to understand your work.
Demonstrate why your own proposed research is needed.

Your literature review will primarily include scholarly articles published in peer-reviewed journals. Keep reading this guide to learn how to locate your articles, find tips for reading articles effectively, and find tools for formatting your citations. Literature review requirements can vary significantly, so be sure to review the guidelines for your assignment for length requirements and number of sources you need to include.

Examples of Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are often included in the intro of research articles, but they are also published as full-length, stand-alone articles. Systematic reviews are another type of full-length article that compile published literature on a topic and compare and analyze the results from the included studies. Looking at published literature reviews or systematic reviews can help you learn how to organize this type of work, and they can also be a gold mine of potential articles you could include in your own paper!

The following are examples of published literature reviews in communication. You can look for more in our databases by adding AND "literature review" or AND "systematic review" after your search terms. For example: family AND communication AND "literature review"

Social Media Use and Offline Interpersonal Outcomes during Youth: A Systematic Literature Review
Risk, Crisis, and Social Media: A Systematic Review of Seven Years' Research
Understanding Conspiracy Theories

Organization Tips

Because literature reviews can require many sources, you might get a little overwhelmed by all the research you find. As you research, it's important to keep track of the citation information (authors, titles, journal titles, etc.) so that you can easily build your reference list later and to save copies of sources as you go—finding some sources a second time can be tricky.

Here are some ways to keep your sources organized:

Keep good notes for each source, along with the source's citation information.
Use folders to sort sources by sub-topic.
Use online resources like the Citation Management tools on the Citations page of this guide.

Reading & Writing Tips

Scan the Abstracts, Introductions, Discussions, and Conclusions. Highlight and make note of important findings, main ideas and arguments, and references to previous studies and theories.
Keep track of research methods used in the Methods section—these may come in useful when designing your own research study!
See the Identifying & Using Scholarly Articles page in this guide for more information on this step.
Create an outline that organizes your sources into an order (topical, chronological, etc.) for you to follow in your review.
Write a short introduction to your summary that lets your reader know what to expect.
Write paragraphs that summarize the findings found in the literature. Each paragraph should address one major idea. Similar sources can be summarized together in statements like, "Most researchers agree that..." or "Current trends in the literature are..."
Use transitions to show how different sources interact with each other. For example, you might write, "While earlier researchers thought X, new discoveries have led researchers to think Y." Or "Researcher applied W in new circumstances and found Z."
Use direct quotations sparingly in your review—you should be summarizing and paraphrasing as much as possible. Remember to cite your sources using in-text citations when you refer to an idea from a specific source, whether you're paraphrasing or using a direct quotation. See the Citations page in this guide for help with this step.
Write a short conclusion that sums up the major points from the literature. If you've noticed there are subjects that the literature hasn't tackled yet, you can point out that further research is needed.
Only include sources in your references that you quoted, paraphrased, or mentioned in your paper.

More Resources

UVU Writing Center's Literature Review Guide
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Communication Studies

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What is a literature review?

What are Literature Reviews?

Literature reviews examine scholarly literature surrounding a subject-area, topic, or historical event. Literature reviews typically synthesize popular academic arguments, spanning multiple viewpoints. They often explore common trends, themes, and arguments, examining how perceptions of an event have changed over time. However, literature reviews are more than historiographies. Literature reviews should evaluate sources, determining common argumentative flaws. They should also identify knowledge-gaps in the field. You should not make a new argument in your literature review. However, you should evaluate the legitimacy of current sources and arguments.

An example literature review, from the University of West Florida, is attached below:

How Should I Write My Literature Review?

Literature reviews on your subject likely already exist. Before writing your literature review, you should examine pre-existing ones. This process will quickly familiarize you with prominent themes, arguments, and sources in your field.
Once you are familiar with influential arguments and sources, you should begin organizing your literature review. Literature reviews are organized by ideas, not sources. You should align your sources to popular arguments, evaluating the similarities and differences between these arguments. Ideally, you should examine how the scholarly conversation has changed over time. What aspects of the conversation have become more important? What arguments have fallen out of favor? Why has this happened?
The introduction should briefly introduce common themes, and foreshadow your organizational strategy.
The "body" of your literature review should analyze sources and arguments.
Finally, the conclusion should identify gaps in the scholarly conversation, and summarize your findings. Where is further research needed?
Like a research paper, your literature review should include a bibliography.

For more information on literature reviews, including more tips on writing them, visit the link below:

Literature Review: Conducting & Writing by the University of West Florida Library

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COMM 300: Communication Research

Your Literature Review
Getting Started
Research Methods & Data Collection
Search Tips
APA Style & Formatting

Why Write a Lit review?

They can help you better understand your topic.
They demonstrate to your audience that you know what you're talking about.
They can help you develop new ideas or perspectives.

Guide to Literature Review

Cook Library's Guide to Literature Reviews

What is a literature review?

A literature review is designed to summarize, synthesize, and discuss the current state of knowledge about a topic. You will survey information related to your research topic ito critically analyze prior research and how it will inform your research question. A literature review is not an annotated bibliography.

Organizing your research

Use the research resources page on this guide to find information to support your topic. One strategy to help organize your literature review by theme is to create a synthesis matrix.

You can download the blank matrix template below to help organize your research.

Research Synthesis Matrix Template for Literature Review
Research Synthesis Matrix Instruction
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The Top 10 Most Interesting Communication Research Topics

Communication students usually face two problems when it comes to research. The first is identifying compelling communication research topics. The second is crafting appropriate communication research questions that are specific and relevant.

Fortunately, choosing communication research paper topics doesn’t have to be challenging. This article outlines all you need to know about selecting the right topics for your research. It also lists 10 interesting examples of communication research topics you can consider for your essay or thesis.

Find your bootcamp match

What makes a strong communication research topic.

Simplicity is what makes a strong communication research topic. Your research topic should contain relevant content that gives readers a general insight into what you intend to study. However, it must be concise and free from unnecessary jargon or wordy sentences.

As a communication researcher, you must also tackle relevant subjects. Your research should contribute to existing knowledge in your field by corroborating previously known facts or drawing attention to new insights.

Tips for Choosing a Communication Research Topic

Find out your school’s requirements. Some schools have curriculum requirements that may streamline your communication research topic ideas. For example, your department may have a specified word count for research papers. Such a condition would prevent you from selecting a topic that would require a lengthy write-up.
Read industry-related surveys. If you want your research to address a specific industry pain point, industry-related surveys can help you choose a suitable topic. Some communication and media firms release their survey findings to the public. You can explore these surveys to identify the direction your research should take.
Visit an academic journal. Journals like The International Journal of Communication and Journal of Health Communication can provide you with inspiration for choosing your communication topic. These reliable sources cover many subjects and contain ideas that can steer you on the right path.
Attend conferences. Conferences are a credible source to learn about the future of communication research. This knowledge can be beneficial for choosing a topic that would attract much interest. You can visit online sources like conferenceindex.org to find a list of upcoming communication conferences.
Avoid over-researched topics. There is already a wealth of research available on many communication topics. As much as you can, it’s best to avoid over-researched topics. Choose topics that allow you to provide unique information rather than rehashing previously published ideas.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic highlights the researcher’s area of focus during research. Research questions are usually narrow enough to allow the researcher to focus on a particular sub-topic within their field. However, they are also extensive enough to allow for exploration of the chosen subject from various angles.

Research questions, on the other hand, are more succinct. They are usually derived from the chosen research topic and leave no room for ambiguity. Research questions show the purpose of the study. They clearly define the parameters being studied. They may also provide insight into the research methods employed.

How to Create Strong Communication Research Questions

Strong communication research questions must focus on addressing a particular issue. Also, they must be presented objectively. Your research question should not reflect bias or attempt to tilt the reader’s mind toward a particular direction.

2. The Influence of Public Relations in Building Thriving Businesses

Most highly ranked companies place a premium on maintaining their brand image through external communication. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, jobs for public relations specialists are expected to increase by 11 percent between 2020 and 2030. An examination into the impact of public relations in building a reputable business would make a great research topic.

3. Critical Approaches for Dealing With Fake News

Due to the prominent role of bloggers in contemporary society, there is a shortage of legitimate sources for information. This challenge has brought about a need to provide credible reporting and establish proper communication channels. Your research could provide a critical approach for examining the spread of fake news and suggest effective methods for building reliable communication networks.

4. Practical Communication Skills for the Development of Intimate Relationships

Interpersonal dialogue is one of the most intriguing aspects of communication. Several studies have been carried out on effective dialogue as a tool for building strong personal relationships. However, there is still a wide knowledge gap on the subject. You could carry out communication studies on practical communication skills that can facilitate the growth of relationships.

5. Email as an Effective Business Communication Tool

All emerging tech businesses use email as a corporate communication tool, according to Statista. Despite this, some still have concerns about the adverse effects of email on business-to-business communication. You could carry out research to determine the positive or negative influences of email and instant messaging on the overall work culture of organizations.

6. The Evolution of Horizontal and Downward Communication in the Business Environment

Workplace culture has changed massively in the 21st century with the advent of Zoom meetings and other non-traditional discussion channels. Your research could examine the history of communication in organizations. It could also highlight the changes in downward and horizontal communication practices in leading global businesses.

7. Regular Social Media Communication and Its Impact on Human Behavior

Social media has become a vital part of our personal life. Unfortunately, regular social media use has been linked to vices like substance abuse and several mental health challenges. A study of the effect of social networks on the attitude of viewers would make a very relevant topic for a communication research paper.

8. Techniques for Improving Virtual Communication

Since the Covid-19 pandemic, there has been a sharp increase in the use of virtual dialogue globally. Various companies have experimented with different techniques to improve the experience of virtual communication technology. Your research could compare these strategies and, if possible, offer some communication tips for virtual environments.

9. The Relationship Between Organizational Communication and Workplace Culture

Communication is one of the vital factors that affect employee performance and workplace culture. Different companies have devised effective communication strategies to eliminate organizational uncertainty. You can study these various communication processes and show how they influence employee behavior in the workplace.

10. The Growth of Instant Messaging and Its Effect on Modern Society

No one can deny that instant messaging apps have become a ubiquitous phenomenon. Presently, Whatsapp has a total of 2 billion active monthly users , according to Statista. For your research paper, you could explore the impact of this mass adoption of instant messaging apps on our overall quality of everyday life.

Communication Research Questions

What are the most effective public health communication methods for patient-centered communication?
What is the importance of non-verbal interpersonal communication in developing professional relationships?
What is the role of mass media in improving international relations?
What are the most effective communication styles for social marketing?
What is the role of social media platforms in promoting intercultural dialogue?

Choosing the Right Communication Research Topic

Although it is essential to learn different research methods , your research won’t have much impact without choosing a strong topic. So, selecting an excellent research topic is the first step in writing a noteworthy research paper on communication.

Also, selecting the right communication research paper topic can help you identify which communication discipline is right for you. If you are wondering what you can do with your communications degree , a research paper is a perfect way to get a feel of various areas of interest before you graduate.

Communication Research Topics FAQ

Qualitative questions are open-ended and aim to explore a thought or subject matter through qualitative methods. For example, with qualitative research, rather than comparing data sets, the goal is to gather and interpret data to generate a hypothesis.

Quantitative research questions usually seek to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more data sets. Unlike qualitative research, quantitative research aims to confirm or test the accuracy of a hypothesis.

A thesis statement is a brief overview of the main point of a research paper. Your thesis statement should be short, straightforward, and inform the reader of what your paper is all about.

Yes, online communication master’s degree programs also involve research work. So, if you are considering getting an online master’s in communication , you must be ready to write a research paper as one of the major requirements for graduating.

About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication .

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Journal transfer notification.

Dear Authors and well wishers,

We are here to announce that the journal " Review of Communication Research" has been transferred to the Auricle Global Society of Education and Research.

Current Issue

Vol. 11 (2023)

Published: 2023-05-14

Brand Community and Symbolic Interactionism: A Literature Review

Images published by cancer patients in social media and their reception: a systematic review, managing social media for making cancer hospitals’ brands more human: a proposal model based on a literature review, audiovisual fiction, tourism, and audience studies a literature review, norms-shifting on social media a review of strategies to shift norms among adolescents and young adults online, research trends in social media’s role in political campaigns: a bibliometric analysis, the impact of post-pandemic learning loss on education development: a systematic review.

BA 302 Business Communication - Research: Literature Reviews

Research Process
Literature Reviews
Evaluating Resources
Search Techniques

Steps to Creating a Literature Review

Step 1: Planning your search

Step 2: Selecting a database

Step 3: Conducting your search

Step 4: Evaluating your results

Step 5: Managing your references

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review is a systematic survey of the scholarly literature published on a given topic. Rather than providing a new research insight, a literature review lays the groundwork for an in-depth research project analyzing previous research. Type of documents surveyed will vary depending on the field, but can include:

journal articles,
dissertations.

A thorough literature review will also require surveying what librarians call "gray literature," which includes difficult-to-locate documents such as:

technical reports
government publications
working papers

Purpose of the Lit Review

What's the point, purposes of the literature review.

Delimit the research problem
Avoid fruitless approaches
Identify avenues of future research
Seek new lines of inquiry
Gain methodological insight

Reasons for Conducting a Literature Review

Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done
Discovering important variables relevant to the topic
Synthesizing and gaining new perspective
Identifying relationships between ideas and practices
Establishing the context of the topic
Rationalizing the significance of the problem
Enhancing and acquiring subject vocabulary
Understanding the structure of the subject
Relating ideas and theory to applications
Identifying main methodologies and research techniques that have been used
Placing research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-art development

Questions to consider

What is the overarching question or problem your literature review seeks to address?
How much familiarity do you already have with the field? Are you already familiar with common methodologies or professional vocabularies?
What types of strategies or questions have others in your field pursued?
How will you synthesize or summarize the information you gather?
What do you or others perceive to be lacking in your field?
Is your topic broad? How could it be narrowed?
Can you articulate why your topic is important in your field?

Adapted from Hart, C. (1998). Doing a literature review : Releasing the social science research imagination. London: Sage. As cited in Randolph, Justus. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review.” Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation , 14(13), p. 2.

Acknowledgements

Merinda Hensley gave permision for content to be borrowed by permission from Literature Review: Demystified LibGuide from the University of Illnois at Urbana-Champaign.

Getting Started

Once you've decided what you want to write about you will need to conduct a systematic review of journal literature to establish what has been written in your field.

Databases enable you to combine search terms and locate high quality journal articles, conference papers and proceedings from a wide range of sources. Have a look at the Accessing Databases tab to choose the right one for your subject area. There are links to brief online tutorials or pdf guides to help you with using each of the databases there too.

Brilliant for conducting a thorough, systematic & exhaustive search of the literature
You can cross concepts together and so be more precise about what you are searching for
Some databases (BREI, PsycINFO) include a thesaurus so you can check terminology
The results are valid, reliable and authoritative (academic articles)

What about Google?

G o o g l e and G o o g l e Scholar are not the most efficient or effective tools for searching the literature. Here are a few reasons why:

• You can only narrow searches by date, not subject • You cannot give words meaning e.g. primary/first • Links are unstable and not verified and so you may not be able to access the results • Pdfs look like they are freely available but often they are not

In addition to this, you also need to carefully evaluate all internet resources:

1. Who authored the information? 2. What expertise does the writer have to comment? 3. What evidence is used? Are there citations in the piece? 4. What genre is the document: journalism, academic paper,blog, polemic? 5. Is the site/document/report funded by an institution? 6. What argument is being made? 7. When was the text produced? 8. Why did this information emerge at this point in history? 9. Who is the audience for this information? 10. What is not being discussed and what are the political consequences of that absence? (Taken from Brabazon, T. (2006) 'The Google Effect: Googling, blogging, wikis and the flattening of expertise', Libri, v. 56, pp 157-167)

• You may find this guide for evaluating internet resources (compiled by UWE Library Services) useful too

And finally.... • They retrieve a huge number of results – which wastes valuable time and leads to information overload and frustration!

<< Previous: Research Process
Next: Evaluating Resources >>
Last Updated: Feb 15, 2024 4:59 PM
URL: https://libguides.oakwood.edu/c.php?g=395299

Communication Studies

Literature Reviews
Background Information
Databases (Articles)
Finding the Full Text
Scholarly vs. Popular
Peer Review
Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles

About Literature Reviews

Resources: how to write a literature review, templates for organizing your notes, how to read a scholarly article.

Primary Sources
Tests/Measures
Cite Sources This link opens in a new window
Statistics This link opens in a new window
Course Guides/ Subject Guides
Get Help This link opens in a new window

A Literature Review...

Introduces a topic and explains why the topic is important (background, establish facts). Example: Depression affects over 20% of adolescents.

If you are examining a research question through a critical lens/theory/perspective, you need to define what that is. Example: Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) explains how close relationship tendencies act as a risk factor for depression. Attachment is defined as a deep and enduring bond that connects one person to another person.

Introduces all the elements in a research question by citing previous published literature relevant to the question (rather than relying on personal opinion). Example: A wealth of research has linked attachment insecurity to depressive symptomology (Bifulco et al., 2002; Roberts, Gotlib, & Kassel, 1996; Scharfe, 2007).

Cites others who argue there is little research in the area of interest and more research is needed; OR who argue there are conflicting results in the area of interest and more research is needed. Example: Few studies have examined the relationship between attachment theory and depression in adolescents; most studies involve only children or adults.

The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success
Search for Literature Reviews (Find Good Models) Look at other literature reviews in your subject area to see how they are written. Courtesy of VCU Libraries.
Literature Reviews (UNC)
Organizing Your Sources
Organize By Main Idea Courtesy of NC State University Writing and Speaking Tutorial Service Tutors.
Organize By Table Courtesy of Academic Coaching & Writing LLC.
How to Read A Scholarly Article
<< Previous: Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles
Next: Primary Sources >>
Last Updated: May 20, 2024 11:42 AM
URL: https://libguides.lmu.edu/commstudies

Literature Reviews for Media, Communication and Information: What is a "Literature Review"?

What is a "Literature Review"?
1. Brainstorm
3. Refine Your Search Strategy and Topic
4. Structure Your Lit Review
Helpful Sites

This guide is intended to assist you in writing the literature review section of a scholarly article or research paper.

The tabs offer a suggested series of steps that will help you research, organize, and write your review.

It is important to know that research is a messy process. You may find yourself repeating steps, doing them out of order, or even adjusting your topic or the focus of your review. This is a normal part of scholarly writing.

If you need help, please contact your librarian.

A literature review provides a summary of the previously published academic work on a topic. The literature review should help "make the case" for why someone is writing their paper or conducting their research. A literature review can be a section of a larger paper or it can be the focus of an entire paper.

Goals of a Literature Review:

to provide an overview of the scholarly literature on a chosen topic, including the major theories, issues, works, and debates on the topic
to synthesize the information in the literature into an organized summary
to critique the information and current knowledge of a topic
to identify aspects of the topic that need further investigation

Plagiarism and Citing

If you don't cite, you might plagiarize someone's ideas. Cite to:

Give credit the author(s) of the works that you used to write your paper.
Show that you know your topic well and have read and thought about what others have already said.
Show your readers where to find the original sources of the information you present so they can read them fully.

When to cite? What to cite?

Cite other people's words, ideas and other intellectual property that you use in your papers or that influence your ideas, including things such as books, articles, reports, data/statistics, speeches, academic articles, works of art, songs.
Cite direct quotes, facts or statistics AND when you summarize or paraphrase others' ideas.

Helpful Sites on Literature Reviews

Much of the information in this guide and more information can be found on the websites listed on the Helpful Sites tab .

Ask A Librarian

Make an appointment

Chat, Call, Text

Email: [email protected]

APRD, Communication, Journalism, and Media Studies Librarian

Next: 1. Brainstorm >>
University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Research Guides
Literature Reviews for Media, Communication and Information
Last Updated: May 24, 2024 12:57 PM
URL: https://libguides.colorado.edu/c.php?g=1170610

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Knowledge Base
Dissertation
What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

Search for relevant literature
Evaluate sources
Identify themes, debates and gaps
Outline the structure
Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

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Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

Quick Run-through
Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, June 07). What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/literature-review/

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A literature-based study of patient-centered care and communication in nurse-patient interactions: barriers, facilitators, and the way forward

Abukari kwame.

1 College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

Pammla M. Petrucka

2 College of Nursing, University of Saskatchewan, Regina Campus, Regina, Canada

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Providing healthcare services that respect and meet patients’ and caregivers’ needs are essential in promoting positive care outcomes and perceptions of quality of care, thereby fulfilling a significant aspect of patient-centered care requirement. Effective communication between patients and healthcare providers is crucial for the provision of patient care and recovery. Hence, patient-centered communication is fundamental to ensuring optimal health outcomes, reflecting long-held nursing values that care must be individualized and responsive to patient health concerns, beliefs, and contextual variables. Achieving patient-centered care and communication in nurse-patient clinical interactions is complex as there are always institutional, communication, environmental, and personal/behavioural related barriers. To promote patient-centered care, healthcare professionals must identify these barriers and facitators of both patient-centered care and communication, given their interconnections in clinical interactions. A person-centered care and communication continuum (PC4 Model) is thus proposed to orient healthcare professionals to care practices, discourse contexts, and communication contents and forms that can enhance or impede the acheivement of patient-centered care in clinical practice.

Providing healthcare services that respect and meet patients’ and their caregivers’ needs are essential in promoting positive care outcomes and perceptions of quality of care, thus constituting patient-centered care. Care is “a feeling of concern for, or an interest in, a person or object which necessitates looking after them/it” [ 1 ]. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) noted that to provide patient-centered care means respecting and responding to individual patient’s care needs, preferences, and values in all clinical decisions [ 2 ]. In nursing care, patient-centered care or person-centered care must acknowledge patients’ experiences, stories, and knowledge and provide care that focuses on and respects patients’ values, preferences, and needs by engaging the patient more in the care process [ 3 ]. Healthcare providers and professionals are thus required to fully engage patients and their families in the care process in meaningful ways. The IOM, in its 2003 report on Health Professions Education , recognized the values of patient-centered care and emphasized that providing patient-centered care is the first core competency that health professionals’ education must focus on [ 4 ]. This emphasis underscored the value of delivering healthcare services according to patients’ needs and preferences.

Research has shown that effective communication between patients and healthcare providers is essential for the provision of patient care and recovery [ 5 – 8 ]. Madula et al. [ 6 ], in a study on maternal care in Malawi, noted that patients reported being happy when the nurses and midwives communicated well and treated them with warmth, empathy, and respect. However, other patients said poor communication by nurses and midwives, including verbal abuse, disrespect, or denial from asking questions, affected their perceptions of the services offered [ 6 ]. Similarly, Joolaee et al. [ 9 ] explored patients’ experiences of caring relationships in an Iranian hospital where they found that good communication between nurses and patients was regarded as “more significant than physical care” among patients.

According to Boykins [ 10 ], effective communication is a two-way dialogue between patients and care providers. In that dialogue, both parties speak and are listened to without interrupting; they ask questions for clarity, express their opinions, exchange information, and grasp entirely and understand what the others mean. Also, Henly [ 11 ] argued that effective communication is imperative in clinical interactions. He observed that health and illness affect the quality of life, thereby making health communication critical and that the “intimate and sometimes overwhelming nature of health concerns can make communicating with nurses and other healthcare providers very challenging” [ 11 ]. Furthermore, Henly [ 11 ] added that patient-centered communication is fundamental to ensuring optimal health outcomes, reflecting long-held nursing values that care must be individualized and responsive to patient health concerns. Given the prevalence of face-to-face and device-mediated communications and interactions in healthcare settings, we must explore and clarify who, what, where, when, why, and how interactions with individuals, families, and communities are receiving care and health services [ 11 ].

The value of effective communication in nurse-patient clinical interactions cannot be overemphasized, as “research has shown that communication processes are essential to more accurate patient reporting and disclosure” [ 12 ]. Respectful communication between nurses and patients can reduce uncertainty, enhance greater patient engagement in decision making, improve patient adherence to medication and treatment plans, increase social support, safety, and patient satisfaction in care [ 12 , 13 ]. Thus, effective nurse-patient clinical communication is essential to enhancing patient-centered care and positive care outcomes.

Patient-centered communication, also known as person-centered communication or client-centered communication, is defined as a process that invites and encourages patients and their families to actively participate and negotiate in decision-making about their care needs, as cited in [ 7 ]. Patient-centered communication is crucial in promoting patient-centered care and requires that patients and their caregivers engage in the care process. As McLean [ 14 ] observed, patient-centered care can be enhanced through patient-centered communication by valuing patients’ dignity and rights. Through open communication and collaboration, where information and care plans are shared among care providers, patients, and their families, care provision becomes patient-centered [ 14 ].

Given the interconnected nature of patient-centered care and communication, we must identify the barriers and enablers of patient-centered care and communication and proposed efficient ways to enhance that because patient-centered communication is essential in achieving patient-centered care. Our aim in this paper is to identify the barriers and facilitators of patient-centered care and communication and propose and present a patient-centered care and communication continuum (PC4) Model to explain how patient-centered care can be enhanced in nurse-patient clinical interactions. As Grant and Booth argued, critical reviews are often used to present, analyse, and synthesized research evidence from diverse sources, the outcome of which is a hypothesis or a model as an interpretation of existing data to enhance evidence-based practice [ 15 ]. Thus, this critical literature review study explores the questions: what are the barriers and facilitators of patient-centered care and how can patient-centered care be enhanced through effective clinical communication?

An earlier version of this study was submitted as part of author AK’s doctoral comprehensive exams in February 2021. An interdisciplinary doctoral committee recommended many of the included literature and the questions explored in this study based on the current discourse of patient-centered care advocated for in many healthcare facilities and in recognition of the universal healthcare access objective of the health sustainable development goal. Additional searches for literature were conducted between September and November 2020 using keywords such as barriers and facilitators of nurse-patient interaction, patient-centered care, patient-centered communication , and nurse-patient communication . Databases searched included CINAHL, PubMed, Medline, and Google Scholar. Included studies in this critical review were empirical research on nurse-patient interactions in different care settings published in English and open access. All relevant articles were read, and their main findings relevant to our review questions were identified and organized into themes and subthemes discussed in this paper. Other published studies were read, and together with those that addressed the review question, a model was developed regarding how to enhance patient-centered care through effective communication.

Barriers to Patient-Centered Care and Communication

Nurses constitute a significant workforce of care providers whose practices can severely impact care outcomes (both positive and negative). Nurses spend much time with patients and their caregivers. As a result, positive nurse-patient and caregiver relationships are therapeutic and constitute a core component of care [ 9 , 13 ]. In many instances, nurses serve as translators or patients’ advocates, in addition to performing their primary care duties. Although good nurse-patient relationships positively impact nurse-patient communication and interaction, studies have shown that several factors impede these relationships with significant consequences on care outcomes and quality [ 6 , 16 , 17 ]. Thus, these barriers limit nurses’ and other care providers’ efforts to provide healthcare that meets patients’ and caregivers’ needs. We categorize the barriers to patient-centered care and communication into four kinds: institutional and healthcare system-related, communication-related, environment-related, and personal and behaviour-related barriers. Although these barriers are discussed in separate subheadings, they are interlinked in complex ways during clinical practice.

Institutional and Healthcare System Related Barriers

Many barriers to providing patient-centered care and communication during nurse-patient interactions emanate from healthcare institutional practices or the healthcare system itself. Some of these factors are implicated in healthcare policy or through management styles and strategies.

Shortage of nursing staff, high workload, burnout, and limited-time constituted one complex institutional and healthcare system-level barrier to effective care delivery [ 18 , 19 ]. For instance, Loghmani et al. [ 20 ] found that staffing shortages prevented nurses from having adequate time with patients and their caregivers in an Iranian intensive care unit. Limitations in nursing staff, coupled with a high workload, led to fewer interactions between nurses, patients, and caregivers. Similarly, Anoosheh et al. [ 16 ] found that heavy nursing workload was ranked highest as a limiting factor to therapeutic communication in nurse-patient interactions in Iran.

In a study on communication barriers in two hospitals affiliated with Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Norouzinia et al. [ 21 ] found that shortage of nurses, work overload, and insufficient time to interact with patients were significant barriers to effective nurse-patient interactions. Similar factors are identified as barriers to nurse-patient communication and interactions in other studies [ 13 , 16 , 18 ]. For instance, Amoah et al. [ 16 ] reported that nursing staff shortage and high workload were barriers to patient-centered care and therapeutic communication among Ghanaian nurses and patients. Amoah and colleagues reported a patient’s statement that:

[B]ecause there are few nurses at the ward, sometimes you would want a nurse to attend to you, but he or she might be working on another patient, so in such case, the nurse cannot divide him or herself into two to attend to you both [ 16 ].

Nurses and patients and their caregivers have noted that limited time affects nurse-patient interactions, communication, and care quality. Besides, Yoo et al. [ 22 ] reported that limited visiting hours affected communications between caregivers and nurses in a tertiary hospital in Seoul, Korea. Since the caregivers had limited time to spend with patients, they had little knowledge about the intensive care unit and distrusted the nurses.

Although nursing staff shortage is a significant barrier to patient-centered care and communication that healthcare institutions and managers must know, some healthcare scholars have critique nurses’ complaints of time limitation. For instance, McCabe [ 7 ] argued that the quality of nurse-patient interactions is what matters and not the quantity of time spent with patients and their caregivers. McCabe maintained that “spending long periods with patients does not always result in positive nurse-patient relationships” [ 7 ]. He argued that implementing patient-centered care does not require additional time; hence, nurses’ perceptions of being too busy cannot excuse poor therapeutic communication during clinical interactions. Instead, nurses are encouraged to develop self-awareness, self-reflection, and a commitment to ensuring that patients receive the needed care.

Another institution-related barrier to patient-centered care and communication is the healthcare system’s emphasis on task-centered care. Care providers are more focused on completing care procedures than satisfying patients’ and caregivers’ needs and preferences. This barrier to patient-centered care and communication is acknowledged in several studies [ 7 , 14 , 20 , 22 , 23 ]. For example, McLean [ 14 ] studied dementia care in nursing homes in the United States. She found that patient-centered care and communication in one nursing home (Snow I) were severely affected when nurses, physicians, and care managers focused on completing tasks or observing care and institutional routines to the detriment of satisfying patients’ care needs. However, in the other care home (Snow II), patient-centered care was enhanced as nurses, physicians, and the care home managers focused on addressing patients’ needs and values rather than completing care routines and tasks.

Similarly, Yoo and colleagues [ 22 ] observed that nurse-patient communication was affected when the ICU nurses placed urgency on completing tasks linked directly to patients’ health (e.g., stabilizing vital signs) than communicating to addressed patients’ specific needs. This evidence shows that when nurses are more task-focused, patients and caregivers are treated as bodies and objects, on which medical and care practices must be performed to restore health. Research has shown that when nurses focus on task-oriented care, it becomes hard to provide holistic care to patients or teach and communicate with patients even when nurses are less busy [ 20 ].

Nursing managers and their management styles can affect patient-centered care and communication. Studies have revealed that the management styles that nursing managers implement can either facilitate or impede patient-centered care [ 14 , 22 ]. When nurse managers orient their nursing staff towards task-centered care practices, it affects nurse-patient interaction and communication. Moreover, when nurse managers fail to address their staff’s mental health needs and personal challenges, it influences how nurses attend to patients’ care needs. For example, nurses have indicated that nurse-patient communication is affected when nurse managers are unsupportive or unresponsive to their needs [ 20 ].

In a study exploring nursing and midwifery managers’ perspectives on obstacles to compassion giving and therapeutic care across 17 countries, Papadopoulos et al. [ 24 ] discovered that nurses and midwifery managers’ characteristics and experiences could facilitate or impede compassion and therapeutic interactions in nursing care. Negative personal attitudes, including selfishness, arrogance, self-centeredness, rudeness, lack of leadership skills, the desire for power, and feelings of superiority among nurses and midwifery managers, were obstacles to compassion building. The study further showed that managers who emphasize rules, tasks, and results do not prioritize relationship-building and see their staff as workers rather than team members [ 24 ]. Therefore, nurse managers and care administrators must monitor nurse-patient interaction and communication to address nurses’ concerns and support them, especially in resource-constrained and high patient turnover contexts [ 25 , 26 ].

Communication-Related Barriers

Effective communication is essential to providing patient-centered care. Studies have shown that poor communication between care providers and patients and their caregivers affects care outcomes and perceptions of care quality [ 7 , 16 , 27 , 28 ]. A consistent communication-related barrier in nurse-patient interaction is miscommunication, which often leads to misunderstandings between nurses, patients, and their families [ 20 ]. Other communication-related barriers include language differences between patients and healthcare providers [ 6 , 16 , 27 ], poor communication skills, and patients’ inability to communicate due to their health state, especially in ICU, dementia, or end-of-life care contexts [ 13 , 22 ]. For instance, in their maternity care study, Madula et al. [ 6 ] noted that language barriers significantly affected effective communication between nurses/midwives and expectant mothers. A patient in their study indicated that although many nurses were polite and communicated well, some nurses had challenges communicating with patients in the Chitumbuka language, which affected those nurses’ ability to interact effectively with patients [ 6 ].

Furthermore, Norouzinia et al. [ 21 ] asserted that effective communication could not be established when nurses and patients have a language difference. Moreover, the meanings of certain non-verbal communication acts (e.g., head nodding, eye gaze, touch) can invoke different interpretations across different cultures, which could impede the interactions between patients and nurses. Even in healthcare contexts where nurses and patients speak the same language, “differences in vocabulary, rate of speaking, age, background, familiarity with medical technology, education, physical capability, and experience can create a huge cultural and communication chasm” between nurses and patients [ 12 ]. In ICU and other similar care settings, nurses find it difficult to effectively communicate with patients because the mechanical ventilators made it hard for patients to talk [ 22 ].

To overcome the communication-related barriers, healthcare institutions must make it a responsibility to engage translators and interpreters to facilitate nurse-patient interactions where a language barrier exists. Moreover, nurses working in ICU and other similar settings should learn and employ alternative forms of communication to interact with patients.

Environment-Related Barriers

The environment of the care setting can impact nurse-patient communication and the resulting care. Thus, “good health care experiences start with a welcoming environment” [ 29 ]. Mastors believed that even though good medicine and the hands working to provide care and healing to the sick and wounded are essential, we must not “forget the small things: a warm smile, an ice chip, a warm blanket, a cool washcloth. A pillow flipped to the other side and a boost in bed” [ 29 ]. The environment-related barriers are obstacles within the care setting that inhibit nurse-patient interaction and communication and may include a noisy surrounding, unkept wards, and beds, difficulties in locating places, and navigating care services. Noisy surroundings, lack of privacy, improper ventilation, heating, cooling, and lighting in specific healthcare units can affect nurse-patient communication. These can prevent patients from genuinely expressing their healthcare needs to nurses, which can subsequently affect patient disclosure or make nursing diagnoses less accurate [ 13 , 18 , 21 ]. For instance, Amoah et al. [ 16 ] revealed that an unconducive care environment, including noisy surroundings and poor ward conditions, affected patients’ psychological states, impeding nurse-patient relationships and communication. Moreover, when care services are not well-coordinated, new patients and their caregivers find it hard to navigate the care system (e.g., locating offices for medical tests and consultations), which can constrain patient-centered care and communication.

Reducing the environment-related barriers will require making the care setting tidy/clean, less noisy, and coordinating care services in ways that make it easy for patients and caregivers to access. Coordinating and integrating care services, making care services accessible, and promoting physical comfort are crucial in promoting patient-centered care, according to Picker’s Eight Principles of Patient-Centered Care [ 30 ].

Personal and Behaviour Related Barriers

The kind of nurse-patient relationships established between nurses and patients and their caregivers will affect how they communicate. Since nurses and patients may have different demographic characteristics, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, beliefs, and worldviews about health and illnesses, nurses’, patients’, and caregivers’ attitudes can affect nurse-patient communication and care outcomes. For instance, differences in nurses’ and patients’ cultural backgrounds and belief systems have been identified as barriers to therapeutic communication and care [ 12 , 13 , 21 ]. Research shows that patients’ beliefs and cultural backgrounds affected their communication with nurses in Ghana [ 16 ]. These scholars found that some patients refused a blood transfusion, and Muslim patients refused female nurses to attend to them because of their religious beliefs [ 16 ]. Further, when nurses, patients, or their caregivers have misconceptions about one another due to past experiences, dissatisfaction about the care provided, or patients’ relatives and caregivers unduly interfere in the care process, nurse-patient communication and patient-centered care were affected [ 16 , 21 ].

Similarly, nurse-patient communication was affected when patients or caregivers failed to observe nurses’ recommendations or abuse nurses due to misunderstanding [ 20 ], while patients’ bad attitudes or disrespectful behaviours towards nurses can inhibit nurses’ ability to provide person-centered care [ 31 ]. The above-reviewed studies provided evidence on how patients’ and caregivers’ behaviours can affect nurses’ ability to communicate and deliver patient-centered care.

On the other hand, nurses’ behaviours can also profoundly affect communication and care outcomes in the nurse-patient dyad. When nurses disrespect, verbally abuse (e.g., shouting at or scolding), and discriminate against patients based on their social status, it affects nurse-patient communication, care outcomes, and patient disclosure [ 6 , 32 ]. For instance, Al-Kalaldeh et al. [ 18 ] believe that nurse-patient communication is challenged when nurses become reluctant to hear patients’ feelings and expressions of anxiety. When nurses ignore patients’ rights to share ideas and participate in their care planning, such denials may induce stress, discomfort, lack of trust in nurses, thereby leading to less satisfaction of care [ 18 ].

Furthermore, when nurses fail to listen to patients’ and caregivers’ concerns, coerce patients to obey their rules and instructions [ 16 , 17 , 20 ], or fail to provide patients with the needed information, nurse-patient communication and patient-centered care practices suffer. To illustrate, in Ddumba-Nyanzia et al.‘s study on communication between HIV care providers and patients, a patient remarked that: “I realized no matter how much I talked to the counselor, she was not listening. She was only hearing her point of view and nothing else, [and] I was very upset” [ 17 ]. This quote indicates how care provider attitudes can constrain care outcomes. Due to high workload, limited time, poor remunerations, and shortage of personnel, some nurses can develop feelings of despair, emotional detachment, and apathy towards their job, which can lead to low self-esteem or poor self-image, with negative consequences on nurse-patient interactions [ 13 , 18 ].

Given the significance of effective communication on care, overcoming the above personal and behaviour related barriers to patient-centered care and communication is crucial. Nurses, patients, and caregivers need to reflect on the consequences of their behaviours on the care process. Thus, overcoming these barriers begins with embracing the facilitators of patient-centered care and communication, which we turn to in the next section.

Facilitators of patient-centered care and communication

Patient-centered care and communication can be facilitated in several ways, including building solid nurse-patient relationships.

First, an essential facilitator of patient-centered care and communication is overcoming practical communication barriers in the nurse-patient dyad. Given the importance of communication in healthcare delivery, nurses, patients, caregivers, nursing managers, and healthcare administrators need to ensure that effective therapeutic communication is realized in the care process and becomes part of the care itself. Studies have shown that active listening among care providers is essential to addressing many barriers to patient-centered care and communication [ 7 , 13 ]. Although handling medical tasks promptly in the care process is crucial, the power of active listening is critical, meaningful, and therapeutic [ 22 ]. By listening to patients’ concerns, nurses can identify patients’ care needs and preferences and address their fears and frustrations.

Another facilitator of patient-centered care is by understanding patients and their unique needs [ 25 ], showing empathy and attending attitudes [ 7 , 13 ], expressing warmth and respect [ 22 ], and treating patients and caregivers with dignity and compassion as humans. For instance, McCabe [ 7 ] noted that attending, which obligates nurses to demonstrate that they are accessible and ready to listen to patients, is a patient-centered care process; a fundamental requirement for nurses to show genuineness and empathy, despite the high workload. Showing empathy, active listening, respect, and treating patients with dignity are core to nursing and care, and recognized in the Code of Ethics for Nurses [ 33 ], and further emphasized in the ongoing revision of the Code of Ethics for nurses [ 34 ].

Besides, engaging patients and caregivers in the care process through sharing information, inviting their opinion, and collaborating with them constitutes another facilitator of patient-centered care and communication. When patients and caregivers are engaged in the care process, misunderstandings and misconceptions are minimized. When information is shared, patients and caregivers learn more about their health conditions and the care needed. As McLean [ 14 ] argued, ensuring open communication between care providers and patients and their families is essential to enhancing patient-centered care. Conflicts ensue when patients or their families are denied information or involvement in the care process. As a result, the Harvard Medical School [ 30 ] identified patient engagement, information sharing, and nurse-patient collaboration during care as essential patient-centered care principles.

Finally, health policy must be oriented towards healthcare practices and management to facilitate patient-centered care and communication. These policies, at a minimum, can involve changes in management styles within healthcare institutions, where nurse managers and healthcare administrators reflect on nursing and care practices to ensure that the Code of Ethics of Nurses and patients’ rights are fully implemented. Resource constraints, staff shortages, and ethical dilemmas mainly affect care practices and decision-making. Nonetheless, if patients are placed at the center of care and treated with dignity and respect, most of the challenges and barriers of patient-centered care will diminish. Empowering practicing nurses, equipping them with interpersonal communication skills through regular in-service training, supporting them to overcome their emotional challenges, and setting boundaries during nurse-patient interactions will enhance patient-centered care practices.

In line with the above discussion, Camara et al. [ 25 ] identify three core dimensions that nurses, patients, and caregivers must observe to enhance patient-centered care: treating the patient as a person and seeing the care provider as a person and a confidant. Regarding the first dimension, care providers must welcome patients, listen to them, share information with them, seek their consent, and show them respect when providing care. The second dimension requires that the healthcare provider be seen and respected as a person, and negative perceptions about care providers must be demystified. According to Camara et al. [ 25 ], care providers must not overemphasize their identities as experts but rather establish good relationships with patients to understand patients’ personal needs and problems. Lastly, patients and caregivers must regard care providers as confidants who build and maintain patients’ trust and encourage patients’ participation in care conversations. With this dimension, patients and caregivers must know that nurses and other care providers have the patient at heart and work to meet their care needs and recovery process.

Camara et al.‘s [ 25 ] three dimensions are essential and position patients, their caregivers, and nurses as partners who must engage in dialogic communication to promote patient-centered care. As a result, effective communication, education, and increased health literacy among patients and caregivers will be crucial in that direction.

Enhancing Patient-Centered Care and Communication: A Proposed Model

Nursing care practices that promote patient-centered communication will directly enhance patient-centered care, as patients and their caregivers will actively engage in the care process. To enhance patient-centered communication, we propose person-centered care and communication continuum (PC4) as a guiding model to understand patient-centered communication, its pathways, and what communication and care practices healthcare professionals must implement to achieve person-centered care. In this PC4 Model, we emphasize the person instead of the patient because they are a person before becoming a patient. Moreover, the PC4 Model is supposed to apply to all persons associated with patient care; thus, respect for the dignity of their personhood is crucial.

Although much is written about patient-centered communication in the healthcare literature, there is a gap regarding its trajectory and what communication content enhances patient-centered communication. Also, little is known about how different clinical discourse spaces influence communication and its content during nurse-patient clinical interactions. Using evidence from Johnsson et al. [ 3 ], Murira et al. [ 23 ], and Liu et al. [ 35 ], among other studies, we outline the components of the PC4 Model and how different discourse spaces in the clinical setting and the content of communication impact patient-centered care and communication.

The proposed PC4 Model in this paper has three unbounded components based on the purpose of and how communication is performed among care providers, patients, and their caregivers. Figure 1 illustrates the PC4 Model, its features, and trajectory.

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A Person-Centered Care and Communication Continuum (PC4 Model)

Task-Centered Communication

At the lowest end of the PC4 Model is task-centered communication. Here, the care provider’s role is to complete medical tasks as fast as possible with little or no communication with the patient and their caregivers. Patients and caregivers are treated as bodies or objects whose disease symptoms need to be studied, identified, recorded, treated, or cured. As Johnsson et al. [ 3 ] observed, communication content at this stage is mainly biomedically oriented, where nurses and other healthcare professionals focus on the precise medical information (e.g., history taking, medical examination, test results, medication, etc.) about the patient. With a task-centered orientation, nurses make journal entries about their patients’ disease state and ensure that treatment plans, diagnostic tests, and medical prescriptions are completed. Communication at this stage is often impersonal or rigid (see [ 23 ] for details). Care providers may address patients and their caregivers by using informal attributes (e.g., bed 12, the woman in the red shirt, card 8, etc.), thereby ignoring patients’ and caregivers’ personal and unique identities. Patients’ and caregivers’ nonverbal communication signs are mostly overlooked.

Motivations for task-centered communication can be attributed to time limitation, high workload, and staff shortage, thereby pushing nurses and other care providers to reach as many patients as possible. Moreover, the healthcare system’s orientation towards and preference for biomedically-focused care seems to favour task-centered communication [ 7 , 14 ].

Depending on the clinical discourse space under which patient-provider interactions occur, different forms of communication are employed. Clinical discourse spaces can be public (e.g., in the ward, patient bedside), private (e.g., consulting rooms, medical test labs, nurse staff station, etc.), or semi-private (e.g., along the corridor) [ 35 ]. In these clinical discourse spaces, nurse-patient communication can be uninformed (patients or caregivers are not informed about patients’ care conditions or why specific data and routines are performed). It can be non-private (others can hear what the nurse and patient are talking about) or authoritative (care providers demonstrate power and control and position themselves as experts) [ 23 ]. Finally, in task-centered communication, healthcare providers often use medical jargon or terminologies [ 3 ] since the goal of communication is not to engage the patient in the process. Usually, patients or their caregivers are not allowed to ask questions, or their questions get ignored or receive superficial, incomprehensible responses.

Process-Centered Communication

Process-centered communication is an intermediate stage on the continuum, which could slip back into the task-centered or leap forward into person-centered communication. Through process-centered communication, care providers make an effort to know patients and their caregivers as they perform care routines. Care providers ask patients or their caregivers questions to understand the care conditions but may not encourage patients or caregivers to express their thoughts about their care needs. Patients and caregivers are recognized as persons with uniques care needs but may not have the agency to influence the care process. Care providers may chit-chat with patients or their caregivers to pass the time as they record patients’ medical records or provide care. Unlike task-centered communication, there is informative and less authoritative communication between nurses and patients and their caregivers. The goal of process-centered communication could be a mixture of instrumental and relational, with less display of power and control by nurses.

Person-Centered Communication

This is the highest point of the PC4 Model, where patient-centered care is actualized. At this stage of the communication continuum, patients and caregivers are treated as unique persons with specific care needs and are seen as collaborators in the care process. As McLean [ 14 ] observed, caregiving becomes a transactional relationship between the care provider and receiver at the person-centered stage of the continuum. The care itself becomes intersubjective, a mutual relational practice, and an ongoing negotiation for care providers and receivers [ 14 ].

The content of communication at this stage of the continuum is both “personal” and “explanatory” [ 3 ]. Nurses and other healthcare providers create meaningful relationships with patients and their caregivers, understand patients’ concerns, needs, and problems, use open-ended questions to encourage patients or caregivers to express their thoughts and feelings about the care situation. Nurses and other healthcare professionals explain care routines, patients’ health conditions, and management plans in lay language to patients and caregivers through person-centered communication. Accomplishing this level includes employing alternative forms of communication to meet the needs of intensive care unit patients, deaf patients, and ventilated and intubated patients. For instance, it has been shown that “deaf people […] frequently do not have access to clear and efficient communication in the healthcare system, which deprives them of critical health information and qualified health care” [ 36 ]. Empathetic communication practices, including active listening, showing genuine interest in patients’ care, and respect and warmth, become a significant part of nursing care [ 3 , 7 , 14 , 22 ].

Different communication strategies are employed based on the care situation and context. Chit-chatting, as a form of personal communication [ 3 ], use of humor as a communication strategy [ 7 , 8 ], and even maintaining silence [ 28 ] are essential in enhancing person-centered care and communication. Both care providers and patients or their caregivers use relationship-building and -protecting humor (see [ 28 ] for details) to address difficult situations in the care process.

Implications of the PC4 Model for Nursing Practice

Given the values of effective communication in nurse-patient interactions and care outcomes, nurses and other healthcare providers must ensure that they develop therapeutic relationships with patients, their families, and caregivers to promote person-centered care and communication. Achieving that begins with knowing and reflecting on the barriers of therapeutic communication and ways to minimize them. The PC4 Model draws nurses and all healthcare providers’ attention to patient-centered care pathways and how effective communication is necessary. Healthcare professionals, including nurses, must be aware of how their communication orientation–––either oriented toward completing tasks, following care processes or toward addressing patients’ and their caregivers’ needs––can impact patient-centered care. Healthcare providers must observe the care context, patients’ unique situations, their non-verbal language and action, and whether they belong to historically marginalized groups or cultures.

Mastors [ 29 ] has offered healthcare providers some guidance to reflect on as they communicate and interact with patients and caregivers. Thus, (a) instead of asking patients, “What’s the matter?“ care providers must consider asking them, “What’s important to you?“ With this question, the patient is given a voice and empowered to contribute to their own care needs. Care providers should (b) check with patients in the waiting room to update patients whose waiting time has been longer than usual, based on the care context. They should also (c) try to remember their conversations with patients to build on them during subsequent interactions. This continuity can be enhanced by nurse managers reexamining how they deploy care providers to patients. The same nurse can be assigned to the same patients for the duration of the patient’s stay to help patients feel valued and visible [ 29 ].

Knowledge of cultural competence, sensitivity, humility, and interpersonal communication skills will help achieve and implement the PC4 Model. As Cuellar [ 37 ] argues, “[h]umility is about understanding and caring for all people [and] being empathetic.“ Cultural competence is a “dynamic process of acquiring the ability to provide effective, safe, and quality care to the patients through considering their different cultural aspects” [ 38 ]. The concept of cultural competence entails “cultural openness, awareness, desire, knowledge and sensitivity” during care [ 39 ]. It demands that care providers respect and tailor care to align with patients’ and caregivers’ values, needs, practices, and expectations, based on care and moral ethics and understanding [ 39 ]. Active listening and showing compassion as therapeutic relationship-building skills are essential, and continuous education and mentorship will be crucial to developing these skills among healthcare providers.

We invite qualitative and quantitative studies, especially on language use and communication strategies, to explore and evaluate the PC4 Model. Providing in-depth and experiential data on ways to increase its effectiveness as a tool to guide healthcare providers is highly desired. More knowledge can support healthcare providers in offering evidence-based patient-centered care in different healthcare settings and units.

Conclusions

Effective communication is an essential factor in nurse-patient interactions and a core component of nursing care. When communication in the nurse-patient dyad is patient-centered, it becomes therapeutic. It allows for trust and mutual respect in the care process, thereby promoting care practices that address patients’ and caregivers’ needs, concerns, and preferences. We have identified the barriers and facilitators of patient-centered care and communication and proposed a person-centered care and communication continuum (PC4 Model) to demonstrate how patient-centered communication intersects with patient-centered care.

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the first author’s doctoral committee members for their valuable comments, suggestions, and critique of an earlier version of this paper. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for the insightful comments and suggestions that have helped us improve the study’s quality.

Authors' information

Abukari Kwame is a Ph.D. candidate in Interdisciplinary Studies in the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, University of Saskatchewan, interested in patients' rights in nurse-patient clinical communications and interactions in the hospital setting. He holds two Master of Philosophy degrees in Indigenous Studies and English Linguistics. Abukari's research interests include language use in social interaction, health communication, First/Second language acquisition, African traditional medical knowledge, and Indigenous and qualitative research methodologies.

Pammla M. Petrucka is a professor in Nursing and has international research experience with many of her graduate students from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. Pammla has published extensively in the field of nursing. Her research interests are vast, including child and maternal health, Indigenous peoples' health, global health, and vulnerable populations, with extensive experiences in qualitative research and indigenous research methodologies. Pammla is co-editor of the BMC Nursing journal and a reviewer for many other academic journals.

Abbreviations

Authors’ contributions.

Both authors conceived the topic. PMP recommended the literature, AK searched and added more sources, and drafted the paper. PMP reviewed the paper for intellectual content. Both AK and PMP read and approved the final version.

The authors have not received any funding for the conduct, preparation, and publication of this paper.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

Not Applicable.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

5. The Literature Review
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE: Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews." Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II. Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1. Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2. What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3. Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4. Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5. Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV. Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V. Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

How are they organizing their ideas?
What methods have they used to study the problem?
What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research? Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process.

What is the purpose of literature review?
a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:
b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:
c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:
d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

How to write a good literature review

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:
Decide on the Scope of Your Review:
Select Databases for Searches:
Conduct Searches and Keep Track:
Review the Literature:
Organize and Write Your Literature Review:
How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?
Frequently asked questions

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge.

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field.

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research.

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered.

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research.

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature.

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic.

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies:

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements.

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources.

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning.

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements.

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review.

Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field.
Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address.
Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research.
Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic.
Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review.

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria.

Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement.
Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic.
Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature.
Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps.
Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review.

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research.

Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective.
Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field.
Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice.
Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field.
Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community.

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study.
Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore?

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview?
Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region?
Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude?

Select Databases for Searches:

Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.
Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic.

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques.
Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability.
Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references.

Review the Literature:

Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies.
Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research.
Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives.
Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions.
Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research?

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches.
Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered.
Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research.

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A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic.

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods.

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers. Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved. Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic. Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings. Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject. It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review: Introduction: Provide an overview of the topic. Define the scope and purpose of the literature review. State the research question or objective. Body: Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology. Critically analyze and evaluate each source. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies. Highlight any methodological limitations or biases. Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research. Conclusion: Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review. Highlight the research gap. Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction. Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows:

References

Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234.
Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis.
Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center .

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A decadal study on identifying latent topics and research trends in open access LIS journals using topic modeling approach

Published: 03 June 2024

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Abhijit Thakuria ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3852-1982 1 &
Dipen Deka 1

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The study utilized Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) Topic modeling to identify prevalent latent topics within Open Access (OA) Library and Information Science (LIS) journals from 2013 to 2022. Eight core OA Scopus indexed journals were selected based on their SJR scores and DOAJ listing. Titles, Abstracts and keywords of 2589 articles were extracted from the Scopus database. R software packages were used to perform data analysis and LDA topic modeling. The optimal value of k was determined to be 9. The analysis revealed that 53.89% of documents comprise over 50% of a certain topic (θ > 0.50). Notably, ‘Scholarly Communication’ and ‘Information Systems, Models and Frameworks’ emerged as dominant topics with the highest proportions of research literature in the corpus. The topic ‘Scholarly Communication’ experienced significant growth with an average annual growth rate (AAGR) of 4.37%, while ‘Collection development and E-resources’ exhibited the lowest research proportion and a negative AAGR of − 4.22%. Additionally, topics such as ‘Information Seeking Behaviour and User Studies’, ‘User Education and Information Literacy’, and ‘Information Retrieval and Systematic Review’ remained stable and persistent topics. Conversely, research on traditional topics like ‘Librarianship and Profession’, ‘Bibliometrics’ and ‘Medical Library and Health Information’ showed a gradual decline. The LDA topic modeling approach unveiled previously unknown or unexplored topics in open access LIS research literature, enhancing our understanding of emerging trends.

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Thakuria, A., Deka, D. A decadal study on identifying latent topics and research trends in open access LIS journals using topic modeling approach. Scientometrics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05058-4

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Coming in from the cold: Addressing the challenges experienced by women conducting remote polar fieldwork

Contributed equally to this work with: Maria Dance, Rebecca Julianne Duncan, Marjolein Gevers, Eleanor Maedhbh Honan, Elaine Runge, Florina Roana Schalamon, Daniela Marianne Regina Walch

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom, Department of Arctic Biology, University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway

Affiliations Department of Arctic Biology, University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway, School of Life Sciences, University Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Institute of Earth Surface Dynamics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Geography, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom

Affiliation DHI A/S- DHI Water Environment Health, Hørsholm, Denmark

Affiliation Department of Geography and Regional Sciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria

Affiliation Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Canada

Maria Dance,
Rebecca Julianne Duncan,
Marjolein Gevers,
Eleanor Maedhbh Honan,
Elaine Runge,
Florina Roana Schalamon,
Daniela Marianne Regina Walch

Published: June 5, 2024
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393
Peer Review
Reader Comments

Remote fieldwork is an important component of polar research across both physical and social sciences. There is increasing recognition that the inherent logistical, physical, psychological, and interpersonal challenges of remote polar fieldwork are not felt equally across the polar research community, with minority groups often disproportionately affected. Although historically lacking diversity, the demographics of polar researchers have shifted, and the way polar research is conducted has been changing in response. However, there are still barriers to equal participation. Removing these barriers would attract scientists from more diverse backgrounds and improve scientific outcomes. We explored the lived experiences of those who identify as women in polar fieldwork through a review of current literature and an anonymous survey, using existing networks to connect with women working in polar research. We synthesised survey responses with regards to topics such as harassment, hygiene, inefficient communication, gendered work expectations and responsibilities to form a holistic understanding of the key fieldwork challenges faced by women. The majority of survey respondents (79%, n = 320) had encountered negative experiences during fieldwork, with the most common and impactful issues relating to field team dynamics and communication, sexism, rest, and weather. Many other issues including fieldwork preparation, work expectations, harassment, and personal space and privacy were also raised by respondents. We identify critical points of action from the survey results and in literature and propose strategies to remove barriers to participation and improve the experiences of women in polar fieldwork. These include individual- and organisational-level strategies for pre, during, and post fieldwork. A diverse polar research community is imperative in order to address the challenges presented by current unprecedented climate change. Though this study focussed on women’s experiences, we seek to advance the discourse on challenges faced by all minorities in polar research.

Citation: Dance M, Duncan RJ, Gevers M, Honan EM, Runge E, Schalamon FR, et al. (2024) Coming in from the cold: Addressing the challenges experienced by women conducting remote polar fieldwork. PLOS Clim 3(6): e0000393. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393

Editor: Noureddine Benkeblia, University of the West Indies, JAMAICA

Received: December 22, 2023; Accepted: April 20, 2024; Published: June 5, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Dance et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The authors are unable to share this data; due to approved reasons, access restrictions apply to the data underlying the findings of this study. The data utilized in this research originates from a survey focused on respondents' experiences in polar fieldwork. The sensitive nature of this dataset, coupled with the small and closely-knit polar fieldwork community, raises concerns about the potential identifiability of individuals based on combinations of answers, including protected characteristics. The APECS International Directorate will serve as the primary contact for any future data requests. Requests should be directed to the APECS International Directorate at [email protected] .

Funding: The authors did not receive specific funding for this work. RJD was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship and an AINSE Ltd. Postgraduate Research Award (PGRA), MG was supported by SNF project no. PZ00P2_202024, FRS was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [P35388], and DMRW was supported through the FRQNT PBEEE Merit Scholarship (grant number #321150). The authors did not receive specific funding for this project. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

The polar regions—the Arctic, Antarctica, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (often termed the Third Pole)—are currently experiencing some of the most pronounced and rapid environmental changes globally [ 1 ]. As a result, understanding the underlying processes and possible impacts of climate change in these regions is of utmost importance. A diverse and inclusive polar research community is imperative when aiming to solve complex global problems related to climate change [ 2 – 4 ].

Globally, women and other marginalised or minority groups encounter persistent challenges in receiving equal treatment and opportunities. In line with fostering sustainable development worldwide, the promotion of women’s empowerment and gender equality is a key focus of the internationally recognized Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 for 2030 [ 5 ]. Women constitute only about 30% of the global scientific community [ 6 ], while in climate science, women constitute only 22% of authors of the 100 most highly cited climate science papers 2016–2020 [ 4 ], and only 122 of the ‘Reuters Hot List of the world’s 1000 top climate scientists’ were women [ 7 ]. In addition, 41% of the responding women authors for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) landmark reports identified gender as a barrier to their success [ 8 , 9 ].

Barriers also persist for equitable participation of women in polar research [ 10 ]. Whilst the overall number of women in this field is not known, underrepresentation is evident in polar organisations; women make up 39% of the British Antarctic Survey [ 11 ], 40% of the Australian Antarctic Division [ 10 ] and 21% of investigators in ArcticNet Canada [ 2 ]. However, whilst the polar research community has historically lacked cultural and gender diversity, there has been a slow but steady growth in female participation, accompanied by a reduction in institutional barriers [ 12 – 14 ]. Currently 57% of the members of the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS) are women (personal communication with APECS International Directorate, November 2023), and the proportion of female-led Antarctic research has shown an upward trend since the 1980s [ 10 ].

The ubiquitous challenges of climate change and the urgency to act does not allow for the exclusion of skills or knowledge and underrepresentation of women in climate sciences [ 15 ]. In addition, the political and socioeconomic struggles associated with climate change are expected to disproportionately impact women and girls [ 16 ]. A more diverse scientific community is necessary to find comprehensive and inclusive solutions to global challenges. Diverse research groups have benefits such as producing research that is perceived to be of higher quality, as well as increased leadership quality [ 17 ]. Whereas lack of diversity is an impediment to a strong and sustainable climate research community and has substantial societal implications and economic consequences [ 18 ]. In addition, a greater number of female leaders may foster greater commitment to sustainable development and contributions to the achievement of global efforts such as the SDG 13 Climate Action goal [ 19 ].

Institutional changes are required to improve diversity in polar research [ 20 ]. Frameworks, policies, and entities dedicated to fostering equity, diversity, and inclusion (collectively known as ‘EDI’) have played a role in increasing the involvement of women and other minority groups in polar sciences. However, these initiatives have been critiqued for addressing minority categories in an undifferentiated manner, rather than a holistic and intersectional approach [ 21 , 22 ]. Moreover, there are concerns about the risk of inadvertently fostering an environment where distribution of support is imbalanced across minority groups [ 23 ], and that these measures may not be strong enough to bring about substantial and meaningful change [ 2 ].

EDI initiatives rarely extend to fieldwork settings, even though fieldwork is an integral part of polar research for many disciplines and comes with its own set of risks and issues. There is increasing recognition that the inherent challenges of fieldwork are not felt equally across the polar research community, with minority groups often being disproportionately negatively affected [ 10 , 24 , 25 ]. Fieldwork continues to present obstacles for women, potentially perpetuating the "leaky pipeline" phenomenon of an escalating underrepresentation of qualified women in higher career stages [ 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 – 27 ], although this framework has been critiqued for not incorporating intersectional disadvantage [ 10 , 26 ]. These barriers to equal participation in fieldwork may affect career progression, as fieldwork opportunities, participation, and leadership roles are prerequisites for many careers, particularly in field-based sciences such as geosciences [ 28 ]. Enhancing the quality of fieldwork operations and the overall experiences of underrepresented groups, particularly women, can advance diversity and sustainability in polar climate change research. Reflecting the relatively recent emergence of this discourse (acknowledging the longstanding nature of the issue itself), there is a scarcity of documented knowledge and reports on female experiences in polar fieldwork, as well as pathways/strategies towards fostering a more inclusive research practice.

1.1 Literature review

In a scoping literature review on available peer-reviewed and grey literature ( i . e ., news articles, blogs) on women conducting polar fieldwork, a total of only n = 31 records could be identified to address women or female experiences in polar fieldwork (see S1 Text ). Of these records, n = 29 (93.55%) are assumed to have a female first author. Until recently, issues faced by female researchers in isolating and confined environments of remote fieldwork [ 24 ] and polar fieldwork [ 29 ] remained disregarded in scientific publications. Contributions to this emerging discourse stem from anecdotal or biographical publications (e.g. [ 30 ]) as well as formalised studies and surveys [ 10 ] that aim to establish a baseline for women-specific experiences in the field.

The isolating nature of polar fieldwork [ 29 ] has the potential to leave minority and marginalised groups particularly vulnerable. For example, Nash et al. [ 10 ] identified physical barriers, unpaid work, gender bias, lack of opportunities, and sexual harassment as issues faced by women in Antarctic research. Sexual harassment has been at the forefront of a growing discourse surrounding women and fieldwork, propelled by the momentum of the global #MeToo movement [ 25 , 31 ]. In recent years, reports have emerged from several major national polar programmes documenting instances of extreme abuse of female scientists and fieldworkers [ 32 ]. In addition, in a landmark survey, Clancy et al. [ 33 ] found that 71% of female field scientists had experienced harassment while doing fieldwork, one in four had been assaulted, and 84% of those harassed women were ‘trainee-level’ (student and post-doctoral). Early career researchers (ECRs) are therefore often carrying the load of both experiencing a disproportionate level of harassment whilst having a key role to play in establishing an open dialogue on inclusivity and equity in polar research practices [ 25 , 34 ].

There has been a significant increase in publications on women involved in polar fieldwork over the past two years with three records in 2022 (9.4% of the total records found) and eight records in 2023 (25% of the total records found). The limited existing body of literature focuses predominantly on Antarctic fieldwork and its unique characteristics of remoteness and historically routed heteronormativity and masculinity [ 10 , 21 , 31 ]. Publications by Nash and colleagues on the matter have been pivotal to the awareness of specific challenges, such as issues of hygiene and sexual harassment [ 10 , 31 , 35 , 36 ]. Arctic field research (e.g. [ 2 , 12 , 30 ]) and global ship-based fieldwork [ 37 ] have equally gained attention and diversify the perspectives on these issues. The overall low number of publications does, however, not allow for an in-depth systematic review and statistical analysis.

1.2 Study aims

This study builds upon published work and focuses on collating the lived experiences of women conducting polar fieldwork through a survey published herein. The authors aim to add to the discourse surrounding the unique challenges faced by this minority. A holistic understanding of the challenges women face is needed in order to identify strategies to improve their participation and experiences. We propose strategies that address the specific needs articulated by survey respondents, which could aid in creating a more diverse and inclusive polar community overall.

2.1 Survey design & implementation

The target group of the survey encompassed people who identify as women and have conducted or are conducting fieldwork in the polar regions. Polar research was defined as research of all academic disciplines occurring in the Arctic, Antarctic, and the Third Pole, while fieldwork was defined as practical work conducted by a researcher in the natural environment, rather than in a laboratory or office.

This survey drew inspiration from Beniest et al. [ 38 ] and Cech et al. [ 39 ] and took into account guidelines provided by the National Science Foundation [ 40 ], the National Center for Women & Information Technology [ 41 ], and the United Nations [ 42 ]. Invitations for participation in the survey were shared over various institutional and international mailing lists and forums, as well as Facebook groups and personal contacts during September and October 2023. We aimed to reach as many people as possible, thus, reflecting a diverse community of respondents. We acknowledge that the authors’ backgrounds may have influenced the networks the survey reached and potentially reduced sample representativeness. The survey was only made available in English, which may have further reduced the pool of potential respondents.

The survey explored three main aspects: demographics of respondents, fieldwork characteristics, and fieldwork experiences. These aspects included the following topics: demographics, fieldwork type, fieldwork preparation, fieldwork practicalities (communication, physical aspects, rest breaks), working in a team, post-fieldwork debrief, negative experiences, and options for feedback. The survey consisted of a combination of multiple-choice questions (including open-ended options, hereafter “free text options”), rating scale questions, dichotomous questions, and open-ended questions (the results of which are hereafter “long-form responses”). There were no compulsory questions. For the complete list of questions see S2 Text .

2.2 Survey ethics statement

To ensure participant anonymity, the survey did not collect any individual identifiers such as names, IP addresses, or contact details. As survey responses would be anonymous and data would not be identifiable to individuals, institutional ethical approval was not sought. Before the start of the survey, potential participants were informed of the research aim, methods, and scope, as well as potential survey outputs, data anonymity and data protection policy, potential risks, and researcher background and contact details in writing (Information text, see S2 Text ). After reading this information, participation in the survey implied consent, with all questions optional. Since the researchers had no direct contact with participants and data were anonymised before access and analysis, a formal informed consent process was not used. To further ensure the anonymity of the participants, small subgroups were merged and identifying attributes, as well as an individual’s full set of responses, were not analysed or shared collectively. Only a smaller subgroup of the research team had access to the data for analysis, which was saved in a secure storage, and not permanently stored locally. Furthermore, any statements or wording in the long-form responses that could have led to the recognition of an individual’s institution, country of origin, or a certain expedition were removed from quotations used in this article.

2.3 Survey data analysis

Survey responses were downloaded in.csv format from Google forms on the 6th November 2023. Demographic data of all survey respondents was summarised using a circular packing algorithm [ 43 ] implemented in the R package ‘packcircles’ v 0.3.6 [ 44 ], where proportion of answers was denoted by circle size and the question was denoted by colour. After the demographic analysis we excluded respondents who did not respond “woman” when asked which gender they identified as in the survey, in order to conduct further analysis on the experiences of people who identify as women. The multiple-choice answers were transformed to numerical categories to simplify the data handling with python 3.7.10 [ 45 ] and R v 4.3.2 [ 46 ] to visualise results. The following python packages were used: pandas v 1.2.4 [ 47 ], numpy v 1.20.2 [ 48 ], and matplotlib 3.4.1 [ 49 ]. As all multiple-choice answers had a free text “other” option, resulting answers were manually categorised by the authors, sometimes leading to additional categories which were not part of the preset answers. Demographic questions, multiple choice questions, rating scale questions, and dichotomous questions were summarised numerically as the proportion of respondents per question. Analyses and plots conducted in R used the tidyverse packages [ 50 ].

The most commonly used words in long-form responses to the questions “Please feel free to elaborate on these [negative] experiences, if you would like’’ and “How do you feel about conducting fieldwork in the future?” were visualised using word clouds, in which the proportion of times a word was used by survey respondents was denoted by the size of the word within the word cloud. The word clouds were constrained to include words that were used by a minimum of four respondents and non-indicative words, such as prepositions, were excluded from the word cloud. Analyses were performed using R Studio v. 2023.09.0 [ 46 ] and the R packages ‘ggplot2’ version 3.3.6 [ 51 ], ‘wordcloud’ version 2.6 [ 52 ] and ‘stringr’, version 1.5.0 [ 53 ]. The long-form responses were also manually reviewed for quotations related to topics that had emerged as important themes within the numerical survey results. Additional themes that emerged as important in the long-form responses ( i . e ., topics or issues that were consistently raised by multiple respondents) were identified during this process and included in the results. In the results, quotations were reported as verbatim, with corrections for spelling and conciseness indicated by ‘[…]’.

3.1 Demographics of survey respondents

The survey was completed by 338 respondents between 26th September - 6th November 2023. Of these, 96% identified as woman (n = 324), 1.8% identified as man (n = 6), 1.5% identified as non-binary (n = 5), and the rest (n = 3) as others or no answer was given. The majority of respondents were between 26–40 years old (66%, n = 221) and described their race or ethnicity as Caucasian/White (86%, n = 299). Most respondents did not identify as someone who lives with a disability or chronic condition (87%, n = 295), or as having lived experience as a transgender person (95%, n = 324). Demographic information is summarised in Fig 1 . Respondents’ polar fieldwork was associated with 31 different countries, primarily within Europe (56%, n = 190), followed by the USA (21%, n = 70) and Canada (13%, n = 45). When undertaking fieldwork, 54% of respondents said their native language was the main language of communication (n = 180). For more detail on demographic results, see S3 Text .

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Age of respondents is reported in blue, identified gender is reported in pink, identified ethnicity is reported in yellow, lived experience as someone with a disability or chronic condition is reported in green, and lived experience as a transgender person is reported in orange. ‘A/AA’ represents Asian/Asian American, ‘B’ represents Black, African, African American, or Afro-Caribbean, ‘H/L’ represents Hispanic/Latinx, ‘FN’ represents First Nations, and ‘NA’ represents the proportion of respondents who chose not to answer.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.g001

3.2 Pre-fieldwork preparation

The quantity and quality of preparation experienced by the participants, both in regard to fieldwork skills training and space for questions, was shown to be variable. The majority of respondents ranked their feeling of fieldwork preparedness as 4 or 5 (1 = not prepared at all, 5 = very prepared) (n = 322). Only 0.6% (n = 2) stated that they did not feel (at all) prepared. At the same time, ‘not enough/poor preparation’ was one of the most common and impactful reasons for negative field experiences ( Fig 2 ). The respondents described preparation as “Chaotic [ … ] safety and personal needs were not discussed” and responded that “ We were mostly prepared for the science element of fieldwork by the science leads . Not much was said about the living element” . Multiple respondents highlighted the lack of preparation for topics such as menstruation, toileting, and hygiene: “ Never had any discussion on periods ” and “ We didn’t discuss toilet and hygiene arrangements” . On the other hand, some respondents were supported through a more carefully organised preparation process: “ We were prepared through peer discussions [ … ] and by the fieldwork manager , preparations took place over several months” and “We were given detailed written down information and [ … ] the possibility to ask anonymous question[s] ”. See S4 Text for additional responses.

Twenty-three reasons could be selected in the multiple response question. The result of this question is indicated by the number in parenthesis sorting the reasons from the most common one at the top to the least common one at the bottom. The last three reasons were not included in the multiple-choice question. The stacked bars next to each reason describe the impact of it, asked in the follow-up question on a 1–5 scale (1—not at all impactful and 5—a major impact).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.g002

3.3 Post-fieldwork debriefs and communication

As with pre-fieldwork preparation, the experience of respondents varied widely with regard to the use of post-fieldwork debriefs as a tool to reflect upon the work undertaken and learn from field experiences. Post-fieldwork debriefs were experienced by 48% of respondents (n = 320), while debriefs which included discussions on team dynamics were experienced by only 27% of respondents (n = 302), and the option for written feedback after fieldwork was experienced by 23% of respondents (n = 320). This is reflected in how respondents experienced field and post-fieldwork communication; only 55.6% of respondents chose 4 or 5 for post-fieldwork communication (1 = very poor, 5 = excellent). Participants who experienced debriefs mentioned a variety of aspects: “I felt it was managed very well , placed no blame , but considered whether we might collectively be able to improve a similar situation in the future . [ … ]so we had a really open meeting to address the types of support we needed from people in leadership roles , even when the tasks at hand weren’t necessarily ‘leader‘ tasks” . See S5 Text for additional responses.

Despite variable post-fieldwork communication and the substantial proportion of respondents conducting fieldwork in a non-native language, communication during fieldwork was generally reported to be good, with 71.8% of respondents choosing 4 or 5 in the 1–5 ranking for communication in the field (n = 323). Respondents reported that “ We , as a field team , generally let everyone provide ideas and communicate what they need done to get their research complete to make sure everyone succeeds” and “Personalities and communication skills play a big part in communication success . [ … ] There are always going to be some people who struggle to speak up , or who aren’t as good at articulating themselves , so there is some skill required from those leading to ensure people are consulted [ … ]” and “My voice was always important . I didn’t have concerns to tell if I had a worse day at the beginning of my period” .

3.4 Negative fieldwork experiences

The majority of respondents (79%) reported that they had a negative polar fieldwork experience (n = 320). The proportion of respondents with negative experiences and the reasons given for negative experiences were similar, regardless of age group membership ( S1 , S2 Figs). The five most common reasons for negative experiences were related to weather, field team members, amount of rest time, field team leaders, sexism, and menstruation or other health issues ( Fig 2 ). The reasons that were attributed to being most impactful were field team members, field team leaders, weather, team atmosphere, and fieldwork preparation ( Fig 2 ). With weather consistently shown to be a defining factor for a negative fieldwork experience, the free-text responses provide insight into its impact: "Weather in the [A]rctic [is] always an unknown and sometimes hinders sampling or forces to change plans—this is unavoidable and is planned for when organising the trips" and "We had big problems with weather conditions (flooding , wildfires) but both times I was lucky enough to have a team that made the best out of it” . The impact of bad weather was linked to team communication by some survey respondents: “ Severe cold injuries [were] the [ … ] consequence of the breakdown of team communication ” and “The group always made sure people were keeping [ … ] warm” . A lack of appropriate field clothing for women’s bodies introduced additional weather-related challenges: “Peeing in a bodysuit is colder for someone that [has] to sit” .

In the word count analysis of long-form responses, where survey respondents were asked to elaborate on their negative fieldwork experience, 22% of respondents mentioned sexual harassment, 18% mentioned psychological difficulties, 9% mentioned violence, 4% mentioned racism, and 4% mentioned homophobia. Additional reasons for negative fieldwork experiences that were not explicitly mentioned in survey questions but were raised by respondents in free-text options and long-form responses included:

Problems in the local community or with the local military and navy
Cultural differences (for example in the research station or the local community, and particularly relating to alcohol consumption)
Money (for example, hidden costs for kit and in the field)
Physical safety in the polar environment
Family-related communication issues and emergencies
Travel and logistics
Lack of institutional and PI support at home and in the field
Psychological and mental health issues

3.5 Team dynamics and communication

Internal team dynamics and communication were an important influence on how participants perceived their fieldwork. The majority of respondents had good experiences with field teams, with 79.1% agreeing (ranking 4 or 5) with the statement “I felt generally comfortable among the members of my field team” (n = 321), 86.7% agreeing with the statement “I felt like I could participate in casual conversations among my field team” (n = 321), and 83.5% agreeing with the statement “I was usually included in the invitation for socialising before, during, and after fieldwork.” (n = 318).

However, issues relating to field teams were among the most common and most impactful factors causing negative field experiences. The long-form responses show that power structures and hierarchical factors played a role in these issues: “PI got incredibly stressed at sea in a leadership role , and reported any sign of disagreement [ … ] , that person was targeted for the rest of the cruise as a problem member of staff . Constant volley of abuse , derision etc . ” and “The hierarchical structure was deliberate and explicitly stated . When [trying] to address safety and logistical concerns , we were told we were causing trouble by one of the people in charge” . Another respondent felt that there was “ No seeming ability to leave or address issues in the field , due to extreme remoteness and power dynamic ” with another found that “People who behaved very irresponsibly were let off the hook largely due to personal connections…I think that people without personal connections to program managers or people in power were discriminated against” . For some participants, issues that had taken place in the field continued afterwards: “After returning back home , the PI started excluding and ignoring members of the team whose performance in the field he wasn’t happy with . This included those that tried to communicate concerns and shortcomings while still in the field” . Other respondents highlighted the variability of teams between different trips: “Some trips had good internal communication with good team dynamics and overall positive team morale and healthy boundaries . Whilst others were the complete opposite” . Issues relating to team members other than leaders were also apparent in responses (see S6 Text ).

A lack of personal space and privacy were also raised as issues, with only 36% of respondents stating it was possible to create personal space from the rest of the team during fieldwork. This could impact mental health during fieldwork, with one respondent commenting that “Negative feelings arise when I don’t have access to my own space (shared tents for many , many weeks)” . A lack of privacy was also linked to difficulty finding a confidant or safe space, for example: “On board the research vessels or especially at the research stations , there is little privacy and I did feel that it was not possible to confide in many people without fear of the issue being disclosed to others” . Personal space and privacy extended to hygiene issues where respondents struggled with “Not enough privacy when menstruating in the field” . Other respondents were working in teams where “The group leaders [ … ] brought hygiene bags to the field with things like toilet paper , plastic bags for carryi[n]g the waste home , tampons ”.

3.6 Work expectations

Work expectations were also raised as a contributing factor to negative fieldwork experiences, with respondents stating that “There was a mismatch of what we discussed the workload and rest days would be like and what they ended up being like . It was made known that this is how it would be and if you can’t handle it then deep field work is not right for you” and “Decisions were sometimes made spontaneously in the field that introduced significant physical challenges . The culture has tended to demonstrate a willingness to push through physical challenges , sometimes at the detriment to health and wellbeing” . This attitude to polar fieldwork was summarised by another respondent as: “Largely speaking , the biggest problem is that we are usually rushing to get everything done . Personal wellbeing and sustainability take second priority” .

Many respondents directly linked differences in work expectations and task distribution with gender: “[ … ] women are often the ones that have the most laboratory tasks , while male colleagues are often the ones that get to go out on the boat all day and bring the women home the samples for processing late into the night , [ … ] the females are often the ones making sure that everyone is well fed [ … ] and also are noticeabl[y] more involved in tidying up , etc” . Another respondent reported that there was a “ Different perception of what women can handle , e . g . operating large machines” and “I [ … ] was proposed by my colle[a]gue to clean [the] laboratory inste[a]d of setting up equipment as it is a task more suited to a woman” and “I generally feel that sexism was always pervasive and affected my work” .

Additionally, several survey respondents expressed a feeling of needing to work harder to prove themselves because they are female: “[ … ] felt gender based . Male colleagues need less experience to be taken more seriously” . This was reflected to some degree in the numerical survey results: although 83.4% of respondents agreed with the statement “My fieldwork contributions were valued” (n = 320), and 77% of respondents agreed with the statement “My field team regarded me as a similarly qualified member” (n = 320), 30.7% of respondents agreed with the statement “In order to be recognised as a valuable member of the field team, I had to work harder than my coworkers.” (n = 320).

3.7 Sexual harassment

Sexual harassment was raised by numerous respondents as an issue that negatively impacted their fieldwork experiences. One respondent said: “[ … ] there were numerous cases of sexual harassment [ … ] , sexist comments and actions , etc . that made the working environment at times unwelcoming and impacted my work” . Sexual harassment occurred in various fieldwork locations and structures, from field stations to research vessels, and appeared to come from team members/scientists, crew, or locals (see S7 Text for more details).

Within the free-text responses, serious concerns were raised regarding the lack of adequate structures to report fieldwork harassment, and the lack of accountability when such reports were made. For example, “I talked to my supervisor and asked for them to act differently . They stopped talking to us , claimed me as being the problem [ … ] and there was also no room given to talk about the topic as a group” and “I have never felt that the designated person for reporting to/talking to ever took situations seriously” and “ The worst part is that we still don’t have briefings about harassment and there are no specially assigned people , who are assigned to deal with these sorts of problems” and “ When I did report events of sexual harassment/assault (multiples instances on every field campaign I have been a[] part of . [ … ] , there [were] no further discussions or changes implemented . The perpetrators were never held accountable and were able to continue in positions of responsibility [ … ]” . However, some respondents did feel like their concerns were heard in these situations: “The majority of our leadership is male identifying , and until they saw the treatment first[–]hand it was difficult to explain what was happening or why it was affecting some of the team members and their interest in working more directly with certain community members . [ … ] Though the leadership always respected our wishes and listened to our concerns” .

3.8 Perceptions of future fieldwork

Despite most respondents reporting negative experiences, 93% of respondents (n = 317) reported that they are planning to participate in or conduct polar fieldwork in the future. The most commonly used words (n > 20) to describe their thoughts on how they feel about conducting polar fieldwork in the future are summarised in Fig 3 . Several participants expressed their desire to be familiar with the team they will conduct fieldwork before going out together. The respondents’ views ranged from “Tentative . I think how it goes is completely down to the people you go with . I wouldn’t want to go with people I didn’t feel comfortable with beforehand if at all possible” to “I feel fine about it but I am more wary about interactions with men and the choice of field PIs” and “Always good . I am a career Antarctic field worker , I can’t imagine doing anything else” .

Word clouds of the most frequently occurring words in the long-form responses for (a) the long-form response on reasons for negative field experiences, and (b) the question “How do you feel about conducting fieldwork in the future?”. Larger words reflect a higher frequency of occurrence.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.g003

Other respondents were aware of the potential for change and responsibilities they hold as team leaders in enabling a safe and enriching environment for all participants: “My experience with an abusive leader was incredibly damaging to me in terms of confidence and overall happiness . In response , I have worked hard to support my own teams , and to stand up and speak when I observe bullying behaviour” and “I feel positive , as I am now in a more senior position and able [to] try and create better conditions for all involved in my field campaigns” . One respondent highlighted the career risks associated with fieldwork: “I have enjoyed doing fieldwork in the past , but I think it can hold back career development . It involves significant preparation time , with a high risk of weather or equipment failure leading to a lack of data collection . That is extremely risky while working on short , fixed-term contracts , when the next contract may rely on timely publications . I now choose to spend my effort on more reliably remote sensing and modelling projects with guaranteed outcomes” . See S8 Text for additional responses.

4. Discussion

4.1 insights from survey results.

This project used a survey to investigate polar fieldwork specific challenges for women-identifying researchers to propose pathways to more equal participation. The representativeness of our survey sample in relation to the wider polar research community is uncertain, although the proportion of respondents who identified as white (87% of n = 324) was similar to the proportion of people who identified as white (90% of n = 174) in the Diversity in UK Polar Science Initiative Race Impact Survey [ 11 ]. The top countries associated with respondents’ polar fieldwork (USA, Norway, Canada, UK, Germany) broadly reflect the countries with the highest Arctic [ 54 ] and polar scientific research output, although Russia and China were underrepresented in our survey respondents [ 54 , 55 ]. The survey was circulated through the authors’ networks and associated mailing lists, potentially limiting the representativeness of the survey respondents.

Fieldwork experience was not related to age or career stage, since the proportion of respondents with negative fieldwork experiences and their reasons were similar across age groups. Differing experiences between age groups were expected due to the recent increase in women’s participation in polar research [ 2 , 10 ] and changing research culture [ 56 ]. The similarity of experiences across age groups may reflect the fact that respondents could answer in relation to single or multiple field experiences and may have referred to field experiences that occurred at different periods in the past.

Survey respondents overwhelmingly encountered negative experiences during fieldwork. The most common and impactful issues were related to field team dynamics and communication, sexism, rest time, and weather. The majority of respondents had some good experiences with field teams but issues relating to field team members and team dynamics were pervasive. Communication issues were also raised, with disparity between respondents’ mostly positive experience of in-field communication and the lack of post-field communication. Less than half of respondents had post-fieldwork debriefs, and most debriefs which did occur did not cover non-technical aspects such as team dynamics. Without debriefs there is no formal way to ensure that issues arising in the field are corrected for the next field trip, nor a defined space for team members to seek clarifications or support they may need [ 56 ].

Many other issues were consistently raised by respondents, including: no fieldwork preparation for issues that specifically concern women, different work expectations, gender stereotypical task assignment for team wellbeing and daily chores, harassment, psychological issues, and lack of personal space and privacy. Another emerging theme was the role of power structures and hierarchies contributing to difficulties reporting harassment, and lack of accountability for problematic behaviour. Respondents (and authors) avoided naming specific expeditions or institutions, not only to protect anonymity, but to avoid putting careers at risk, with one respondent stating that “[ … ] a filtration of this information can jeopardize my opportunity to go in a next expedition , and to participate in national programs in my field" . Despite the negative experiences of most survey respondents, a culture of resilience and passion for research was evident. Most respondents enjoyed fieldwork overall, were planning to conduct remote fieldwork in the future, and expressed positivity regarding future plans.

The results of this survey highlight problems faced by women in the polar research community, independently of fieldwork characteristics to their work. On the other hand, it is not possible to infer that these issues are exclusive to women. In fact, some aspects identified here are likely relevant to all people involved in fieldwork and across minority groups. Other minorities and marginalised groups may experience structural barriers and issues which were beyond the scope of this study and were not explicitly included in the survey [ 11 , 26 ]. Intersectional identities in particular would result in unique sets of overlapping barriers in polar research [ 21 ]. These aspects, nonetheless, warrant further attention, and go beyond the scope of our dataset. Further survey limitations are discussed in S9 Text .

4.2 Strategies to improve polar field experiences for women

Several key areas for improving the experiences of women participating in polar fieldwork emerged from the issues raised in the survey and literature. At a fundamental level, a higher proportion of women in fieldwork leadership roles could reduce barriers for other women. Many of the strategies developed here may be transferable and so help reduce barriers across marginalised groups [ 11 , 20 , 21 , 26 ]. Fieldwork-specific extensions for institutional EDI policies [ 57 ] would provide an organisational baseline for home institutions and research stations. However, the effectiveness of institutional policies could be more limited in multi-institution or international collaborations without cross-institutional policy. One solution could be for funding agencies to require inclusive and equitable fieldwork policies from institutions.

The sexism, sexual harassment, violence, and psychological abuse raised by respondents highlights a need for broad cultural and institutional changes. The lack of accountability for these actions, exacerbated by the role of power structures and hierarchies, shows a need for improving institutional structures for reporting incidents and holding perpetrators to account. Such processes should be accessible, transparent, and fast, avoid retraumatizing the victim, and precipitate retribution. These institutional reporting structures should be available during (where possible) and after fieldwork and include independent, trained points of contact. Harassment should be treated similarly to research misconduct and safety policy infringements [ 37 ]. In addition, training should be provided on issues such as harassment, violence, and bullying: that is, ethical and respectful field conduct. All research team members should undergo the same training to tackle existing power dynamics and imbalances.

Institutional and team-based codes of conduct are another foundational step with impact through all stages of the fieldwork process. A code of conduct would remove ambiguity regarding acceptable behaviour in the field, build in accountability for misconduct, and reduce risks [ 58 ]. For example, APECS has specific templates for a Code of Conduct and Bill of Rights for polar fieldwork available [ 59 ]. The APECS code of conduct states mechanisms such as: identification and definition of appropriate and inappropriate behaviour, details on reporting and investigative procedures, inclusion of protection against retaliation, and built in mechanisms for evaluation and revision.

Women’s fieldwork experiences could be improved and barriers to participation could be reduced by focusing on the following actions during the fieldwork process (summarised in Fig 4 ):

1. Improve pre-fieldwork preparation and communication

Many of the issues raised could be addressed by improving pre-fieldwork preparation and communication. Although we acknowledge that the nature of fieldwork can preclude advanced planning, pre-fieldwork preparation and communication should begin at least six months in advance where feasible [ 37 ]. Preparation includes setting clear work expectations and assigning specific field roles, as well as preparation and communication of ‘non-scientific’ fieldwork aspects, such as those identified by survey respondents ( Table 1 ). For example, communicating the toileting situation ( i . e ., access to toilets, privacy, lack of toilets or sheltered areas, and waste management practices) can minimise pre-fieldwork concerns [ 60 ]. Best practices for dealing with menstruation, which has previously been identified as a barrier to participation in remote fieldwork, should be included in safety briefings. Open discussions with all participants can identify factors that may have otherwise gone unaddressed. Where possible, the ability to submit questions anonymously could be beneficial. Structured and informal discussions with all participants early on can then shape more formal pre-fieldwork checklists.

Pre-fieldwork checklists are a simple but effective approach to help create a safer fieldwork environment and should be standard practice. Checklists should be provided well in advance of fieldwork, and can be developed using existing frameworks as templates, such as those within Ackerman et al. [ 37 ] and INTERACT field guides [ 61 ]. Checklists should be particular to each unique field excursion and based on feedback from pre-fieldwork communications with participants and previous post-fieldwork evaluations.

In addition, codes of conduct and training on issues such as harassment should be included in fieldwork planning [ 62 ]. One example is the Code of Conduct of Toolik Field Station, Alaska [ 63 ]. Finally, specific deployment training ( i . e . simulation of the field environment to ensure that participants understand how to use scientific and field equipment prior to departure) should be standard practice.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.g004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.t001

2. Improve practices during fieldwork

Many of the issues leading to negative fieldwork experiences could be resolved by implementing standards antecedently. The field team leader should ensure personal space, toilet breaks, and sufficient rest periods are incorporated into fieldwork. The leadership style should be proactive and flexible, with the capacity to alter the field plan to suit the team and conditions. A strong team dynamic should be fostered in which participants are encouraged to check-in on each other (e.g. a buddy system) and advocate for each other. Team members should be encouraged to speak up when observing a practice or behaviour that is unsafe, inappropriate, or dangerous, both from a mental and physical health standpoint ( i . e ., speaking up about a team member having exposed skin and potentially getting frostbite, as readily as advocating for a team member being bullied) and/or go beyond physical capability ( i . e ., river crossings, steep and/or complex terrain).

Remote fieldwork, particularly in harsh conditions, can take a toll on mental and physical health [ 29 ]. During fieldwork it is important to promote and practise self-care for participants, including taking time off when resources and weather permit [ 77 ]. Involving local communities and developing local connections could reduce isolation, assist in maintaining mental wellbeing, whilst also increasing environmental safety through expertise of local conditions [ 62 ]. Sustainable local connections, in which the local community is involved in all fieldwork stages (planning, executing, and debriefing) also promotes decolonisation of the research enterprise and the promotion of CARE principles [ 78 ], equitable cross-cultural understanding, benefit sharing, and informed interpretation of findings [ 62 ].

3. Improve post-field communication

Poor post-field communication was consistently raised as an issue, particularly regarding a lack of de-briefing on non-technical issues such as team dynamics. Post-fieldwork debriefs should be standard practice and should be an open, safe environment for team members to discuss concerns. Debriefs can help prevent unsafe or exclusive spaces caused by inadequate communication and group awareness [ 56 ]. For multi-day fieldwork, daily debriefs are an important tool to ensure any issues do not escalate or continue, and that measures set up during fieldwork preparation are being followed. Depending on the team and the dynamic there is value in having group debriefs as well as one-on-one debriefs [ 56 ]. A group debrief in conjunction with standardised written evaluations that have the option of providing anonymous feedback is recommended.

5. Conclusion

This study presents the experiences of women taking part in polar fieldwork, spanning diverse backgrounds, ages, and research disciplines. By collating the lived experiences through an online survey, alongside a literature review, we aimed to develop a nuanced understanding of predominant factors influencing the physical and mental well-being of female researchers conducting remote fieldwork within the polar research community. We determined that the majority of survey respondents had encountered adverse fieldwork experiences attributable to various factors throughout their career. Our synthesis of dominant themes delivers focal points for targeted adaptation measures in fieldwork planning and execution. Some analysed issues, such as communication and debriefing, are not exclusive to one specific minority or group but reflect generic shortcomings in academia. Other barriers, such as harassment and power dynamics, are more likely to be experienced by minority and/or vulnerable groups and not the polar community as a whole. Nonetheless, following the steps/strategies suggested in this paper could improve the overall field experience of all polar researchers across the community.

Increasing participation and leadership of women in science will have positive effects for climate change research and subsequently global sustainable development. Through the framework delivered with this study, we also support further research and discussion in this field extending to other minority groups. A polar community equipped with multifaceted skills, knowledge, and passion will be able to address the urgent questions of today’s climate science and facilitate knowledge sharing and solutions through diverse and gender-equitable research.

Supporting information

S1 fig. negative fieldwork experiences per age group..

The relationship between age group and percentage of respondents who have had negative experiences during fieldwork (n = 319).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s001

S2 Fig. Reasons for negative fieldwork experiences per age group.

The relationship between age group and type of reason for negative field experiences (n = 265). Twenty-three reasons could be selected in this multi-response answer (see S2 Text for the full list of reasons). Reasons were grouped into ten categories for plotting purposes, with percentages indicating the percentage of responses for each reason, per age group. Numbers above bars indicate the number of respondents per age group.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s004

S1 Text. Methodology and records of the scoping literature review.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s005

S2 Text. Survey details.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s006

S3 Text. Demographics of survey respondents.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s007

S4 Text. Additional survey responses: Pre-fieldwork preparation.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s008

S5 Text. Additional survey responses: Post-fieldwork debrief and communication.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s009

S6 Text. Additional survey responses: Internal team dynamics and communication.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s010

S7 Text. Additional survey responses: Sexual harassment.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s011

S8 Text. Additional survey responses: Perceptions of future fieldwork.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s012

S9 Text. Survey Limitations and feedback from respondents.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000393.s013

Acknowledgments

We thank all survey disseminators and survey participants for their willingness and openness to share their experiences; we aimed to interpret and summarise answers with the best of intentions. We are grateful to APECS, the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists, for providing the opportunity for this study and supporting the communication of the survey. The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Vanessa Pitusi, who made significant contributions to the survey design and implementation. Her additions to early discussions assisted in shaping the direction of the research. We thank Sonal Mobar Roy and an anonymous reviewer for providing constructive guidance which improved the quality of the manuscript.

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3 Ways to Clearly Communicate Your Company’s Strategy

Constantinos C. Markides
Andrew MacLennan

Most leaders struggle to explain big decisions in a way that makes sense to employees.

For all the communication around strategy, we know that leaders at many companies don’t provide the necessary context for employees to understand what the words and sentences in a strategy statement actually mean. What can leaders do to help employees understand enough context to understand a strategy? In this article, the authors offer three recommendations: 1) Present the alternatives considered and explain why they were not adopted. 2) Explain how each choice is linked to the organization’s purpose. 3) Involve employees in strategy development.

A pilot once told us a story about an accident on an early morning flight in the 1950s. As the aircraft accelerated to take off, the captain noticed his flight engineer’s sullen expression and called out, “Cheer up, George.” But in his sleepy state, what the engineer heard was, “Gear up, George” — and he duly raised the landing gear — prematurely as they were not quite airborne. The aircraft sank onto its fuselage and slid to a halt, causing much damage. Luckily, nobody was hurt.

Constantinos C. Markides is a professor of strategic and international management at London Business School.
AM Andrew MacLennan is a guest lecturer at London Business School in London England

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