meaning of a business research

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Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

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Business research: Definition

Quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, advantages of business research, disadvantages of business research, importance of business research.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information on all the areas of business and using such information to maximize the sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service is most profitable or in demand. In simple words, it can be stated as the acquisition of information or knowledge for professional or commercial purposes to determine opportunities and goals for a business.

Business research can be done for anything and everything. In general, when people speak about business research design , it means asking research questions to know where the money can be spent to increase sales, profits, or market share. Such research is critical to make wise and informed decisions.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

For example: A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the market. But they are not aware of what are the dimensions of a mobile that are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts business research using various methods to gather information, and the same is then evaluated, and conclusions are drawn as to what dimensions are most in demand.

This will enable the researcher to make wise decisions to position his phone at the right price in the market and hence acquire a larger market share.

LEARN ABOUT:  Test Market Demand

Business research: Types and methodologies

Business research is a part of the business intelligence process. It is usually conducted to determine whether a company can succeed in a new region, to understand its competitors, or simply select a marketing approach for a product. This research can be carried out using steps in qualitative research methods or quantitative research methods.

Quantitative research methods are research methods that deal with numbers. It is a systematic empirical investigation using statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques . Such methods usually start with data collection and then proceed to statistical analysis using various methods. The following are some of the research methods used to carry out business research.

LEARN ABOUT: Data Management Framework

Survey research

Survey research is one of the most widely used methods to gather data, especially for conducting business research. Surveys involve asking various survey questions to a set of audiences through various types like online polls, online surveys, questionnaires, etc. Nowadays, most of the major corporations use this method to gather data and use it to understand the market and make appropriate business decisions.

Various types of surveys, like cross-sectional studies , which need to collect data from a set of audiences at a given point of time, or longitudinal surveys which are needed to collect data from a set of audiences across various time durations in order to understand changes in the respondents’ behavior are used to conduct survey research. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online through email or social media .

For example: A company wants to know the NPS score for their website i.e. how satisfied are people who are visiting their website. An increase in traffic to their website or the audience spending more time on a website can result in higher rankings on search engines which will enable the company to get more leads as well as increase its visibility.

Hence, the company can ask people who visit their website a few questions through an online survey to understand their opinions or gain feedback and hence make appropriate changes to the website to increase satisfaction.

Learn More:  Business Survey Template

Correlational research

Correlational research is conducted to understand the relationship between two entities and what impact each one of them has on the other. Using mathematical analysis methods, correlational research enables the researcher to correlate two or more variables .

Such research can help understand patterns, relationships, trends, etc. Manipulation of one variable is possible to get the desired results as well. Generally, a conclusion cannot be drawn only on the basis of correlational research.

For example: Research can be conducted to understand the relationship between colors and gender-based audiences. Using such research and identifying the target audience, a company can choose the production of particular color products to be released in the market. This can enable the company to understand the supply and demand requirements of its products.

Causal-Comparative research

Causal-comparative research is a method based on the comparison. It is used to deduce the cause-effect relationship between variables. Sometimes also known as quasi-experimental research, it involves establishing an independent variable and analyzing the effects on the dependent variable.

In such research, data manipulation is not done; however, changes are observed in the variables or groups under the influence of the same changes. Drawing conclusions through such research is a little tricky as independent and dependent variables will always exist in a group. Hence all other parameters have to be taken into consideration before drawing any inferences from the research.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

For example: Research can be conducted to analyze the effect of good educational facilities in rural areas. Such a study can be done to analyze the changes in the group of people from rural areas when they are provided with good educational facilities and before that.

Another example can be to analyze the effect of having dams and how it will affect the farmers or the production of crops in that area.

LEARN ABOUT: Market research trends

Experimental research

Experimental research is based on trying to prove a theory. Such research may be useful in business research as it can let the product company know some behavioral traits of its consumers, which can lead to more revenue. In this method, an experiment is carried out on a set of audiences to observe and later analyze their behavior when impacted by certain parameters.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Targeting

For example: Experimental research was conducted recently to understand if particular colors have an effect on consumers’ hunger. A set of the audience was then exposed to those particular colors while they were eating, and the subjects were observed. It was seen that certain colors like red or yellow increase hunger.

Hence, such research was a boon to the hospitality industry. You can see many food chains like Mcdonalds, KFC, etc., using such colors in their interiors, brands, as well as packaging.

Another example of inferences drawn from experimental research, which is used widely by most bars/pubs across the world, is that loud music in the workplace or anywhere makes a person drink more in less time. This was proven through experimental research and was a key finding for many business owners across the globe.

Online research / Literature research

Literature research is one of the oldest methods available. It is very economical, and a lot of information can be gathered using such research. Online research or literature research involves gathering information from existing documents and studies, which can be available at Libraries, annual reports, etc.

Nowadays, with the advancement in technology, such research has become even more simple and accessible to everyone. An individual can directly research online for any information that is needed, which will give him in-depth information about the topic or the organization.

Such research is used mostly by marketing and salespeople in the business sector to understand the market or their customers. Such research is carried out using existing information that is available from various sources. However, care has to be taken to validate the sources from where the information is going to be collected.

For example , a salesperson has heard a particular firm is looking for some solution that their company provides. Hence, the salesperson will first search for a decision maker from the company, investigate what department he is from, and understand what the target company is looking for and what they are into.

Using this research, he can cater his solution to be spot on when he pitches it to this client. He can also reach out to the customer directly by finding a means to communicate with him by researching online.’

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

Qualitative research is a method that has a high importance in business research. Qualitative research involves obtaining data through open-ended conversational means of communication. Such research enables the researcher to not only understand what the audience thinks but also why he thinks it.

In such research, in-depth information can be gathered from the subjects depending on their responses. There are various types of qualitative research methods, such as interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research, that are widely used.

Such methods are of very high importance in business research as they enable the researcher to understand the consumer. What motivates the consumer to buy and what does not is what will lead to higher sales, and that is the prime objective for any business.

Following are a few methods that are widely used in today’s world by most businesses.

Interviews are somewhat similar to surveys, like sometimes they may have the same types of questions used. The difference is that the respondent can answer these open-ended questions at length, and the direction of the conversation or the questions being asked can be changed depending on the response of the subject.

Such a method usually gives the researcher detailed information about the perspective or opinions of its subject. Carrying out interviews with subject matter experts can also give important information critical to some businesses.

For example: An interview was conducted by a telecom manufacturer with a group of women to understand why they have less number of female customers. After interviewing them, the researcher understood that there were fewer feminine colors in some of the models, and females preferred not to purchase them.

Such information can be critical to a business such as a  telecom manufacturer and hence it can be used to increase its market share by targeting women customers by launching some feminine colors in the market.

Another example would be to interview a subject matter expert in social media marketing. Such an interview can enable a researcher to understand why certain types of social media advertising strategies work for a company and why some of them don’t.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Focus groups

Focus groups are a set of individuals selected specifically to understand their opinions and behaviors. It is usually a small set of a group that is selected keeping in mind the parameters for their target market audience to discuss a particular product or service. Such a method enables a researcher with a larger sample than the interview or a case study while taking advantage of conversational communication.

Focus group is also one of the best examples of qualitative data in education . Nowadays, focus groups can be sent online surveys as well to collect data and answer why, what, and how questions. Such a method is very crucial to test new concepts or products before they are launched in the market.

For example: Research is conducted with a focus group to understand what dimension of screen size is preferred most by the current target market. Such a method can enable a researcher to dig deeper if the target market focuses more on the screen size, features, or colors of the phone. Using this data, a company can make wise decisions about its product line and secure a higher market share.

Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is one of the most challenging research but can give extremely precise results. Such research is used quite rarely, as it is time-consuming and can be expensive as well. It involves the researcher adapting to the natural environment and observing its target audience to collect data. Such a method is generally used to understand cultures, challenges, or other things that can occur in that particular setting.

For example: The world-renowned show “Undercover Boss” would be an apt example of how ethnographic research can be used in businesses. In this show, the senior management of a large organization works in his own company as a regular employee to understand what improvements can be made, what is the culture in the organization, and to identify hard-working employees and reward them.

It can be seen that the researcher had to spend a good amount of time in the natural setting of the employees and adapt to their ways and processes. While observing in this setting, the researcher could find out the information he needed firsthand without losing any information or any bias and improve certain things that would impact his business.

LEARN ABOUT:   Workforce Planning Model

Case study research

Case study research is one of the most important in business research. It is also used as marketing collateral by most businesses to land up more clients. Case study research is conducted to assess customer satisfaction and document the challenges that were faced and the solutions that the firm gave them.

These inferences are made to point out the benefits that the customer enjoyed for choosing their specific firm. Such research is widely used in other fields like education, social sciences, and similar. Case studies are provided by businesses to new clients to showcase their capabilities, and hence such research plays a crucial role in the business sector.

For example: A services company has provided a testing solution to one of its clients. A case study research is conducted to find out what were the challenges faced during the project, what was the scope of their work, what objective was to be achieved, and what solutions were given to tackle the challenges.

The study can end with the benefits that the company provided through its solutions, like reduced time to test batches, easy implementation or integration of the system, or even cost reduction. Such a study showcases the capability of the company, and hence it can be stated as empirical evidence of the new prospect.

Website visitor profiling/research

Website intercept surveys or website visitor profiling/research is something new that has come up and is quite helpful in the business sector. It is an innovative approach to collect direct feedback from your website visitors using surveys. In recent times a lot of business generation happens online, and hence it is important to understand the visitors of your website as they are your potential customers.

Collecting feedback is critical to any business, as without understanding a customer, no business can be successful. A company has to keep its customers satisfied and try to make them loyal customers in order to stay on top.

A website intercept survey is an online survey that allows you to target visitors to understand their intent and collect feedback to evaluate the customers’ online experience. Information like visitor intention, behavior path, and satisfaction with the overall website can be collected using this.

Depending on what information a company is looking for, multiple forms of website intercept surveys can be used to gather responses. Some of the popular ones are Pop-ups, also called Modal boxes, and on-page surveys.

For example: A prospective customer is looking for a particular product that a company is selling. Once he is directed to the website, an intercept survey will start noting his intent and path. Once the transaction has been made, a pop-up or an on-page survey is provided to the customer to rate the website.

Such research enables the researcher to put this data to good use and hence understand the customers’ intent and path and improve any parts of the website depending on the responses, which in turn would lead to satisfied customers and hence, higher revenues and market share.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires

• Business research helps to identify opportunities and threats.
• It helps identify research problems , and using this information, wise decisions can be made to tackle the issue appropriately.
• It helps to understand customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with the customers or stakeholders.
• Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.
• Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using business research.
• Such research can help track competition in the business sector.
• Business research can enable a company to make wise decisions as to where to spend and how much.
• Business research can enable a company to stay up-to-date with the market and its trends, and appropriate innovations can be made to stay ahead in the game.
• Business research helps to measure reputation management
• Business research can be a high-cost affair
• Most of the time, business research is based on assumptions
• Business research can be time-consuming
• Business research can sometimes give you inaccurate information because of a biased population or a small focus group.
• Business research results can quickly become obsolete because of the fast-changing markets

Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market, and competitors. Such research helps companies to understand the demand and supply of the market. Using such research will help businesses reduce costs and create solutions or products that are targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.

In-house business research can enable senior management to build an effective team or train or mentor when needed. Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the upper hand to stay ahead of them.

Failures can be avoided by conducting such research as it can give the researcher an idea if the time is right to launch its product/solution and also if the audience is right. It will help understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to continuously innovate and meet customer demands.

This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit ideal candidates for various roles in the company. By conducting such research, a company can carry out a SWOT analysis , i.e. understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. With the help of this information, wise decisions can be made to ensure business success.

LEARN ABOUT:  Market research industry

Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business to survive or to excel in the market. The main reason why such research is of utmost importance is that it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share, and brand value.

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Business research: definition, types & methods.

10 min read What is business research and why does it matter? Here are some of the ways business research can be helpful to your company, whichever method you choose to carry it out.

What is business research?

Business research helps companies make better business decisions by gathering information. The scope of the term business research is quite broad – it acts as an umbrella that covers every aspect of business, from finances to advertising creative. It can include research methods which help a company better understand its target market. It could focus on customer experience and assess customer satisfaction levels. Or it could involve sizing up the competition through competitor research.

Often when carrying out business research, companies are looking at their own data, sourced from their employees, their customers and their business records. However, business researchers can go beyond their own company in order to collect relevant information and understand patterns that may help leaders make informed decisions. For example, a business may carry out ethnographic research where the participants are studied in the context of their everyday lives, rather than just in their role as consumer, or look at secondary data sources such as open access public records and empirical research carried out in academic studies.

There is also a body of knowledge about business in general that can be mined for business research purposes. For example organizational theory and general studies on consumer behavior.

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Why is business research important?

We live in a time of high speed technological progress and hyper-connectedness. Customers have an entire market at their fingertips and can easily switch brands if a competitor is offering something better than you are. At the same time, the world of business has evolved to the point of near-saturation. It’s hard to think of a need that hasn’t been addressed by someone’s innovative product or service.

The combination of ease of switching, high consumer awareness and a super-evolved marketplace crowded with companies and their offerings means that businesses must do whatever they can to find and maintain an edge. Business research is one of the most useful weapons in the fight against business obscurity, since it allows companies to gain a deep understanding of buyer behavior and stay up to date at all times with detailed information on their market.

Thanks to the standard of modern business research tools and methods, it’s now possible for business analysts to track the intricate relationships between competitors, financial markets, social trends, geopolitical changes, world events, and more.

Find out how to conduct your own market research and make use of existing market research data with our Ultimate guide to market research

Types of business research

Business research methods vary widely, but they can be grouped into two broad categories – qualitative research and quantitative research .

Qualitative research methods

Qualitative business research deals with non-numerical data such as people’s thoughts, feelings and opinions. It relies heavily on the observations of researchers, who collect data from a relatively small number of participants – often through direct interactions.

Qualitative research interviews take place one-on-one between a researcher and participant. In a business context, the participant might be a customer, a supplier, an employee or other stakeholder. Using open-ended questions , the researcher conducts the interview in either a structured or unstructured format. Structured interviews stick closely to a question list and scripted phrases, while unstructured interviews are more conversational and exploratory. As well as listening to the participant’s responses, the interviewer will observe non-verbal information such as posture, tone of voice and facial expression.

Focus groups

Like the qualitative interview, a focus group is a form of business research that uses direct interaction between the researcher and participants to collect data. In focus groups , a small number of participants (usually around 10) take part in a group discussion led by a researcher who acts as moderator. The researcher asks questions and takes note of the responses, as in a qualitative research interview. Sampling for focus groups is usually purposive rather than random, so that the group members represent varied points of view.

Observational studies

In an observational study, the researcher may not directly interact with participants at all, but will pay attention to practical situations, such as a busy sales floor full of potential customers, or a conference for some relevant business activity. They will hear people speak and watch their interactions , then record relevant data such as behavior patterns that relate to the subject they are interested in. Observational studies can be classified as a type of ethnographic research. They can be used to gain insight about a company’s target audience in their everyday lives, or study employee behaviors in actual business situations.

Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research is an immersive design of research where one observes peoples’ behavior in their natural environment. Ethnography was most commonly found in the anthropology field and is now practices across a wide range of social sciences.

Ehnography is used to support a designer’s deeper understanding of the design problem – including the relevant domain, audience(s), processes, goals and context(s) of use.

The ethnographic research process is a popular methodology used in the software development lifecycle. It helps create better UI/UX flow based on the real needs of the end-users.

If you truly want to understand your customers’ needs, wants, desires, pain-points “walking a mile” in their shoes enables this. Ethnographic research is this deeply rooted part of research where you truly learn your targe audiences’ problem to craft the perfect solution.

Case study research

A case study is a detailed piece of research that provides in depth knowledge about a specific person, place or organization. In the context of business research, case study research might focus on organizational dynamics or company culture in an actual business setting, and case studies have been used to develop new theories about how businesses operate. Proponents of case study research feel that it adds significant value in making theoretical and empirical advances. However its detractors point out that it can be time consuming and expensive, requiring highly skilled researchers to carry it out.

Quantitative research methods

Quantitative research focuses on countable data that is objective in nature. It relies on finding the patterns and relationships that emerge from mass data – for example by analyzing the material posted on social media platforms, or via surveys of the target audience. Data collected through quantitative methods is empirical in nature and can be analyzed using statistical techniques. Unlike qualitative approaches, a quantitative research method is usually reliant on finding the right sample size, as this will determine whether the results are representative. These are just a few methods – there are many more.

Surveys are one of the most effective ways to conduct business research. They use a highly structured questionnaire which is distributed to participants, typically online (although in the past, face to face and telephone surveys were widely used). The questions are predominantly closed-ended, limiting the range of responses so that they can be grouped and analyzed at scale using statistical tools. However surveys can also be used to get a better understanding of the pain points customers face by providing open field responses where they can express themselves in their own words. Both types of data can be captured on the same questionnaire, which offers efficiency of time and cost to the researcher.

Correlational research

Correlational research looks at the relationship between two entities, neither of which are manipulated by the researcher. For example, this might be the in-store sales of a certain product line and the proportion of female customers subscribed to a mailing list. Using statistical analysis methods, researchers can determine the strength of the correlation and even discover intricate relationships between the two variables. Compared with simple observation and intuition, correlation may identify further information about business activity and its impact, pointing the way towards potential improvements and more revenue.

Experimental research

It may sound like something that is strictly for scientists, but experimental research is used by both businesses and scholars alike. When conducted as part of the business intelligence process, experimental research is used to test different tactics to see which ones are most successful – for example one marketing approach versus another. In the simplest form of experimental research, the researcher identifies a dependent variable and an independent variable. The hypothesis is that the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable, and the researcher will change the independent one to test this assumption. In a business context, the hypothesis might be that price has no relationship to customer satisfaction. The researcher manipulates the price and observes the C-Sat scores to see if there’s an effect.

The best tools for business research

You can make the business research process much quicker and more efficient by selecting the right tools. Business research methods like surveys and interviews demand tools and technologies that can store vast quantities of data while making them easy to access and navigate. If your system can also carry out statistical analysis, and provide predictive recommendations to help you with your business decisions, so much the better.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Business Research: Types, Methods, Examples

• Updated on  
• Jan 29, 2024

Ever wondered what it takes to build a flourishing business ? Aiming to provide maximum sales and profit, business research helps you to gather comprehensive information about your business and accordingly make relevant changes if required. So, in this process of being successful, we gather all types of data to better define our strategies and understand what products or services customers want. And in case, you’re planning to expand your business, research can help you determine your odds of positive results. In this blog, we’ll help you understand the basics of research and analysis .

“Whoever gets closer to the customer, wins.” – Bernadette Jiwa

This Blog Includes:

What is business research, business research example, importance of business research, types & methods, focus groups , case study research , ethnographic research, survey , correlation research , experimental research , advantages and disadvantages of business research, scope of business research, role of business research, business research books, business research report, top 10 tools for business research, business research partners, top 10 business research topics, career prospects , [bonus] best mba colleges in the world.

Business Research can be simply defined as a process of gathering comprehensive data and information on all the areas of business and incorporating this information for sales and profit maximization. If you are wondering what is Business Research, it is a systematic management activity helping companies to determine which product will be most profitable for companies to produce. Also, there are multiple steps in conducting research, with each thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best decision is made for the company as a whole.

Also Read: Scope of MBA in International Business

Let’s say there’s an automobile company that is planning to launch a car that runs on CNG. To promote cleaner fuel, the company will be involved in developing different plans and strategies to identify the demand for the car they intend to launch. Other than this, the company will also look for competitors, and the target audience, keeping in mind the distribution of CNG in India. Hence the research is conducted on various ideas to formulate a sustainable and more efficient design. 

When it comes to the question of why Business Research is important, it has an essential role to play in varied areas of business. Here are some of the reasons describing the importance of Business Research:

• It helps businesses gain better insights into their target customer’s preferences, buying patterns, pain points, as well as demographics.
• Business Research also provides businesses with a detailed overview of their target markets, what’s in trend, as well as market demand.
• By studying consumers’ buying patterns and preferences as well as market trends and demands with the help of business research, businesses can effectively and efficiently curate the best possible plans and strategies accordingly.
• The importance of business research also lies in highlighting the areas where unnecessary costs can be minimized and those areas in a business which need more attention and can bring in more customers and hence boost profits.
• Businesses can constantly innovate as per their customers’ preferences and interests and keep their attention on the brand.
• Business Research also plays the role of a catalyst as it helps businesses thrive in their markets by capturing all the available opportunities and also meeting the needs and preferences of their customers.

Also Read: Business Analyst vs Data Analyst

Business research plays an important role in the business intelligence process. This is usually conducted to determine if a company can succeed in a new region through competitive analyses and a better marketing approach. Due to this, this broad field has been distinguished into two types namely, Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research Method.

Here are the most important types of Business Research :

Qualitative Research Methods 

It involves putting open-ended questions to the audience through different channels of communication to understand why researchers think in a particular manner. Stress is laid on understanding the intent, attitude, and beliefs to figure out the behaviour and response of the customers. Moreover, the goal of Qualitative Business Research is to get in-depth knowledge about the subjects of the research. Moreover, qualitative research enables us to put the perspective of the consumer in front of the researcher so that we can understand and see the alignment of the ideas between the market and the business. 

The data collected in this type of business research is by the following methods:  

• Interviews 
• Case Study 
• Ethnographic Research 
• Website Visitor Profiling 
• Content Analysis 

Also Read: Study MBA in Music Business at Berklee College of Music!

Let us take a detailed look at some of the ways-

Interviews and surveys are similar. The only difference lies in the fact that the responder can put a question in an interview whilst it is not possible during a survey. Through interviews, it is easier to understand the detailed perspective of the person concerning the subject of research. A mobile brand researched to understand why certain colours are preferred by male and female customers. The research revealed that since red is assumed to be a feminine colour, it is more preferred by females than males. 

Focus groups are a type of business research that involves only a set of individuals. Each selected individual represents a particular category of the target market. The major difference between interviews and focus groups is the number of people that it involves. To launch a new product for a particular group of society, focus groups prove to be the best way to understand the needs of the local audience. 

For example, Tesla decides to launch their latest car model in India. The company, therefore, will require feedback from the Indian audience only.

Did you know? Amazon, the internet giant changed its payment strategy to enter the Indian market. Since the Indian economy was not entirely ready for online modes of payment, amazon introduced a new payment method and came up with ‘ cash on delivery ’ to gain consumers’ trust.

One of the most effective ways for business research is conducting case studies. With the motive to understand customer satisfaction, challenges that usually the customers face while using the product and hence, providing them with the right solution can be achieved by analysing data secured through data secured by case studies. Case study researchers are conducted in many fields of business that ultimately aid organisations in improving their products or services. 

Ethnographic Research refers to understanding people as a whole. One must be able to grok their consumers or target audience which will help identify patterns, flaws, etc. Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that is the study of what elements or features make us humans. How did people live? What aspect made us so dependent on smartphones and technology? Why would people buy one product over the other? It refers to asking questions about lifestyle, communities, etc., and trying to gain insight into consumer behaviour and buying patterns.

For example, consider a random product. Are people looking for that product? Do they need it? Is it a necessity or a luxury? Which class of people are most likely to buy it? People often cannot comprehend what they are looking for. Gaining different perceptions can help us tailor our products accordingly to the consumers. Who would have thought that the majority of humans will need face masks for survival?

Also Read: How to Become a Research Analyst?

Quantitative Research Methods 

With the employment of mathematical, statistical and computational techniques, quantitative research is carried out to deal with numbers. This systematical empirical investigation starts with the acquisition of the data and then moves on to analyzing it with the help of different tools. The goal is to identify clientele and then meet the targets of the audience. As the method of business research employs a questionnaire to determine the audience’s response, the questions are built around the idea that the audience knows about the product or the services that the firm offers. Some of the key questions answered in quantitative research methods include, who is connected with your network, how they qualify for the ‘product’ or how regularly they visit your website.

The data is collected based on the following research:

• Correlational
• Online 
• Casual Comparative 
• Experimental 

It is the most common method under quantitative research via which a huge amount of data can be collected concerning a product or service. A common set of questions are asked to the people and they are asked to provide their inputs. To understand the nature of the market in-depth, this method is massively used by leading organisations all across the globe. Analysing data recorded through service helps organisations make suitable decisions.

Under this research, usually two entities are put together to examine the impact they create on each other. As suggested by the name it is the best process to understand patterns, relationships and trends. the data grasped through correlation research is generally combined with other tools as one cannot achieve a firm conclusion using this type of business research.  

Experimental research is purely based on proving a particular theory that is pre-assumed. True experimental research companies can understand varied behavioural traits of the customers that further assist them in generating more revenue. Exposing a set of audience to common parameters, their behaviour is recorded and hence analysed. This can be understood as the main basis of the experimental research. 

Also Read: Scope of Operation Research

There are certain pros and cons of business research that you must know about. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of Business Research.

Advantages of Business Research

• Business Research plays the role of a catalyst in identifying potential threats, issues as well as opportunities .
• It provides a detailed analysis of customers and the target audience , thus helping in building better relationships with one’s audience and capturing the areas which we might be missing out on.
• It also anticipates future problems thus the enterprise is able to tackle those uncertainties and prepare for them beforehand.
• It keeps a continuous track of competition in the market and gives businesses the scope to come up with better strategies to tackle their competitors.
• Business Research also conducts a thorough cost analysis thus helping the company efficiently manage resources and allocate them in an optimal manner.
• It keeps you updated with the latest trends and competitor analysis .

Disadvantages of Business Research

• Business Research can be expensive and time-consuming .
• It also has the danger of being assumptive and imprecise at times , because the focus groups might be small or can be highly based on assumptions.
• The market is ever-changing and ever-evolving and capturing the right trends or anticipating them can constitute a complicated process for business research.

Also Read: Types of Research Design

The process of business research can be as comprehensive and as detailed as a business wants it to be. Generally, a company takes up research with a certain aim or hypothesis in order to figure out the issues, opportunities and trends and how they can be leveraged in the best way.

Here is the step-by-step process of Business Research:

• Identifying the Opportunity or Problem – To begin with the research, we first need to know what is the problem or the opportunity we would be leveraging on. It can be a popular trend or a common problem that a business is facing and can potentially become the headstart for the research process. Once you know the problem or the opportunity, go ahead with giving an understandable statement of what it’s about, what the hypothesis of the research will be as well as its objectives.
• Decide and Plan the Research Design – The next step in the business research process to find the right research design which suits the objectives and overall plan of the research. The most popular research designs are Quantitative and Qualitative Research.
• Determining the Research Method – The research design is closely connected to the research method since both qualitative and quantitative research designs have different methods for data collection, analysis, amongst others. So, once you have put a finger on what the right research design will be, go ahead with finding the right research method as per the plan, types of data collection, objective, costs involved, and other determining factors.
• Collect Data – Utilizing the research method and design, the next step in the business research process is to collect data and assimilate it.
• Data Analysis and Evaluation – After assimilating the data required, the data analysis will take place to gather all the observations and findings.
• Communicate Results – The presentation of the business research report is the concluding step of this procedure after which the higher management works upon the best techniques and strategies to leverage the opportunity or tackle the issue.

Also Read: MBA in Business Analytics

The scope of Business Research is multifarious and reaches out to many specialisations and areas. Let’s take a look the scope of business research across various specialisations:

• Marketing Management When it comes to business research, becomes an important part of marketing management that analyses consumer behaviour, target audiences, competition, price policy, promotional plans and much more.
• Financial Management It also plays an essential role in budgeting, financial planning, cost allocation, capital raising, tackling fluctuations with international currency as well as taking finance-related decisions.
• Production Management Production Management also includes business research as it helps in product development, planning out for a newer one, finalizing the right technologies for production, and so on.
• Materials Management Business Research is an important aspect of checking the best materials and carrying out its production, supply chain management , logistics , as well as shortlisting negotiation strategies.

There is an incremental role of business research as its importance is across every aspect of the business. Let’s take a look at the role of business research in an enterprise:

• The most primary role of business research is that it helps across every decision in the business, from product innovation to marketing and promotional planning.
• Business Research also helps in forecasting a business, whether in terms of competition or any other types of problems it will be facing.
• Another key area where this plays a bigger role is ensuring consumer satisfaction as through research, we can carry out research and highlight areas where we can efficiently serve our target audience.
• Business research also helps in implementing cost-effectiveness in a business as it can assist in cutting costs wherever needed and investing more in those areas, where profit is coming from.

Want to understand and learn more about business research? Here are some of the books that will make you a pro in this field. Check out the list of business research books:

Also Read: Is It Possible to Study MBA in Europe Without GMAT?

The purpose of a report is to inform the other members, junior and subordinates of the team to provide information on the specific topic. There is a specific format of a business report which makes it look more professional and presentable. There should be a title with the date and nature. The second section includes the introduction, body, and then conclusion. Reports help to identify the issues and helps in resolving them at earlier stages. It can include graphs, surveys, interviews, flow, and piecharts also.

Are you wondering why is there a need to do business research? Business is not stable and it is vital to stay up to date with all the data and developments. It is also important to make business-related decisions, and keep track of competitors, customer feedback, and market changes. The basic objective of business research is to identify the issues and evaluate a plan to resolve them for better managerial functioning.

Now that you are familiar with the objective, importance, and advantages the next important step is to know how to conduct research. There are numerous tools available for free while for some advanced tools there is a membership. Check out the list of top 10 tools:

• Google Keyword Tools
• Google Analytics
• Google Trends

The one thing constant in a business is market changes. A new trend or change comes every time you blink an eye. To keep track of everything externally and internally a research partner comes helpful. There are a few things to keep in mind that will help you in choosing the right business partner. The first thing to keep in mind is that the person should have relevant work experience and expertise in that particular field. An experienced partner can help businesses reach new heights. Look for a partner that can provide well-curated solutions and not the generic ideas that every enterprise follows. Last but not least is that your business research partner should have knowledge of the latest tools and techniques.

Also Read: MBA in Sustainable Development: Courses & Universities

Is your big presentation coming up or your report is due on Monday but you still haven’t finalized your business research topic? Here are some of the trendiest research topics for you:

• How advertisements influence consumer behaviour?
• Does incentive motivation increase employee productivity?
• How to handle crises in the business?
• How to create a work-life balance in the organization?
• What are the things a small business owner has to face?
• How to expand the company globally?
• How is digital marketing helping every business type?
• How to maintain the quality and quantity of products?
• What are the struggles entrepreneurs of a start-up face?
• How to create a budget and maintain company finances?

In order to build a career in Research , you can simply grab a degree in the field of Management , Business or Administration. So, students with an understanding of the core concepts of business and an inclination for research can consider it as a go-to option. Other suitable programs can be Master in Management , MBA Business Analytics , and MBA Data Analytics , to name a few.

To know more, check out Qualitative Research Methods !

It can simply mean researching every area of a business and using the provided information and data to ensure profit maximization.

There are different types of business research such as interviews, surveys, focus groups, correlational research, ethnographic research, case study research, and quantitative research methods, amongst others.

It is essentially important for various aspects of a business such as profit maximization, cost-cutting, financial management , personnel management, consumer behaviour, etc.

The process of research depends upon the type of research design you are opting for. To start with, we first need to determine the aim or objective of the research, then plan out the whole process which includes the types of methods we will be using, then the actual research that takes place followed by the data found that helps in understanding the key observations and how they can be implemented to actualize research hypothesis.

If you’re thinking to start a product line in your existing business or planning a startup, business research is a fundamental process that helps you to navigate the opportunities and obstacles in the marketplace. Knowing your strengths and weaknesses can help you come up with advanced and powerful research techniques that will make it easier to manage. Are you planning to take your higher education abroad? Then, you can quickly book a counselling session with the experts at Leverage Edu and we can help you build the right platform for you to grow in the corporate world.

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• What is Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

Defne Çobanoğlu

Every business owner wants their company always to be successful and profitable. And even if you have a successful business plan, that does not mean things will not need changing in the future. And trial and error may not be on the table when you can not afford to lose money and precious customers. Therefore, you need to be cautious before taking any steps and do your research . 

In this article, we explained business research, its methods, and types to help business owners and inform those interested to know more. We also added some examples of scenarios any company may face. Let us get started with the definition of business research!

• What is business research?

Business research is a type of research process where the main goal is to help a company thrive and collect data about the target audience, potential business plans, and marketing strategies . The data collection about possible risks and investment opportunities helps business owners make informed decisions about future plans. 

The fields that can use business research include marketing, business, education, and social science . But of course, they are not the only ones that can benefit from business research. It is a helpful research type for all business needs. Now, let us see how we can further categorize this into methods and types of business research.

• Methods and types of business research

Business research methods and types

In business research methodology, there are two main types. These are quantitative research and qualitative research. In the simplest terms, quantitative research is about collecting numerical and factual data, whereas qualitative research is about collecting data by using open-ended questions . These two methods can be divided into more specific parts. Let us get started with quantitative research methods.

• A. Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods give the researchers factual and numerical evidence that can be effectively used in decision-making processes. There are numerous ways to collect quantitative data, and it is also possible to use more than one method to prove the credibility of the information. Let us start with the first one:

• 1. Survey research

Surveys are a great way to collect information from a targeted group, no matter how big or small. They can be done in the format of an online survey, phone survey or questionnaire . Surveys are usually close-ended or multiple-choice questions that are easy to group and analyze. The business doing the research can collect valuable information directly from its customers.

• 2. Correlational research

Correlational research focuses on the discovery of whether two different entities influence each other in any way. The main focus of this research method is not to make decisions. But rather, they can use the findings to explore further using other research methods.

• 3. Causal-comparative research

Causal-comparative research is similar to correlational research in that both of them compare two different elements and how they affect each other. But the main difference is that fact the focus of this research method is to draw conclusions on the cause-and-effect relationship of said entities.

• 4. Experimental research

Experimental research has a broad spectrum when it comes to what is taken as ‘experimental’. Basically, it is when businesses want to test a specific theory about the quality of a product or service. There are many methods that can be used, and it is decided by the researcher according to the theory that will be tested.

• 5. Literature research

Literature research is a very effective and economical research method to use. It is about using offline and online existing literature and going through them to analyze the data. It is mostly used in sales about consumer behaviors.

• B. Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research is not about numbers like quantitative research. Instead, it is about emotions, opinions, and approaches. The target audience can be presented with a topic through open-ended questions. There is more than one method to go with, and it is even possible to use multiple methods at once. Let us see qualitative research methods: 

• 1. Interviews

The interview method is mostly done on a smaller participant group about a specific subject. They consist of open-ended questions and can be in a structured or unstructured format. Interviews are one-on-one questions asked to the target audience to gain insight into the problem . 

• 2. Focus Groups

A focus group is a pre-determined group of individuals who are chosen to participate in a study to answer specific questions. The researchers present them with a topic and encourage discussions with open-ended questions . Then, the findings are generalized to make decisions.

• 3. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research is similar to conceptual research, and its main focus is to understand the culture and people of the target audience by using observation . This method is done by observing the people in their natural environment and seeing how they interact with one another and their surroundings.

• 4. Case Study

Businesses generally use a case study method to showcase to potential consumers how their product or service helped a certain individual or a group . It is a good way to attract new customers. This method helps highlight the company’s skill sets and assets.

• 5. Website visitor research

This research method is relatively newer than others. Its main focus is to collect feedback from individuals who use the company website and ask them about their opinions. A business can use this method by presenting a customer with a quick survey after their purchase on the website . Afterward, the company can improve user satisfaction by fixing existing problems.

• Importance of business research

The reasons for conducting business research

Businesses grow by knowing their target market, potential customers, and competitors. And this is only possible by conducting market research to help make informed business decisions. The main goal of business research is to help stakeholders of the company make planned and informed decisions using the facts in the business research report. However, there are other reasons why business research is important. These are:

• Gathering information on customers: A business research report provides data on consumers’ behavioral changes, their needs, preferences, and expectations. The managers and stakeholders can make informed decisions with this knowledge.
• Performance evaluation: Research allows businesses to evaluate their success against industry standards and other competitors. This helps keep track while deciding how to differentiate themselves from others.
• Market expansion: Business research topics include areas that were not explored before. Therefore, when the business wants to expand to new markets, the research provides information on the market’s dynamics and potential risks and profits .
• Efficiency and cost-reduction: The data collected by business research helps identify any obstacles to productivity and cost excessiveness. That way, a more cost-effective and efficient approach can be taken.
• Business research examples

Business research helps business managers make smart plans for the company and its future. They can make informed decisions about new marketing strategies, building new products or service branches, or improving customer satisfaction . 

Business research example #1

Imagine a company making energy drinks wants to know if they can expand their market to the older part of the population. They do not know if they will be interested in their product or what kind of marketing strategies they can use to attract older people’s attention. They can make up a focus group and ask them about their opinions. The company can also conduct literature research to find out information about the competitors .

Business research example #2

Imagine a company that has a clothing store website wants to know if there is anything that makes shopping on their website difficult for customers. They can show a pop-up customer satisfaction survey and ask them if they can find what they are looking for easily and how the website visiting experience was. Then, they can collect customer feedback and see how they can improve their website to enhance customer satisfaction levels.

• Frequently asked questions about business research

What are the 4 stages of business research?

Much like every other research, business research is also best done when it is preplanned and organized. And there is a 4 stage plan of business research. These are:

1 - Defining the problem

2 - Designing the research plan

3 - Collecting data and making an analysis

4 - Reporting on the findings

What is the purpose of business research?

The purpose of business research is to make sense of the existing elements of a business, such as consumers, product placement, marketing, innovation, etc . And using the data collected on these elements to make informed decisions and create smart business strategies to improve the success of the company.

When to use business research?

Business research is best used when a new approach is taken or a new product is launched, and the risks need to be assessed. It is essential to be mindful of all the negative and positive sides of a new strategy without risking the entirety of the company.

• Final words

When you own a business, no matter how big or small, change can be intimidating. You can not go to new territories blindly. But, you can not stay the same either. In order to keep your existing customers and find new potential ones, you should be mindful of their habits and opinions. The best way of doing this is either to ask them directly ( using a survey, interviewing them, etc .) or to do your own research to draw conclusions.

In this article, we explained business research, quantitative and qualitative research methods, and business research types. We also included some examples of business research and what methods can be used for those problems. If you want to do your own business research but do not know where to start, you can check out quantitative research questions to get you started. Also, do not forget to check out other articles on research and so much more!

Defne is a content writer at forms.app. She is also a translator specializing in literary translation. Defne loves reading, writing, and translating professionally and as a hobby. Her expertise lies in survey research, research methodologies, content writing, and translation.

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Business Research: Definition, Types, and Methods

• February 7, 2022

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What is Business Research?

Business research refers to the process of gathering information on all areas of business with the purpose of leveraging this data to promote organizational growth, increase sales, and maximize profit. It involves the systematic management activities that help companies decide which products or services will perform well in the market and will therefore be most profitable to produce.

Exploratory Research Guide

Conducting exploratory research seems tricky but an effective guide can help.

Why is Business Research Important?

Business research provides companies with comprehensive data on the target customer’s preferences, purchasing behavior, demographics, and pain points. Such information allows the business to strategize and create more effective marketing plans that resonate with the target audience. A thorough overview of the overall market will also give the business an understanding of market trends and market demands so that plans and strategies can be devised accordingly. 

Another key use of business research is that it can bring attention to areas where costs can be minimized to increase profits. It provides businesses with a competitive edge in the market by ensuring that all identified opportunities are capitilized on and that decisions are made with customers in focus. 

Business Research Methodologies

We can categorize business research methods in two ways: 

• Quantitative and Qualitative
• Primary and Secondary 

Quantitative vs Qualitative Business Research

Before we can delve into the specific kinds of research, it is important to have an understanding of the distinctions between the two key types of research: quantitative and qualitative business research. 

Quantitative research involves data that is statistical and numerical in nature. Such data can be analysed using statistical techniques. Qualitative research, on the other hand, involves non-numeric data that generally takes a textual form. 

Primary vs Secondary Business Research

Another way in which research methods can be classified is by primary and secondary research. Primary research refers to the collection of first-hand data, generally directly from the source. Some common methods of primary research are surveys, interviews, and observations. 

Conversely, secondary research uses existing data that is already avalaible.

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Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods.

Some commonly used quantitative methods of business research are: 

• Experimental Research : Experimental research refers to research studies that adhere to the scientific research design. This type of research aims to prove or disprove a theory, or hypothesis. Businesses generally use experimental research to study consumers’ behavioral traits. 
• Survey Research : Survey research is one of the most commonly used methods of data collection because it is relatively easy and inexpensive to leverage. Surveys can be conducted in many different ways such as through social media polls or email surveys. 
• Existing Literature : Existing research papers and online research are other sources of gathering quantitative data. This method is economical, accessible, and allows for the collection of vast amounts of data. 

Qualitative Research Methods

Some commonly used qualitative methods of business research are: 

• Interviews : Interviews are structured conversations that take place between an interviewer and an interviewee face-to-face, over the internet, or even through the phone. Generally, interviews involve the use of open-ended questions that provide respondents the flexibility to express their thoughts, perceptions, and opinions on the topic. 
• Ethnographic Research : Ethnographic research where researchers immerse themselves in the participant’s real-life environment to observe and study their behaviour. It is generally used by organizations that want to understand cultural dynamics or factors. Although this method of research can help extract intensive and compelling data, it is extremely time-consuming and expensive. 
• Case Study Research : Case study research refers to the detailed study of a specific subject. This method is used to produce in-depth, multi-faceted information on complex issues in the real-world setting.

FAQs on Business Research

Business research involves gathering information on all areas of business with the goal of maximising sales and revenue.

Business research methodologies can be categorized in two ways; 

• Quantitative and qualitative
• Secondary and Primary

Some quantitative methods of business research are; 

• Survey Research 
• Experimental Research 
• Existing Literature

Some primary research methods are interviews, surveys, and focus groups. Some secondary research methods are public sources, educational sources, and commercial sources.

Some qualitative methods of business research are; 

• Ethnographic Research
• Case Study Research

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Introduction to Business Research

• First Online: 01 January 2013

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• S. Sreejesh 4 ,
• Sanjay Mohapatra 5 &
• M. R. Anusree 6  

21k Accesses

In the present fast track business environment marked by cut-throat competition, many organizations rely on business research to gain a competitive advantage and greater market share. A good research study helps organizations to understand processes, products, customers, markets and competition, to develop policies, strategies and tactics that are most likely to succeed.

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A Roadmap to Business Research

Understanding the Process of Empirical Business Studies: The Influence of Methodological Approaches

The use of experiments in business research, author information, authors and affiliations.

IBS Hyderabad, IFHE University, Hyderabad, 501504, India

S. Sreejesh

Xavier Institute of Management, Xavier Road, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 751013, India

Sanjay Mohapatra

Department of Statistics, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, 695581, India

M. R. Anusree

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Correspondence to S. Sreejesh .

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Sreejesh, S., Mohapatra, S., Anusree, M.R. (2014). Introduction to Business Research. In: Business Research Methods. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00539-3_1

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Business Research: It’s Meaning, Process and Objectives

Meaning of business research.

Business research is the process of studying a company’s competitors, stakeholders, and profit & loss to meet the company objectives and maximize revenue & profits. 

The research involves identifying the target market, estimating their current needs & wants, and then conducting product planning to meet those demands. 

Business research is neither a pre-product launch nor a post-product launch analysis. Companies continuously conduct market research relating to their political environment, social demands, technological needs, competitors’ entry, etc. so that they can keep improving their products and continue to survive even in the fiercest times. 

Objectives of Business Research

Understanding customer requirements, defining stakeholders.

Business research helps to differentiate between potential and non-potential customers. This way the company can quantify its market reach and conduct surveys amongst some of its customers related to their tastes and type. This will help them gain feedback from their customers which they can add back as features in their products! 

Pain & Gain Points

Rival study, scope of business research.

Business Research has wide scope in deciding a particular product’s journey in the market. 

Nature of Business Research

In a nutshell, it gives proposals to companies on expansion and growth in customer base.

Process of Business Research

Identification of challenge, creating research proposal, execution of research.

Once the plan is made and the research proposal is developed, the company can toss alternative ways they can execute the research. The company can forward with research by random sampling (mass media survey) or can rely on previously collected data too. 

Interpretation of Data

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Business research: types, benefits, and its importance.

Business research is a process of obtaining a detailed study of all the business areas including the market and the customers and using that information to maximize the sales & profit of the business.

When you run a business, there are several things you can research on. You research everything from market shares to sales. Business research helps you make intelligent and informed decisions and identify the key areas to invest your money in.

For example, an automobile company plans to unveil the latest car model in the market. For that, they need to develop strategies to explore and monitor customer demand. So, the company will conduct research to collect information and analyze market trends. This will help them draw better conclusions and come up with a fine quality car at the right price resulting in a larger market share.

Types of Business Research

Researchers use various research methods to collect relevant data so that business enterprises can make wiser decisions.  There are two main types of methods to carry out business research.

• Quantitative Business Research It is a method of analyzing the largest group that meets your target goals. It uses mathematical techniques and data to explain the important stats about your business and market. Usually, this data uses multiple-choice questionnaires that can help you be profitable with your sales. For instance, quantitative research can answer questions such as;
• Are your customers aware of the services or products you offer?
• How many people are interested in buying your products or services?
• Who are your best customers and what are their buying habits?
• How long the visitor stays on your website, and which is their exit page?

The result of quantitative business research is in the numerical form, such as;

• 40% of customers rate the new product as “attractive”
• 70% of prospective customers use the Internet to book their hotel room
• 6 out of 10 customers will buy a new food product after trying the free in-store sample

The quantitative research methods include various surveys such as postal, telephone, online, and face-to-face.

• Qualitative Business Research

This business research focuses on attitudes, intentions, and beliefs. Qualitative research includes questions such as “Why”? or “How?”.

The aim of this research is to gain insights into customers’ distinct behaviors and response to a new product. This research is beneficial for your new products and marketing initiatives to test reactions and rectify your approach.

You can collect qualitative data using common methods such as case studies, focus groups, and interviews. This data is often valuable but can be time-consuming and expensive to collect, especially for a small business or a startup.

Benefits of Business Research

• Business Research helps you communicate with current and potential customers in a better way.
• It helps you identify opportunities and threats in the marketplace.
• It helps you minimize risks.
• Business research is used to plan investments and financial outcomes effectively.
• It helps you build a better market position.
• It can keep you updated with current trends and innovations in the market.

Why is Business Research Important?

Business research helps businesses understand their customers’ buying patterns, preferences and pain points, gain deeper insights into the contenders, current market trends, and demographics. Using effective strategies to understand the demand and supply of the market, businesses can always stay ahead of the competition. Using business research, they can reduce costs and design solutions that aim at the market demand and their target audience.

Chances of failures are less with business research as it gives an idea of the target customers and the perfect time to launch a product. In addition, with a deep understanding of brand value, businesses can constantly innovate to meet customer requirements. This is essential to grow market share and revenue. The SWOT analysis in business research is crucial to make an informed decision and making the business a huge success.

Research is the building block of any business. It acts as a catalyst to thrive in the market. So, never underestimate the value of market research and leverage its benefits to give an extra edge to your business.

Authors Bio:  Ritesh Patil is the co-founder of Mobisoft Infotech that helps startups and enterprises in mobile technology. He loves technology, especially mobile technology. He’s an avid blogger and writes on the mobile application. He works in a leading mobile app development company with skilled iOS and Android app developers.

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The Importance of Business Research: Understanding Its Value for Management Decisions

Table of Contents

If you’re a business owner or manager, you know that making the right decisions can be the difference between success and failure. One of the most valuable tools for making informed decisions is conducting business research. In this blog, we will explore the importance of business research in detail and how it can benefit management decisions.

What is Business Research?

Business research is the process of collecting and analyzing data to support management decision-making. It helps organizations identify and solve problems, make informed decisions, and stay ahead of their competitors.

The Importance of Business Research

Business research plays a crucial role in an organization’s success by providing the following benefits:

1. Identifying Problems and Opportunities

Business research helps to identify the problems and opportunities that exist in a particular market or industry. By conducting research, organizations can identify gaps in the market, unmet customer needs, and areas where they can improve their products or services.

2. Making Informed Decisions

Making informed decisions is crucial for the success of any business. Business research provides the necessary information and insights to make informed decisions. It helps management to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of a particular strategy or decision.

3. Mitigating Risk

Business research helps to mitigate risk by providing information on potential risks and uncertainties. By conducting research, organizations can evaluate the potential risks associated with a particular decision or strategy and take measures to mitigate them.

4. Improving Customer Satisfaction

Business research can help improve customer satisfaction by identifying the needs and preferences of customers. By understanding customer needs, organizations can develop products and services that meet their customers’ needs and preferences.

5. Staying Ahead of Competitors

Business research helps organizations stay ahead of their competitors by providing insights into the market and industry trends. By conducting research, organizations can identify new opportunities and potential threats, develop strategies to capitalize on these opportunities, and stay ahead of their competitors.

In conclusion, business research is an essential tool for making informed decisions, identifying problems and opportunities, mitigating risk, improving customer satisfaction, and staying ahead of competitors. By conducting research, organizations can gain valuable insights into the market and industry trends, which can help them make more informed decisions and ultimately achieve greater success.

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Research Methodology for Management Decisions

1 Research Methodology: An Overview

• Meaning of Research
• Research Methodology
• Research Method
• Business Research Method
• Types of Research
• Importance of business research
• Role of research in important areas

2 Steps for Research Process

• Research process
• Define research problems
• Research Problem as Hypothesis Testing
• Extensive literature review in research
• Development of working hypothesis
• Preparing the research design
• Collecting the data
• Analysis of data
• Preparation of the report or the thesis

3 Research Designs

• Functions and Goals of Research Design
• Characteristics of a Good Design
• Different Types of Research Designs
• Exploratory Research Design
• Descriptive Research Design
• Experimental Research Design
• Types of Experimental Designs

4 Methods and Techniques of Data Collection

• Primary and Secondary Data
• Methods of Collecting Primary Data
• Merits and Demerits of Different Methods of Collecting Primary Data
• Designing a Questionnaire
• Pretesting a Questionnaire
• Editing of Primary Data
• Technique of Interview
• Collection of Secondary Data
• Scrutiny of Secondary Data

5 Attitude Measurement and Scales

• Attitudes, Attributes and Beliefs
• Issues in Attitude Measurement
• Scaling of Attitudes
• Deterministic Attitude Measurement Models: The Guttman Scale
• Thurstone’s Equal-Appearing Interval Scale
• The Semantic Differential Scale
• Summative Models: The Likert Scale
• The Q-Sort Technique
• Multidimensional Scaling
• Selection of an Appropriate Attitude Measurement Scale
• Limitations of Attitude Measurement Scales

6 Questionnaire Designing

• Introductory decisions
• Contents of the questionnaire
• Format of the questionnaire
• Steps involved in the questionnaire
• Structure and Design of Questionnaire
• Management of Fieldwork
• Ambiguities in the Questionnaire Methods

7 Sampling and Sampling Design

• Advantage of Sampling Over Census
• Simple Random Sampling
• Sampling Frame
• Probabilistic As pects of Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Other Methods of Sampling
• Sampling Design
• Non-Probability Sampling Methods

8 Data Processing

• Editing of Data
• Coding of Data
• Classification of Data
• Statistical Series
• Tables as Data Presentation Devices
• Graphical Presentation of Data

9 Statistical Analysis and Interpretation of Data: Nonparametric Tests

• One Sample Tests
• Two Sample Tests
• K Sample Tests

10 Multivariate Analysis of Data

• Regression Analysis
• Discriminant Analysis
• Factor Analysis

11 Ethics in Research

• Principles of research ethics
• Advantages of research ethics
• Limitations of the research ethics
• Steps involved in ethics
• What are research misconducts?

12 Substance of Reports

• Research Proposal
• Categories of Report
• Reviewing the Draft

13 Formats of Reports

• Parts of a Report
• Cover and Title Page
• Introductory Pages
• Reference Section
• Typing Instructions
• Copy Reading
• Proof Reading

14 Presentation of a Report

• Communication Dimensions
• Presentation Package
• Audio-Visual Aids
• Presenter’s Poise

What Is Business Research?

• Small Business
• Advertising & Marketing
• Business Research
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When running a business, there are many decisions to make, such as opening new branches, developing new products, and the number employees to hire. You research everything from vendor costs to headset functionality. Business owners can use research to make wise, informed decisions. When people speak of business research, generally, they are referring to business marketing research that helps identify the specific areas to spend money on for development and advertising.

Undertaking Qualitative Research

Qualitative business research is a type of exploratory research . Businesses use it to gain insight into the reasons, opinions and motivations for why things are done. Done properly, qualitative research can help uncover trends to help find the most suitable buyers for your products and services. As many marketing agencies will tell you, if you find people desperate for your product, you are sure to sell, even if your advertising isn't the best. For example, you might find sold-out signs for portable air conditioners during hot summer months in California. People are desperate to find ways to cool off.

Determining the quality of your leads seeks to find the how and why behind the purchase. The example of portable air conditioners demonstrates a qualified group of buyers. You might not find such a desperate group in another location where summer temps are more temperate. When looking for your qualified customers, consider what they need. A pet owner might be concerned about finding flea and tick solutions. A car owner might want a way to protect his car from stormy weather. Then, consider the products and services you offer and determine exactly which ones solve the problem and how these products achieve results.

Exploring Quantitative Research

Quantitative research takes all the ideas an opinions you've uncovered in the qualitative research and attempts to quantify the finding by generating a statistic or other form of numerical data . It's about having the number of buyers, not only the quality.

There are two approaches to consider with this type of research: higher end and more expensive products will naturally have fewer target buyers, whereas lower priced products appeal to bigger masses. Regardless of the approach, you still need to make sure there is a market big enough for you to be profitable with your sales.

For example, the luxury spa experience might be priced beyond what most people would pay for a relaxing day at the spa, but affluent people will pay for exclusivity and confidentiality. If you can sell a higher priced item, you don't need as many sales to be profitable.

Research Methods and Tools

When you are doing business research, there are some tools and methods that help you establish the market for your products and services. First, you will want to create your ideal customer profile that includes an age ranges, education level, home ownership and marital status. From here you want to look at this market in a way that applies to your products. For example, if you are selling a weight loss program that guarantees results in six weeks, you could examine the demographic that has young women who are engaged.

Online analytics and the ability to survey people on social media platforms will help you identify the need. For example, you could run a survey in a wedding planning group on Facebook asking if women are trying to lose weight before the wedding. This helps identify the quality of the potential lead. You could then use Facebook Insights to run demographics on women between the ages of 25 and 40 who are engaged. This tells you how big the market is — the quantity. If it is big enough, consider this as a marketing strategy to flush out.

Using Research Data to Make Decisions 

Based on the findings and data obtained through the business research methods, organizations can make some critical business decisions such as:

• Whether to expand or contract the product range
• The possibility of expanding into new geographies and markets
• How to create a point of difference between the business and its competitors
• Adopting a winning go-to-market approach for a service or product.

It's basically a guiding light for how the business should be run.

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With more than 15 years of small business ownership including owning a State Farm agency in Southern California, Kimberlee understands the needs of business owners first hand. When not writing, Kimberlee enjoys chasing waterfalls with her son in Hawaii.

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Nature, scope and significance of business research.

Business market research is a dynamic concept. One of the key components of market research studies is the strategic inquiry into a business situation or environment to establish the actuality or evidence that may have led to the development of certain trends. Today, business research is the pillar that supports decision-making in various areas of an organization. Prior to conducting proactive business research, it is crucial to determine the underlying objectives of the research program to come up with an accurately targeted approach. The significance of business research is that it is a fact-finding mission that fuels successful decision-making in a corporate environment. Let us take a look at the nature, scope, and significance of business research.

What is Involved in Business Research?

Business research is the process of gathering thorough information on all aspects of a company's operations and applying that information to improve operational excellence, which can lead to an increase in sales and profits.

• A study like this can assist businesses in figuring the product or service that is most profitable.
• It entails determining where money should be spent to boost sales, profitability, or/and market share.

Given the increasing competition in all industries, market research has become extremely necessary to make intelligent and informed decisions that fuel business growth.

The Nature of Business Research

In business, knowledge is power. The ability to make informed decisions is crucial for any organization's success and growth. To achieve this, businesses rely on research—a systematic inquiry that helps unravel complex problems, discover insights, and explore new opportunities. Business research involves a structured investigation aimed at collecting and analyzing data to address specific business challenges or explore potential opportunities. This often includes conducting market research studies and producing business research reports based on the research findings. It is a multi-faceted process that employs various methodologies, including quantitative and qualitative techniques, to acquire knowledge that drives decision-making. While quantitative research focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research emphasizes an in-depth understanding of subjective experiences, opinions, and motivations. From problem identification to market analysis and decision support, research empowers businesses to navigate complexities, adapt to change, and seize opportunities. Investing in robust research practices can help organizations lay the foundation for sustainable growth and success. It is crucial to hire a reputable business research company with proven experience in providing specialized business market research services.

The Scope of Business Research

The scope and significance of business research are immense. In this section, we will discuss how top business research companies like Unimrkt Research can help your organization navigate the complicated fabric of today’s dynamic business world and build a profitable venture that stands the test of time.

Problem Identification

Business research plays a vital role in identifying and defining the problems that organizations face. It helps clarify issues, determine their root causes, and establish clear objectives for further investigation. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of the challenges, businesses can develop effective strategies to overcome them.

Market Analysis and Competitive Intelligence

Researching the market landscape and understanding customer preferences are fundamental to success. A business research company enables businesses to analyze market trends, consumer behavior, and competitor strategies. This knowledge aids in developing tailored products, crafting targeted marketing campaigns, and staying ahead of the competition.

Decision Support

Robust research provides decision-makers with reliable information, enabling them to make informed choices. Whether it's launching a new product, expanding into new markets, or modifying existing strategies, data-backed decisions reduce uncertainty and enhance the chances of achieving the desired outcomes.

Innovation and Adaptation

Business research facilitates innovation by uncovering emerging trends, technological advancements, and changing consumer needs. By staying abreast of industry developments, organizations can adapt quickly and identify growth opportunities. Research also aids in identifying potential risks and threats, allowing businesses to proactively mitigate them.

Performance Evaluation

To sustain success, businesses must evaluate their performance regularly. Research provides valuable insights into key performance indicators, customer satisfaction levels, and operational efficiency. By analyzing this data, companies can identify areas for improvement, optimize processes, and enhance overall performance.

Importance of Business Research

Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand your customers and the overall market, as well as analyze competitors. This type of research aids businesses in determining market demand and supply. It can help business organizations to cut unnecessary expenses and develop tailor-made solutions or products that appeal to the demand in the market. Research for startups aids in gathering information for professional or commercial purposes to assess business prospects and goals. Business research can also help startups find the right audience profile for their offerings. It is the holy grail when looking to achieve success in the modern, ultra-competitive business world.

Key Advantages of Business Research

Here are some of the key advantages of business research:

• Market research can help organizations gain a better perspective and understanding of their market or target audience. This ensures that the company stays ahead of its competitors.
• Primary and secondary research can act as an insurance policy against obvious but silent dangers on your business path.
• Market research findings help organizations learn from their weaknesses and adapt to new business environments.
• By using certain research methodologies for competitor analysis, you can capitalize on your new-found knowledge to steer ahead of the competition.
• Regular market research initiatives help take the ‘pulse’ of hot market trends, allowing you to come up with “superhit” products and services.
• It helps with market forecasting, which allows you to project future numbers, characteristics, and trends within your target market.

Significance of Business Research in Local and Global Business Fields

Today, top market research companies are focusing on the assessment of both local and international business environments. A business research company takes factors such as markets (global and domestic), goods and services, and other business elements into account to conduct a progressive and strategic study. The significance of business research is such that it has become a crucial predictor of organizational effectiveness, as it determines the perception, quality, and sustainability of several performance factors. For example, in a traditional manufacturing concern, business research can help with aspects like product refinement, distribution networks, competitiveness module design, and customer demand tracking, among other things.

Key Steps in Conducting Business Research

Here are the key steps involved when conducting business research. By following these steps, businesses can develop and conduct systematic and effective research programs that provide valuable insights, supporting informed decision-making.

Identify and Define the Research Problem

Clearly articulate the specific business challenge or opportunity that you aim to address through research. Define the problem in a concise and focused manner, ensuring clarity and alignment with organizational objectives.

Develop Research Objectives

Establish clear and measurable research objectives that align with the identified problem. These objectives will guide the entire research process and help ensure that the outcomes are relevant and actionable.

Design the Research Methodology

Select the appropriate research methodology based on the nature of the problem and the data needed. This may involve choosing between quantitative and qualitative approaches, or a combination of both. Determine the research design, sampling techniques, data collection methods, and tools to be used.

Collect Data

Implement the data collection methods defined in the research design process. This could involve conducting surveys, interviews, observations, or analyzing existing data sources. Ensure the data collected is reliable, valid, and relevant to the research objectives.

Analyze Data

Process and analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques. Identify patterns, trends, and insights that emerge from the data. Use software tools or statistical packages, if required, to aid in data analysis.

Interpret Findings

Interpret the analyzed data in the context of the research objectives and the original problem. Draw meaningful conclusions and insights from the findings. Relate the findings to existing theories or industry benchmarks, if applicable.

Communicate Results

Prepare a comprehensive report or presentation that effectively communicates the research findings, insights, and recommendations. Present the information in a concise, clear, and visually appealing manner. Tailor the communication to the intended audience, highlighting the implications and actionable steps.

Validate and Verify

Seek feedback and validation from stakeholders, colleagues, or experts to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the research findings. Incorporate their input and make any necessary revisions to strengthen the research outcomes.

Implement Recommendations

Translate the research findings into actionable recommendations or strategies. Develop an implementation plan and ensure buy-in from key stakeholders. Monitor and evaluate the progress and impact of the implemented recommendations.

Reflect and Learn

Reflect on the research process and outcomes. Identify lessons learned, strengths, and areas for improvement. This reflection can inform future research endeavors and enhance the organization's research capabilities.

The importance and significance of business research will only continue to grow with the changing business landscape. Business research has a direct impact on your organization’s success. The first and, perhaps, most important task for a business organization is to find the right market research company . This is where Unimrkt Research comes into play. Over the years, we have conducted industry research across 90 countries, spanning four continents in a variety of industries. We follow ESOMAR norms and are certified with the ISO 20252 and ISO 27001 standards. To learn about our business market research services, call +91 124 424 5210/+91 9870 377 557 or email [email protected] .

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Nature, Scope, and Significance of Business Research

Knowing the right things at the right time is super important in business. That is what business research is all about. It is like having a unique tool that helps businesses make good decisions. Whether running a small shop or a big enterprise, getting to grips with business research can help you grow and beat the competition. In this blog, we will closely examine business research – what it is, what it covers, the scope of business research, and the importance of business research. Let’s explore and see how a big market research company can help you win in the business world.

What Business Research Is All About

Business research is like being a detective for your business. Here is what it usually involves:

• Finding Information: This is about collecting all sorts of details. Look at how many things you sell, what your customers think, or what similar businesses do. It is like gathering clues – you could check your own sales records, ask customers for feedback, or read reports about your industry.
• Understanding the Information: Once you have all this information, you must figure out what it tells you. For example, you might see that people buy more from you at certain times of the year or that they like one of your products more than others.
• Telling Others What You Found: After figuring things out, you need to explain it to the people who make decisions in your business. This could be through writing a report, giving a presentation, or having a chat about your findings.

The Scope of Business Research

The scope of business research looks at several key things to help your business:

• Identifying Problems: Sometimes, things are not going as well as they could be. Business research helps find out why, like why sales are down or why a product is not popular.
• Learning About the Market and Competition: Knowing what is happening around you is important – what customers want and what other businesses are doing is important. This helps you keep up and find new chances to do well.
• Making Good Decisions: What you learn from business research helps you decide what new product to make, how to set your prices, or how to advertise your products. It gives you facts to base your choices on.
• Coming Up with New Ideas: Business research can also spark new ideas. You may spot a new trend you can join in on or a different way to talk to your customers.
• Checking Your Progress: Finally, business research helps you see how well you are doing. Are you selling as much as you hoped? Are your customers happy? This enables you to know if you are on the right path.

The Importance of Business Research

Business research is crucial for any business, big or small. Check out the importance of business research:

• Informed Decisions: It helps you make decisions based on facts, not just guesses. This means you can choose the best options for your business.
• Understanding Customers: Research helps you know what your customers like and do not like. This way, you can make products or offer services that they want.
• Staying Ahead of the Competition: By knowing what other businesses are doing, you can stay one step ahead. You can see what works for them and what does not and use that to your advantage.
• Spotting New Opportunities: Research can show you new chances to grow your business , like a new market opening up or a new trend becoming popular.
• Avoiding Mistakes: Knowing more about your business and market can help you avoid mistakes that could cost you money.

Benefits of Doing Business Research

When you do business research , you get lots of great benefits:

• Better Products and Services: You can improve what you sell based on what you learn from your customers.
• Happy Customers: If you know what your customers want, they are more likely to be happy with what you offer.
• Saving Money: Research can show you where to cut costs without hurting your business.
• Growing Your Business: You can find new ways to grow, like selling online or opening in a new location.
• Building a Strong Brand: Understanding what makes your business special can help you build a strong brand that people recognize and trust.

Business Research for Local and Global Businesses

Business research is helpful whether you are a local shop or a big global company:

• Local Businesses: If you have a local business, research can show you what people in your area want and how to serve them best. You can become a favorite spot in your community.
• Global Businesses: For businesses that work in many countries, research can show you what different people around the world want. This helps you change your products or services to fit different cultures and tastes.

Conclusion: Insights Opinion – A Top Choice for Business Research

Ultimately, business research is necessary for any business that wants to succeed. Knowing how to use business research can help you grow and succeed, whether you are just starting or already big. Insights Opinion, a leading market research company in India , is an excellent example of how good research can help businesses understand their market and make great decisions. So remember, in business, knowing things is not just useful but the key to success.

Q. What Exactly Is Business Research?

Ans. Business research is like gathering important information to help your business do better. It involves discovering what customers want, how other businesses are doing, and how you can improve your business.

Q. Can Small Businesses Need Business Research Too?

Ans. Absolutely! Even small businesses can benefit from business research. It helps them understand their local customers better, find ways to stand out in their community, and grow the business in smart ways .

Q. Is Business Research Only About Customers?

Ans. No, it is not just about customers. Business research also looks at other things like what your competitors are doing, how the market is changing, and how your own business is performing.

Q. How Often Should a Business Do Research?

Ans. It is good to do business research regularly. Markets and customer tastes can change fast, so staying updated can help your business keep up and make the best decisions.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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What Is Business Research?

The term research stands for checking the pros and cons and digging deeper into something before stepping into it, for business fully business-oriented research being done by the team. It’s a full process involving various steps in which we gather the information.

Business research is a process of gaining the required information and database for the required business field. Business is a wholly goal-oriented process that requires a lot of research of businesspersons to make plans and strategies for their desired results. Market researches’ are the foundation of upcoming plans and decisions. There are several types of research that fall under the head of Business research; it is further differentiated into branches dedicated to a particular field. The ultimate aim of dedicated business research is to generate the desired results for the business, i.e., profit returns, market share, and higher sales.

Every business has its own way and parameters to make research of their irrespective field. If we talk about a clothing company, they follow or create trends. Before launching a new range, it requires them to research the customer requirements, the weather factors of the area they are launching into, the expectations of their targeted audience from their brand.

Business needs research at each step. As it’s said, the things we get in the future will result from our decision in the past.

Types of Business Research

There are various ways to conduct business research to collect the best data for your firm/business. Combining a variety of research methods can give your business the established business with well-rounded plans.

Surveys are the personalized interrogation with the customer knows their expectation from your business. Surveys are the most popular and effective ways of conducting research. It is an economical and more accurate way of reaching demands. Questionnaires are the traditional method, which is now conducted digitally online on the website, also time-saving. Surveys on the phone could also be done, but people mostly avoid these calls.

Data Collection

Data is the nerve for the business. Data of customers, past records, annual reports, financial records, etc., are the data that help the business to seek advice from the past record, and analyses of data make it easier to frame the rules, regulations, and policies. Decision-making becomes easy when analyses and observations come in a frame.

The Idea of researching through existing secondary data such as Government records and trade records becomes effective in analyses.

It is the process of research in which a smaller group of people get interviewed, keeping in mind the benchmarks of the targeted audience and the expectation of the business persons. A series of questions give deeper insights into the brand, product, images, and business requirements.

Focus groups and interviews are time taking process to conduct, but they also give detailed information about consumer behavior, demands, and expectations. This strategy of research gives an analyst a major picture. This method is very crucial when a business is planning to step into the market with new concepts and products.

Website traffic research

Taking records of your customers’ landing page gives a detailed view of what your audience likes. Analyses of visitors to your website can make you aware of consumer demographics. This data is useful for the next move in business. The market is so frequent and so keeping in touch with your web traffic in this competitive market.

Online presence is a must-have feature of a business. You cannot survive without an online hold in the market, and website traffic is its foundation.

Benefits of business research

• Business research helps firms to make a long-term decisions for the future.
• Reports and surveys help firms to frame the business strategy for accurate results.
• Investments and funds being invested in the business by the investors after proper business research.
• proper business research minimizes the chances of loss and risks.
• Business researches help in identifying threats and opportunities of the market.

Business researches are the most crucial way to understand and reach your targeted audience. It requires researches, for any business that skips this initial process of working would end up losing resources and time as well. Business research helps companies to know their speculated returns, demands, and supply. Initial research reduces wastage of time, which can be used in achieving higher goals of the business. This additionally helps companies to understand their human resource requirement and their skills. Recruitment becomes easy with research to get desired candidates for the firm. Strong research is the foundation of a successful business plan with major chances of attaining heights in the market.

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Home » Research Methodology » The Role of Business Research

The Role of Business Research

Research is a systematic search for information in order to obtain a clear picture concerning the underlying problem. Technically speaking, research is a process of identifying problem thoroughly, establishing an objective, collecting and analyzing the relevant data in order to determine the possible factors causing the problem. Thus, research activities are consistent search for information with the objective to get a clearer picture concerning the problem and to propose specific recommendation for the solution.

Role of Research in Business

Making the right decision is an ideal practice in any business whenever the organization encounters a problem. A good organization primarily conducts research to resolve the critical problems surrounding their business such as competition , customer satisfaction , product innovation , customer complaints, and new government policies affecting the industry.

Decision making process requires systematic and organized efforts to investigate a specific problem in a business setting. The first step in understanding the problem is to identify specifically the main issue that requires further investigation. The next steps are to identify factors associated with the problem, gather the relevant information, analyze data, interpret output and provide the recommendation to the manager for his decision-making. It simply means that the decision making process comprises a series of steps designed and executed with the goal of getting the best solution to the underlying problem faced by the organization.

Actually, the entire process in which the managers attempt to solve their problem is the steps in conducting a research project. The research definition in the previous section suggests that research involved the process of inquiry, investigation, examination, and experimentation that need to be conducted systematically, diligently, critically, objectively and in a logical order. Thus, the results of research would be the findings, which would help the managers to deal with the real situation. Therefore, we can define business research as an organized, systematic inquiry concerning the problem, and undertaken with the purpose of finding the best solution to a problem. In addition, the research findings should be able to clarify all ambiguities surrounding the problem. In research the ambiguities surrounding the problem are addressed in term of research questions.

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Article contents

Interdisciplinarity: its meaning and consequences.

• Raymond C. Miller Raymond C. Miller Department of International Relations, San Francisco State University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.92
• Published in print: 01 March 2010
• Published online: 20 November 2017
• This version: 27 August 2020
• Previous version

Interdisciplinarity is an analytically reflective study of the methodological, theoretical, and institutional implications of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and research. Interdisciplinary approaches in the social sciences began in the 1920s. At a minimum, they involve the application of insights and perspectives from more than one conventional discipline to the understanding of social phenomena. The formal concept of interdisciplinarity entered the literature in the early 1970s. The scholars responsible all shared the thought that the scientific enterprise had become less effective due to disciplinary fragmentation and that a countermovement for the unification of knowledge was the proper response. However, not all interdisciplinarians believe that the unification of existing knowledge is the answer.

There are many ways of differentiating between types of interdisciplinary approaches. One classification distinguishes between multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. Multidisciplinary approaches involve the simple act of juxtaposing parts of several conventional disciplines in an effort to get a broader understanding of some common theme or problem. Crossdisciplinary approaches involve real interaction across the conventional disciplines, though the extent of communication; thus, combination, synthesis, or integration of concepts and/or methods vary considerably. Transdisciplinary approaches, meanwhile, involve articulated conceptual frameworks that seek to transcend the more limited world views of the specialized conventional disciplines. Even though many believe that interdisciplinary efforts can create innovative knowledge, the power structure of the disciplinary academy resists interdisciplinary inroads on its authority and resources.

• academic discipline
• area studies
• interdisciplinary approaches
• interdisciplinarity
• interdiscipline
• multidisciplinary
• cross-disciplinary
• transdisciplinary

Updated in this version

Updated references; major revisions throughout.

Introduction

As early as the 1920s, the US Social Science Research Council (SSRC) recognized that, in only several decades after its invention, the departmental/disciplinary structure of the university was becoming an obstacle to effectively addressing comprehensive social problems. Especially in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and then the Ford Foundation worked with the SSRC to fund interdisciplinary research and teaching in US higher education. In the early Cold War era, area studies programs were major recipients of that funding. As a consequence, international studies during this period were often conceptualized as interdisciplinary (Calhoun, 2017 ). At the founding of the International Studies Association (ISA) in 1959 , its mission statement explicitly states that the ISA “promotes interdisciplinary approaches to problems that cannot fruitfully be examined from the confines of a single discipline” ( International Studies Perspectives , May, 2007 , back cover).

The first section of this essay is a historical survey of selected professional literature on interdisciplinary studies, beginning with the classic 1972 OECD Report on its Paris conference (Apostel, 1972 ). It was the first major book entitled Interdisciplinarity . To achieve some conceptual clarity on the many varieties of interdisciplinary activity in the academy, basic terms were defined and a typology proposed. The second major part of this essay is structured by that typology of multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. Since all of these categories rely on disciplines as the core ingredient, discipline is also defined.

In recent years, the concept interdisciplinarity has become popular among scholars. Many books and articles have it in their titles. Books on interdisciplinary approaches vary from those promoting interdisciplinarity (Farrell, Lusatia, & Vanden Hove, 2013 ) to those denigrating it and praising the superior qualities of the disciplines (Jacobs, 2014 ). Furthermore, the widespread discussion of interdisciplinarity does not mean that it has politically succeeded in the academy. By and large the conventional disciplines have maintained their power over the university and funding bureaucracies. The last section of this essay discusses the varying fortunes of interdisciplinary approaches in the academy, especially in reference to international relations.

Historical Survey of Select Literature

The noun interdisciplinarity made its professional debut in a 1972 publication from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The report, entitled Interdisciplinarity: Problems of Teaching and Research in Universities (Apostel, 1972 ), was sponsored by OECD’s Parisian-based Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. The Report had chapters written by scholars from six different European countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Though there were many differences between them, they all shared the thought that the scientific enterprise had become less effective due to disciplinary fragmentation, and that a counter movement for the unification of knowledge was the proper response. The problem was “how to unify knowledge and what the many implications of such unity are for teaching and research in the universities …” (Apostel, 1972 , p. 11). Unification “means the integration of concepts and methods in these disciplines” (pp. 11–12). A number of unifying schemas were proposed, including mathematics, linguistic structuralism, Marxism and general systems. Although the authors had different “transdisciplinary” proposals, they all agreed that “interdisciplinarity is a way of life. It is basically a mental outlook which combines curiosity with open mindedness and a spirit of adventure and discovery. . . .” It is practiced collectively. . . . It teaches that there can be no discontinuity between education and research” (Apostel, p. 285).

In addition to a number of important theoretical articles, the OECD report had a major emphasis on the design and implementation of interdisciplinary universities. The authors of that section, Asa Briggs of Sussex University and Guy Michaud of the University of Paris, gave as their sample model an interdisciplinary university with a special emphasis on international relations. They believed that because the field of international relations had the most complex connections, it necessarily involved the study of many methods, disciplines, issues, languages, and geographical areas. All students of their proposed university were expected to be familiar with the basic approaches and concepts of anthropology, politics, economics, international law, ecology, geography, history, sociology, and ethno-psychology (Apostel, 1972 , pp. 253–257).

Chronologically, the next major book that addressed the general issue of interdisciplinarity in the university setting was entitled Interdisciplinarity and Higher Education . It was published in 1979 , and its editor was Joseph Kockelmans, the Director of the Interdisciplinary Humanities Program at Pennsylvania State University. Possibly because he was European-educated, his orientation was similar to the authors of the OECD Report. He argued that only through “philosophical reflection” can the society’s intellectuals approach the “totality of meaning.” To overcome the fragmented worlds that they have created, they need to reach agreement not only on the position of the sciences, but also on “religion, morality, the arts and our sociopolitical praxis” (Kockelmans, 1979 , pp. 153–158). However, Kockelmans was opposed to using a pre-existing framework, such as the ones listed above in the OECD Report, or the logical positivism of the Unification of Science movement spearheaded by the Vienna Circle in the 1930s. None of them fulfilled the comprehensive vision that Kockelmans advocated.

In October of 1984 , OECD, in collaboration with the Swedish National Board of Universities and Colleges, decided to hold a conference to revisit the concept and experience of interdisciplinarity. More than half of the participants were from Sweden, and almost half of them were from one university, Linköping. Linköping University was especially interested in the topic because it had instituted a doctoral program based on four interdisciplinary themes (technology and social change, water in environment and society, health and society, and communication). The proceedings of the conference were published under the title Interdisciplinarity Revisited: Re-Assessing the Concept in the Light of Institutional Experience (Levin & Lind, 1985 ). Essentially the conferees agreed that the early enthusiasm for an interdisciplinary revolution was dampened by the realities of societal and institutional politics. Interdisciplinary research and teaching were still happening, but they were easier to accomplish if the participants did not boldly label them as such. The advisability of keeping a low profile was due to the fact that the “magical slot” from the mid 1960s to the early 1970s, in which interdisciplinary innovation had flourished, was replaced by a more conservative period in which disciplines reasserted their authority. George Papadopoulos of the OECD concluded that, “interdisciplinarity, even when it succeeds in unscrambling existing curricula, remains a hostage to the disciplines” (Levin & Lind, 1985 , p. 208).

The first major work on interdisciplinarity by an American-educated scholar was published in 1990 by Julie Thompson Klein, professor of humanities at Wayne State University. Her book is entitled Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory and Practice . Rather than making an argument for a particular approach, Klein provided a compilation of all the existing literature across all fields of knowledge. She concluded her extensive survey by observing:

Interdisciplinarity has been variously defined in this century: as a methodology, a concept, a process, a way of thinking, a philosophy, and a reflexive ideology. It has been linked with attempts to expose the dangers of fragmentation, to reestablish old connections, to explore emerging relationships, and to create new subjects adequate to handle our practical and conceptual needs. Cutting across all these theories is one recurring idea. Interdisciplinarity is a means of solving problems and answering questions that cannot be satisfactorily addressed using single methods or approaches. Whether the context is a short-range instrumentality or a long-range reconceptualization of epistemology, the concept represents an important attempt to define and establish common ground. (Klein, 1990 , p. 196)

Nowhere in Julie Klein’s extensive bibliography (97 pages long) is there mention of the term international relations or international studies , although she does have a section on area studies.

In 1997 , the Academia Europaea and the European Commission organized a conference in Cambridge, England around the topic “Interdisciplinarity and the Organisation of Knowledge in Europe.” The conference proceedings were published in 1999 under the same title (Cunningham, ed.). There were 24 contributors from 11 countries with most (9) coming from the United Kingdom. Several contributors referred back to the seminal article by Erich Jantsch in the 1972 OECD pioneering publication. Collectively they agreed that modern disciplines were a product of the scientific revolution of the 19th century . The specialized research entities of the University of Berlin seem to have been the origin of the disciplinary structure of knowledge. “Focusing scholarly attention on the essence or nucleus of the individual subject led inevitably to the putting-up of barriers” (Rüegg, 1999 , pp. 34–35). The division into insular, specialized disciplines was seen by sociologists as an almost inevitable outcome of the differentiation associated with the process of industrialization. John Ziman argued that the impetus toward greater and greater specialization had to do with the scholarly requirement for originality. It’s easier to be a “big frog in a small pond” (Ziman, 1999 , pp. 74–75). He concluded his essay by contending that “disciplines stand for stability and uniformity,” whereas “interdisciplinarity is a code word for diversity and adaptability” (pp. 81–82).

In the United States, some of the young scholars in international relations observed the disciplinary narrowing of the field and decided to publish a book in 2000 entitled Beyond Boundaries: Disciplines, Paradigms, and Theoretical Integration in International Studies (Sil & Doherty, 2000 ). A review (Miller, 2001 ) appearing in the newsletter of the Association for Interdisciplinary Studies observed that the book does not deliver on its promise to meaningfully discuss disciplines, paradigms, and theoretical integration; however, it does juxtapose different theoretical positions while calling for international relations scholars to be tolerant and willing to cross boundaries between disciplines and schools of thought.

In 2002 , an English academic, Joe Moran, published a book that he simply entitled Interdisciplinarity . Though broad in comprehension, it focuses on English and cultural studies. He argued that the institutional implications of openly pursuing interdisciplinary approaches are inevitably political, both in the hierarchy of knowledge and in the allocation of material resources (Moran, 2002 ). Oxford University Press decided to enter this academic realm by publishing the Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity (Froderman, Klein, & Mitcham, 2010 ). None of the 37 chapters are primarily on international studies, though one of the chapters uses area studies as an example (Calhoun & Rhoten, 2010 ). In 2017 , the Handbook came out in a second edition (Froderman). Its 46 chapters address many issues, ranging from funding to pedagogy. However, there is still no chapter dedicated to international studies. The philosopher and editor Robert Froderman argued that “interdisciplinarity is the bridge between academic sophists (disciplinarians) and the rest of society” (p. 7).

In 2009 , Pami Aalto of Tampere University in Finland embarked on a major project to discuss and showcase interdisciplinary approaches in international studies. Two books emerged from the project. The first was International Studies: Interdisciplinary Approaches (Aalto, Harle & Moisio, 2011 ), and the second, Global and Regional Problems: Towards an Interdisciplinary Study (Aalto, Harle, & Moisio, 2012 ). Aalto and his fellow editors argue, “We want to assert that International Studies—as a wider field of studies than International Relations—must necessarily be more interdisciplinary than International Relations ever was during its golden era from the 1950s onwards” (Aalto et al., 2011 , p. 3). They observed that, in the inter-war period, international studies was an interdisciplinary field with materials and perspectives drawn from many fields and disciplines. They noted that this sense of the field was spelled out in the 1939 League of Nations publication University Teaching of International Relations (Zimmern) as well as Quincy Wright’s magnum opus The Study of International Relations ( 1955 ). Despite Wright’s extraordinary effort to synthesize over 20 fields into the study of international relations, his influence over the subsequent development of the field has been minimal. International relations, especially in the United States from the 1950s on, has become more and more embedded in political science. A key reason for this evolution was the focus on the cold war power conflict. Ironically, a major intellectual force in this development was Quincy Wright’s colleague at the University of Chicago, Hans Morgenthau. However, with the end of the Cold War era, Aalto and his fellow editors were hoping for the emergence of a broader, more diverse, interdisciplinary approach to international studies (Aalto et al., 2011 , pp. 11–19).

In 2013 , two European-based scholars, Andrew Barry and Georgina Born, published a book in which they claimed to rethink what is meant by interdisciplinarity, entitled Interdisciplinarity: Reconfigurations of the Social and Natural Sciences . For instance, the authors challenge the conventional statement that interdisciplinary activity is about combining and integrating knowledge from existing disciplines. They believe that interdisciplinarity is about gathering knowledge from all available sources, not just disciplines. They point to community-based knowledge, local experience, and indigenous knowledge, among other sources. Also, they start with the premise that neither disciplinary nor interdisciplinary activities are monolithic or unchanging. Disciplines do have the political advantage in the academy because they usually control the curriculum and the budgets that include faculty hiring. Thus, the disciplines have considerable control over the conditions that determine the degree of receptivity to interdisciplinary research and teaching in any particular university setting. In Barry and Born’s opinion, truly interdisciplinary activities have qualities that differentiate them positively from the disciplines. These three qualities are accountability, innovation, and ontology. Accountability means being more responsive to societal needs. Innovation means being more practical about the problems that are addressed. And ontology means that interdisciplinary activities are more likely to be relational, holistic, and to view humans as being embedded in nature. Also, they respect the participation of the public in the discovery and application of knowledge. But interdisciplinary programs come and go. Some have staying power and become established interdisciplines, even new disciplines. Some get absorbed, whereas others disappear altogether. “The chapters in this book attest to the heterogeneity that characterises both disciplines and interdisciplines and the necessity of probing the genealogies of particular interdisciplinary problematics” (Barry & Born, 2013 , p. 41).

The American Political Science Association noted the increasing popularity of interdisciplinary rhetoric and practice, and in 2007 , they established a Task Force to study it. The report of the Task Force was published under the title Interdisciplinarity: Its Role in a Discipline-Based Academy (Aldrich, 2014 ). The report is interesting because of the obvious tension that permeates the document between proponents of disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity. The first chapter reiterates the value of disciplines. The Task Force Chair, John Aldrich, argued that disciplines are the foundation of knowledge and the academy. In his view, interdisciplinary efforts often lack valid and reliable measures for judging scholarship and teaching, and thus are inherently inferior. Nevertheless, in a subsequent chapter, four pioneers of interdisciplinary scholarship argued for the superior merits of interdisciplinary approaches. The four are David Easton (systems), R. Duncan Luce (cognitive science), and Susanne and Lloyd Rudolph (area studies). In fact, Easton stated, “I don’t see anything that can possibly be exciting and not be interdisciplinary. I think the disciplines have sort of exhausted their contributions to our understanding of politics” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 55). Lloyd Rudolph concluded his interview by offering this reflection: “I realize that it is not only that I value interdisciplinarity but also that I value being allowed to think out of the box of disciplinary methods. New concepts reveal new realities” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 72).

In 2013 and 2015 , two books were published that had both “interdisciplinary” and “international relations” in their titles. The first was Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations: The State of the Art , edited by Jeffrey Dunoff and Mark Pollack ( 2013 ). A more accurate title would have been “interdisciplinary perspectives on the historical relationship between international law and international relations.” The authors noted that during the inter-war period, scholars in the two fields worked very closely together. However, with the advent of World War II and the rise of realism as the dominant theory in international relations, the study of law was considered irrelevant, as unenforceable international law does not affect the behavior of nation-states. Furthermore, normative law was considered too non-scientific for the post-World War II behavioralists/positivists political scientists. It’s worth noting that the editors consider international relations a discipline and that they seem to use it interchangeably with political science. With the rise of other theories in international relations that challenged the dominance of realism, international law became a more acceptable ingredient of international relations scholarship in the 1990s and thereafter. However, instead of a more equal relationship between two disciplines, international law was often considered a subject rather than a discipline. Or as the editors put it, “the intellectual terms of trade were asymmetrical” (Dunoff & Pollack, 2013 , p. 649). The interdisciplinary perspective of the editors and their fellow authors is reflected in their call for more pragmatic, eclectic theoretical approaches drawn from both international relations and international law. “Our call therefore is not for token inclusion of international law approaches, but rather for an interdisciplinary version of the pragmatic, analytically eclectic, tool-kit approach” (p. 653).

The second book, edited by Patrick James and Steve Yetiv, was Advancing Interdisciplinary Approaches to International Relations (Yetiv & James, 2015 ). Their advancement illustration is the application of many perspectives from different disciplines and interdisciplines to the topic of conflict studies. These include history, political science, psychology, neuroscience, anthropology, gender studies, technology studies, demography, and systems analysis (p. 324).

In 2016 , the British Academy published a report on its investigation of interdisciplinary research and teaching in higher education in the United Kingdom. It is entitled Crossing Paths: Interdisciplinary Institutions, Careers, Education and Applications . The working group was chaired by David Soskice of the London School of Economics. In his preface, he recognized the need to promote interdisciplinarity. According to him, this was necessary because the universities, the research councils, the journals and publishers were organized along disciplinary lines. “The incentive structures set up by the interplay of these institutions militates against interdisciplinarity” (p. 5). Then, paradoxically, Soskice went on to argue, as did the group report, that the best way to promote interdisciplinarity is the support of “strong disciplines” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 6). This seems like a strategy that would perpetuate the problem they have identified. The group recommended that junior faculty should first make their reputations in a home discipline. Only then would it be safe to venture into interdisciplinary territory (p. 9). However, once socialized in the discipline’s world view, it’s less likely that faculty will venture into interdisciplinary territory.

The British Academy report recognizes that getting a credible and fair evaluation of interdisciplinary research is very difficult in a discipline-controlled environment. Nevertheless, the working group recommended “evaluating the whole and not just disciplinary parts of any interdisciplinary output. The quality of interdisciplinary work lies in the way that it brings disciplines together” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 10). The evaluation chapter provides a set of guidance questions for research-review panels for evaluating interdisciplinary research proposals. One of the questions asks whether the proposal shows “an understanding of the challenges of interdisciplinary integration, including methodological integration, and the human side of fostering interactions and communication.” Therefore, it is not surprising that the chapter ends with the statement, “a focus on interdisciplinarity revives a sense of the academy as a holistic intellectual and social organism, integrated into the wider community, in which multiple flows and exchanges between all of its parts ensure its vitality” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 70).

In 2019 , Issues in Interdisciplinary Studies dedicated an entire issue to the work of the most prolific American scholar of interdisciplinarity, Julie Thompson-Klein (Augsburg, 2019 ). Her newest book is scheduled to be published in 2021 with the title Beyond Interdisciplinarity: Boundary Work, Communication, and Collaboration in the 21st Century . The book focuses on a full range of sector-crossing, including not only academic disciplines, but also occupational professions, interdisciplinary fields, public and private spheres, local communities, project stakeholders, and countries and cultures across the globe, wherever knowledge production is occurring. This new book is an update and extension of her earlier work, Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and Interdisciplinarities (1996) .

Academic Discipline

Disciplines are the basic units in the structure of knowledge that have been “historically delineated by departmentalization. Within each discipline there are rational, accidental, and arbitrary factors responsible for the peculiar combination of subject matter, techniques of investigation, orienting thought models, principles of analysis, methods of explanation and aesthetic standards” (Miller, 1982 , p. 4). They constitute the bureaucratic subcultures of the modern university. The modern disciplinary system was established at the turn of the 19th into the 20th century .

Many scholars have tried their hand at the task of explicating the characteristics of an academic discipline, but the list provided by Arthur King and John Brownell ( 1966 ) in The Curriculum and the Disciplines of Knowledge still seems among the clearest and most comprehensive. Below is this author’s version of their original list:

Field of demarcated study (subject matter boundaries, inclusions and exclusions).

Shared set of underlying premises (basic assumptions about how the world works).

Shared set of concepts (jargon).

Shared set of organizing theories/models (explanatory frameworks).

Shared set of truth-determining methods (what counts as data—how to make sense of them—i.e. research protocols).

Shared set of values and norms (preferred approaches to the material field that is studied by the discipline—e.g. economists prefer the approach of the free market; also preferred conduct by the practitioners of the discipline).

These six qualities cumulatively come together as a unique perspective—a coherent world view—a disciplinary paradigm or matrix.

Community of scholars who share this world view (professional identity—academic tribes ).

Shared set of literature and great scholars in the discipline.

Agreement on what to teach (structure and content of the basic texts and curriculum from the introductory course to the advanced graduate seminars).

Means of reinforcing the professional standards (graduate training, hiring and tenure control, associations, conferences, peer-reviewed journals, and grant-making processes).

Departmental home in a college/university (bureaucratic recognition, resource allocation and territorial ownership).

Ideal-type conceptualizations of this nature have great heuristic value, but applying them in the “real world” becomes problematic. After all, every group of faculty organized around a defined academic interest that has aspirations for permanence, wish to be known, at least eventually, as a discipline. Recognition as a discipline means more prestige and the prospect of more dependable institutional support. A working solution to this definitional problem is to limit the designation of discipline to those departmental groupings that appeared at the beginning of the 20th century and have institutionally solidified their presence in the academy over the past 100 plus years. John Ziman called them the “Grand Old Disciplines” ( 1999 , p. 73). Thus, in the social sciences, the conventional and building-block disciplines would be Anthropology, Economics, Geography, History, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Without some kind of limitation on the use of the designation discipline, even the distinction between discipline and interdisciplinary can become meaningless. Nevertheless, the solution proposed is admittedly an arbitrary one, but the historical process that created these disciplinary conglomerates in the first place was also a relatively arbitrary process. Eric Wolf argued that the field of classical political economy was divided into the specialized disciplines of economics, political science, sociology and anthropology in a process that lost touch with the real world.

Ostensibly engaged in the study of human behavior, the various disciplines parcel out the subject among themselves. Each then proceeds to set up a model, seemingly a means to explain “hard,” observable facts, yet actually an ideologically loaded scheme geared to a narrow definition of subject matter. (Wolf, 1982 , p. 10)

The establishment of these specialized disciplines at the beginning of the 20th century has been called the “academic enclosure” process (Becher, 1989 ). In a few decades, these disciplines had enclosed themselves in departmental organizations that gave them long-term bureaucratic protection. Yet these disciplines, according to Weingart and Stehr, are “the eyes through which modern society sees and forms its images about the world, frames its experience, and learns, thus shaping its own future or reconstituting the past” (Weingart & Stehr, 1999 , p. xi). Stephen Turner argued that “disciplines are shotgun marriages . . . and are kept together by the reality of the market and the value of the protection of the market that has been created by employment requirements and expectations (Turner, 1999 , p. 55). Turner believed that the disciplines’ animosity toward interdisciplinary initiatives was primarily driven by protectionism (p. 50).

The seventh disciplinary characteristic notes that the first six qualities come together in a world view that is unique to each discipline. Comparing world view components is a useful method for both disciplinary and interdisciplinary scholars. The concept has German origins and has been productively utilized in many academic and non-academic venues for 150 years. This author was introduced into the way anthropologists use the world view method by Robert Redfield ( 1956 ). According to Redfield, every culture or sub-culture has a world view, its embedded “mental map.” It provides guidance on the nature of the world, how we know the truth about it, what is right and wrong behavior, and what emotionally matters the most. Cognitive linguist George Lakoff contended that “World views are complex neural circuits fixed in the brain. People can only understand what fits the neural circuitry in their brains. Real facts can be filtered out by world views” (Lakoff, 2017 ). Critical psychologist Michael Mascolo noted “the concept of world view is founded on the epistemological principle that observation of the physical and social world is a mediated rather than a direct process” (Mascolo, 2014 , p. 2086). He reaffirmed Redfield’s point that a complete world view has an ontology, an epistemology, and a normative belief system.

Table 1. Post-World War II Macro Social Sciences: Comparative Attributes

Source : Miller, R. C. ( 2018 ). International political economy: Contrasting world views (2nd ed., p. 17). London, UK: Routledge.

This author has used world view as the comparative method in understanding the different schools of thought in international political economy (Miller, 2018 ). One step in this process was identifying the comparative attributes of the basic contributing disciplines. A summary of that analysis is in Table 1 : Post World War II Macro Social Sciences: Comparative Attributes. Economics, political science, and sociology are compared in six fundamental dimensions: core subject matter, central concepts, explanatory strategies, normative orientation, data collection, and data analysis.

Interdisciplinary Approaches

Interdisciplinary approaches in the social sciences involve, at a minimum, the application of insights and perspectives from more than one conventional discipline to the understanding of social phenomena. Interdisciplinarity , on the other hand, is an analytically reflective study of the methodological, theoretical, and institutional implications of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and research. Strictly speaking, interdisciplinarians are those who engage in the scholarly field of interdisciplinarity, though there are many faculty and others who participate effectively in interdisciplinary projects without being reflexive about its methods, theories, and institutional arrangements. On the other hand, interdisciplinary participants are more likely to be aware of their underlying world views than disciplinarians.

There are many ways of differentiating between types of interdisciplinary approaches, and in fact, of defining the basic term, interdisciplinary. For instance, the National Academies of Science propose that:

“Interdisciplinary research is a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice.” (National Academy of Sciences, 2005 , p. 39)

This definition privileges the process of “integration” as well as identifying “disciplines” as the primary source of the ingredients to be integrated. Lisa Lattuca, in her faculty-interview study Creating Interdisciplinarity ( 2001 ) argued that post-structuralists, like herself and all the humanities professors and most of the social science professors in her study, reject both of these privileging assumptions. They argue that integration presumes harmonious order, whereas reality may be full of oppositions and contradictions, and that using disciplines as the basic raw material legitimizes their monopoly over knowledge. However, all of the natural scientists in her study were comfortable with the type of definition proposed by the National Academies (Lattuca, 2001 , p. 104). The Political Science Task Force Report also accepted it. Nevertheless, interdisciplinary approaches could be broadened to include the processes of juxtaposition, application, synthesis, and transcendence as well as integration.

By utilizing this broader definition of interdisciplinary approaches that includes processes other than integration, the logic of the original OECD typology retains its efficacy. That typology divided interdisciplinary approaches into multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary. What follows is this author’s version of that typology.

Multidisciplinary Approaches

Multidisciplinary approaches involve the simple act of juxtaposing parts of several conventional disciplines in an effort to get a broader understanding of some common theme or problem. No systematic effort is made to combine or integrate across these disciplines. This is the weakest interdisciplinary approach, and it actually enhances the stature of the participating disciplines because their identities and practices are not threatened. They do not need to change any of their protocols, yet they can claim their openness to interdisciplinary cooperation. Cafeteria-style curricula, team-taught courses, ad hoc research teams, and conference panels could be examples of this approach.

Crossdisciplinary Approaches

Crossdisciplinary approaches involve real interaction across the conventional disciplines, though the extent of communication and thus combination, synthesis or integration of concepts and/or methods varies considerably. Since the variety of crossdisciplinary approaches is so great, this author has created a further six-fold typology. The six sub-categories of crossdisciplinary approaches are: (a) topics of social interest, (b) professional preparation, (c) shared analytical methods, (d) shared concepts, (e) hybrids, and (f) shared life experiences (Miller, 1982 ). Hundreds of crossdisciplinary combinations have been created over the course of the last 100 years. Some of these combinations have been ephemeral, some long lasting, but poorly articulated, and some have developed an institutionalized coherence that rivals the conventional disciplines. The latter in this author’s taxonomy are the interdisciplines . David Long, one of the authors in Aalto’s first book called them “neodisciplines” (Long, 2011 , pp. 52–59).

Transdisciplinary Approaches

Transdisciplinary approaches, according to Jantsch’s classic essay ( 1972 ), involve articulated conceptual frameworks that seek to transcend the more limited world views of the specialized disciplines. These frameworks are holistic in intent. In the 1972 OECD volume, the transdisciplinary approaches mentioned were general systems, structuralism, Marxism, and mathematics. The 21st century transdisciplinary movement in Europe believes that the broader public should be involved in providing, testing, evaluating, and implementing knowledge across all fields. Academic disciplines, therefore, are only a part of the picture.

Social Topics

Important social topics frequently attract members from several disciplines. They start out as multidisciplinary groupings, but over time continuous communication creates a new crossdisciplinary field of study. Examples would include environmental studies, cognitive science, gerontology, labor studies, peace studies, and urban studies. The study of geographical regions, area studies, is an interesting topical example because of its close relationship to international relations.

Professional Preparation

Another organizing principle for crossdisciplinary combinations is relevant knowledge for professional preparation . Examples include business management, diplomatic studies, education, public administration, health services, and policy studies. There are undoubtedly more students, faculty, and practitioners in this professional category than in any of the other categories, but the self-conscious attention to their interdisciplinary nature is very limited. Nevertheless, there are exceptions; for instance, Donald Schön ( 1983 ) in his book The Reflective Practitioner observed that the professions are split between the rational technocratic view of the more theoretical and conventional perspective vs. the more particularistic uncertainty of the actual field situations. He tried to find a middle ground between these extremes by proposing a reflexive approach that combines theory and practice. He argued that professionals should be aware of the frames within which they operate so that they are open to critiquing the one they are using and even shift to another if the situation requires it. Schon’s proposed approach is similar to the interdisciplinary method of comparative world views or multi-perspective analysis (Miller, 1982 ).

Policy studies, a growing field in recent years, manifest this internal tension rather dramatically. In the early 1950s, Harold Lasswell expressed his belief that through a rational and scientific process the best policy options could be identified and implemented toward the betterment of democratic objectives. Some of the analytical methods he advocated, such as benefit/cost analysis, are still being applied today. However, his approach has been criticized as being undemocratic, that is, “scientists know better,” and incredibly unrealistic as the political decision-making process is anything but rational. Studying the “different perspectives that underlie conflict in public policy arenas . . . is more illuminating and ultimately more practical than quixotically tilting at scientific windmills” (Smith & Larimer, 2009 , p. 18).

Shared Analytical Methods

Similar research methods, especially the quantitative ones, are often shared across the disciplines. They provide a basis for bringing methods-oriented faculty members together in more permanent crossdisciplinary associations. These groups have conferences, journals, and even academic programs. Examples of these shared analytical methods include statistics, computer modeling, game theory, and information theory (Miller, 1982 ). However, despite the potential cost savings, conventional disciplinary departments are usually unwilling to replace their own methods courses with the more generic ones from these crossdisciplinary programs.

Shared Concepts

There are some major concepts that appear in many disciplines that have the potential for crossdisciplinary integration. Classic examples of shared concepts include energy, value, flows, role, evolution, development, and cycles (Abbey, 1976 ). George Homans, a sociologist in Harvard’s crossdisciplinary Social Relations Department in the 1960s and 70s used exchange as his main integrating concept. The source of his inspiration was rational exchange theory from the discipline of economics (today it would be called rational choice theory). He made an explicit effort to use benefit/cost exchange as the basis of a theory of human behavior that could integrate across disciplines. Homans argued that although the specifics of exchange relationships may vary across different types of human experience, their overall interactive form may be quite similar (Homans, 1974 ).

The concept of development was dominant in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s under the crossdisciplinary umbrella of modernization theory. Modernization theory grew out of the need to achieve some degree of coherent coordination between the different and sometimes contradictory development strategies proposed by the separate social science disciplines. Economists argued that development would occur if sufficient amounts of capital investment are made and markets are developed. Political scientists argued that development requires modern bureaucracies, effective governance, and political participation. Sociologists argued that modern social institutions such as factories, schools, and mass media are key components in any development plan. Anthropologists argued that the residents of poor countries had to change their traditional cultural values into modern ones if development were to occur. Psychologists argued that individual personality development is the key, shifting the orientation from ascription to achievement. Modernization theory tried to bring all of these diverse perspectives together. It was the central organizing theory of the crossdisciplinary field of development studies.

The most widely recognized type of crossdisciplinary approach is undoubtedly the hybrids . Hybrids combine parts of two existing, related disciplines to form interstitial new crossdisciplines that attempt to bridge perceived gaps between disciplines (Miller, 1982 ). Well-known examples include social psychology, political economy, biogeography, and historical sociology. Sometimes the hybrid crossdisciplinary fields generate new theories whose promise is so great that they are borrowed back into their constituent disciplines. Social psychology’s symbolic interaction theory is a case in point. In fact, Dogan and Pahre ( 1990 ) argue that hybrid activity is the most likely source of innovative advances.

One of the most important hybrids in the interdisciplinary realm of international relations is political economy, especially in the form of international political economy (IPE). IPE uses the multi-perspective approach mentioned above. It juxtaposes the competing explanatory perspectives of the market model from economics, institutionalism from political science and sociology, and historical materialism from classical Marxist political economy (Miller, 2018 ). The differing perspectives provide a rich treasury of insights, understandings, critiques, and research strategies.

Shared Life Experiences

The basic premise in crossdisciplinary programs based on shared life experiences is that certain groups have shared a common experience of oppression that gives them a shared identity, a shared rejection of mainstream knowledge that reinforces this oppression, and a shared political agenda to replace the unjust social conditions with an egalitarian society. Three major examples of this category are women’s studies, ethnic studies, and post-colonial studies. These crossdisciplinary fields entered the academy as outgrowths of the social movements of the late 1960s and early 1970s. They started out as multidisciplinary challengers to the disciplinary/departmental power structure of the university, yet over the past four decades women’s studies and ethnic studies have evolved increasingly into discipline-like programs, in other words, interdisciplines. According to some observers, one of the costs of this institutional acceptance was the loss of one of the early objectives of these movements, social change activism in the community (Messer-Davidow, 2002 ).

Virtually all of the over 700 women’s studies programs in the United States teach feminist theory, an integrating perspective that focuses on socially constructed gender systems and standpoint analysis. Standpoint theory contends that how one perceives any human condition depends on the position that one occupies in the society. Those who are being oppressed are going to see things very differently than those who are doing the oppressing.

According to Ann Tickner, feminism challenges the neo-positivist and state-centric orientation of international relations in the United States. The unequal relationships that pervade the world are socially constructed and vary from place to place, with women suffering universally from male-dominated exercises of power. Furthermore, dichotomies such as those that “separate the mind (rationality) from the body (nature) diminish the legitimacy of women as ‘knowers’” (Tickner, 2014 , p. 86). Knowledge should not be pursued for its own sake or for the benefit of the state but in order to facilitate the emancipation of the oppressed (Tickner, 2014 , pp. 176–77).

Theorists in African-American or Africana studies have made a deliberate effort to incorporate the perspective of women in their key concept, Afrocentricity . The meaning of Afrocentricity is somewhat contested within the interdiscipline, but there is no doubt about what it opposes, namely Eurocentrism. Among the specified features of Eurocentrism are reductionism, individualism, and domination over nature, whereas Afrocentricity is associated with holism, community, and harmony with nature (Azibo, 2001 , p. 424). Karanja Keita Carroll ( 2008 ) contended that the “Afrikan worldview” has embedded within it an African culture-specific axiology, epistemology, logic, cosmology, ontology, teleology, and ideology that necessitate a research methodology that is consistent with these components. Instead of the Eurocentric approach that emphasizes objective detachment, separation between the knower and the known, material reality as primary, either/or logic, and knowledge for knowledge’s sake, the Afrikan worldview emphasizes full engagement, the blending of knower and known, the spiritual essence of reality as primary, both/and logic, and knowledge for the betterment of African peoples. Africana research is about participation, relationships, interdependence, and the liberation of Africana people (Carroll, 2008 , pp. 4–27).

Advocates for transdisciplinary approaches often directly challenge the efficacy of conventional disciplines, claiming that they are part of the problem rather than the solution, especially when the objective is the mitigation of complex social problems. Proponents of transdisciplinary approaches frequently accuse the hegemonic conventional disciplines of protecting the status quo rather than promoting progressive change. The framers of some transdisciplinary approaches see them as providing alternatives to the world views of the conventional disciplines that they would replace. Examples of discipline-replacement transdisciplinary approaches would be general systems theory, Marxism, cultural studies and sustainability studies. Examples of transdisciplinary approaches that could supplement rather than replace conventional disciplines would be symbolic interactionism, rational choice theory, and gender theory (Miller, 1982 ).

General systems theory, the transdisciplinary approach that Jantsch favored, contends that nature is a hierarchy of similar structures up through the whole succession of physical, biological, and social systems. There are similar developmental patterns throughout nature, but there are different paths that can lead to the same destination. Through the organization of energy from the environment (negative entropy) and communication with the environment (negative feedback), systems seek to maintain dynamic equilibria. This theory conceives of nature as a holistic set of relationships that thrives on diversity.

David Easton introduced systems thinking to political science in the 1950s and 1960s because he felt the discipline was too narrow. “I am not a political scientist but rather a social scientist interested in political problems” (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 52–53). Currently, Carolyn and Patrick James continue Easton’s systems approach with their application of “systemism” to foreign policy analysis. However, in their view, systemism moves away from Easton’s bias toward homeostatic proclivities and emphasis on the macro level. Systemism includes both the macro and the micro and all forms of interaction between them (James & James, 2015 ).

Since the 1960s, general systems theory has been the main transdisciplinary approach of environmental or ecological studies (Costanza, 1990 ). Today, this field is most likely to be called sustainability studies. In a major conference on transdisciplinarity held in Switzerland in 2000 , sustainability was put forward not only as the major reason for the necessity of transdisciplinarity, but also as a transdisciplinary approach in itself (Klein et al., 2001 ). However, Egon Becker argues that sustainability studies is a “transdisciplinary field” that is more of a “conceptual and heuristic framework” than a general theory ( 1999 , pp. 284–285).

The lack of an agreed-upon general theory for engaging in the intellectual process of integrating across disciplines led William Newell to search for the most comprehensive and functionally effective transdisciplinary theory. He decided on general systems. But the first difficulty that Newell faced was deciding on which version of general systems theory to embrace. He identified eight possibilities: chaos, complex systems, fractal geometry, nonlinear dynamics, second-order cybernetics, self-organizing criticality, neo-evolutionary biology, and quantum mechanics (Newell, 2001 ). After studying them all, he chose complex systems as the preferred approach. Newell ( 2001 , p. 7) explains: “Specifically, the theory of interdisciplinarity studies that I am advocating focuses on the form of complexity that is a feature of the structure as well as the behavior of a complex system, on complexity generated by nonlinear relationships among a large number of components, and on the influence of the components and relationships of the system on its overall pattern of behavior.” Newell presented his preferred theory to a panel of well-known interdisciplinarians for their reactions. None of the six respondents agreed with his suggestion, primarily because they did not believe that the range and diversity of interdisciplinary possibilities could be captured within one theoretical framework (Issues in Integrative Studies 19, 2001 , pp, 1–148)

One of the respondents to Newell’s proposal, Richard Carp ( 2001 ), took issue with his basic premise, namely that the knowledge to be integrated via complex systems theory comes exclusively from existing disciplines. Carp insisted on widening the knowledge sources. He stated that we should stop thinking of “the disciplines as unique sources or resources for knowledge and thought” (Carp, 2001 , p. 74). Carp argued that we should “learn from multiple knowledge formations” (p. 75). Disciplines should not be the “gatekeepers.” The universities are just one of the many institutions in society that not only possess knowledge but can also create it. We should not be talking about interdisciplinary studies but “knowledge formations” (p. 75).

In Europe, the transdisciplinary movement has taken several different directions. The Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences conference in 2000 promoted a process form of transdisciplinarity that transcended not only disciplinary boundaries, but also the boundary between the scientific establishment on the one hand and the users of the results of scientific research on the other hand. Users include government agencies, businesses, non-profit organizations, and members of the general public. Since all of these groups are stakeholders in the solution of the societal problems that science has an obligation to address, they should all be present at the table in the research process. In fact, the more stakeholders involved, the more “robust” the research. “We take the contributions to the informing and the rationalizing of actions in their societal context to be the main performance of problem-oriented research, and by implication, also of transdisciplinary research” (Zierhofer & Burger, 2007 , p. 57). In other words, according to the Swiss school, the purpose of transdisciplinary research is to seek and facilitate the implementation of solutions for societal problems, such as violence, poverty, and global warming, that serve the common good (Pohl & Hadorn, 2008 ). Norwegian professor Willy Ostreng, in his major book on interdisciplinary research, agrees and adds that as transdisciplinarity traverses the boundaries between science and stakeholder expertise it creates a new science, a “post-normal” science (Ostreng, 2010 , pp. 29–33).

Another European school of transdisciplinarity is centered around Basarab Nicolescu, a French academic. His group is organized around the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research. The movement’s objective is the achievement of the totality of meaning across all the sciences, art, religion, and cultural perspectives. That endeavor involves the search for relations and isomorphisms across all realms. The French school’s epistemology is explicitly non-Aristotelian in that it wishes to go beyond lineal and binary logic. They recognize different levels of reality in which different modes of understanding prevail. They start with the differences between classical physics and quantum physics, between reason and intuition, between information and consciousness, and between linear and non-linear logics. Non-linear logic is explained as the unity of oppositions, the inclusion of the excluded middle, and the evolutionary process of ever more comprehensive syntheses. Manfred Max-Neef calls this epistemology “strong transdisciplinarity.” He sees some of it in the natural sciences, especially in quantum physics and complexity theories. However, he does not see any of it in the social sciences. He sees economics as the most retrogressive and therefore one of the biggest obstacles to a unified, spiritually evolved, sustainable future (Max-Neef, 2005 , pp. 5–16).

There are some interesting analogies between “strong transdisciplinarity” and the field of cultural studies, for which many claim transdisciplinary status. Both approaches are strongly critical of the excessive reliance on rationality and analytic reductionism, as well as of the fragmented specialization of the structure of knowledge. The location of cultural studies at the interface of the humanities and the social sciences enables its practitioners to bring together their different concepts of culture and then to add the additional dimension of everyday meanings and practices present among the broader population (Moran, 2002 ).

It is generally agreed that the institutional origin of cultural studies was at Birmingham University in 1964 . The founders had an anti-establishment orientation informed by Italian neo-Marxist Antonio Gramsci and French post-structuralist Michel Foucault. The Birmingham group wished to understand and challenge the power over the general population that the cultural elites exercised through the mass media and the power that the intellectual elites exercised through their control of the structure of knowledge, that is, the departmental/disciplinary structure of the academy. When cultural studies diffused to the United States, the field lost some of its political agenda; however, it retained its emphasis on popular culture. Numerous academic fields are identified as contributing to cultural studies, including cultural anthropology, textual criticism, art and social history, linguistics, sociology, aural and visual culture, philosophy of science, political economy, communication studies, psychology, and feminism. These multiple sources led Joe Moran ( 2002 , p. 50) to comment, “Cultural studies could be said to be synonymous with interdisciplinarity itself.” It is both ironic and instructive then that the founding enclave of cultural studies, the Birmingham Centre, was shut down by the higher education authorities of the United Kingdom in 2002 , presumably because of the “low quality of its research production” (Klein, 2005 , pp. 52–53).

Consequences

Advocating explicitly for interdisciplinary approaches in a discipline-controlled environment can be risky. It can be politically risky for administrative units and personally risky for faculty, especially for junior faculty. Interdisciplinary approaches do have implications for the structure and politics of knowledge. They have implications for International Relations, especially if the study of international relations is considered an interdisciplinary field. A 2002 publication assessing the field came to this conclusion:

While there seems to be little problem in designating international relations as a “field,” the symposium left unclear whether this field is most properly a subfield of political science, a subfield of several disciplines, an amalgam of the subfields of multiple disciplines or an academic discipline in its own right. (Puchala, 2002 , pp. xvi–xvii)

The dominant location for International Relations in the United States is as a subfield of Political Science (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 5). In the United Kingdom, however, the field of International Relations is more often treated as a separate discipline (Waever, 1998 ). How the field is conceptualized and institutionalized does have implications for its intellectual strategies, the identities of its practitioners, and its access to resources, both on and off-campus. David Long has argued that “it matters whether IR is considered a discipline in its own right or not. It matters in teaching and research not only by what is cut off, but what is encouraged” (Long, 2011 , pp. 59–60). Rudra Sil warned that “inflexible disciplinary structures may very well come to constitute a hindrance to whatever ‘progress’ is possible in our collective efforts to understand aspects of international life” (Sil & Doherty, 2000 , p. 6). Nevertheless, American political scientists are firmly committed to keeping international relations within their fold. A 2002 doctoral dissertation tells the tale of how, in 1986 , the Political Science Department at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) successfully absorbed the multidisciplinary graduate program in International Relations. It is an interesting tale of money and powerful personalities, and it would probably be more accurately described as a hostile takeover (Plantan, 2002 ).

Even though the author of the dissertation, Frank Plantan, used the language of interdisciplinarity, he did not employ the conceptual distinctions presented above. That is partly because the graduate program of International Relations at Penn was just a multidisciplinary collection of volunteer faculty members from 10 different departments with no separate, dedicated financial support. By centering his analysis on the Penn case study, Plantan limited the operational meaning of interdisciplinary to this loose arrangement of multidisciplinary specialists, an unstable and vulnerable setup. Yet in his discussion of the intellectual development of the field he mentioned several integrating strategies that have crossdisciplinary and even transdisciplinary qualities. His examples included realism, functionalism, behavioralism, neoliberal institutionalism, rational choice, and constructivism. However, in his historical analysis Plantan saw these theoretical perspectives as ideas to fight over rather than as integrating strategies. In his experience, the competitive departmental environment triumphed over interdisciplinary cooperation. Plantan ( 2002 , pp. 374–375) concluded, “The hefty sunk costs of an existing tenured faculty and staff, and a historic mission (however dubious) in the colleges or university’s broader curriculum, accords them a staying power, an inertia, that no interdisciplinary program can hope to achieve whatever its intellectual merit.”

When Robert Axelrod, the President of the American Political Science Association, established a Task Force in 2007 on Interdisciplinarity, he argued that interdisciplinary research is borrowing across disciplinary boundaries, both importing and exporting, but especially exporting (Axelrod, 2008 ). The Task Force Report (Aldrich, 2014 ) argued that interdisciplinary work begins with faculty who are prepared with accumulated deep knowledge in a discipline. To insure that interdisciplinary teaching and research do not endanger the institutional power of the conventional disciplines, the Report placed a major emphasis on discipline-based peer review. They contended that peer review is the preeminent means by which “the value of scientific knowledge can be established,” and peer review is only credible if it comes from an established discipline (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 13–23). They continued, “Disciplinarity has not yet been successfully transcended as a means to address key values of scholarship—particularly to resolve contested claims about knowledge, to anchor peer review and the authority it carries with it to protect academic freedom, or to manage the labor market” (p. 23).

Interdisciplinarians would find this reasoning self-serving at the very least. After all, one of the main reasons for engaging in truly innovative interdisciplinary activity is to break free of the narrow, restrictive and presumably inadequate contexts of the established disciplines. The National Academies Report ( 2005 ) argues that there are four “drivers” for interdisciplinary research: inherent complexity of nature and society, need to explore areas that are not confined to a single discipline, need to solve societal problems, and the power of new technologies (p. 40). This Report gives several examples, but the most comprehensive is the case of climate change. Research on this complex and vital issue involves 10,000 scientists in 80 countries from more than 20 disciplines, including agricultural scientists, archeologists, atmospheric chemists, biologists, climatologists, ecologists, economists, environmental historians, geographers, geologists, hydrologists, mathematicians, meteorologists, plant physiologists, political scientists, oceanographers, remote sensing scientists, and sociologists (p. 31).

The established disciplines have been attacked by the post-structuralists for being Eurocentric, sexist, racist, pseudo-objective, status quo-protective and structured in a way that is disconnected from reality. To this group of critics both the ontologies and epistemologies of the conventional structure of knowledge are unacceptable (Moran, 2002 ). Paradoxically, some of the academics who espouse these views have managed to find an institutionalized niche in the university in departments or centers of cultural studies, ethnic studies, post-colonial studies, and women’s studies. However, in the process of institutionalization, they seem to have followed the advice of the Political Science Task Force Report: if interdisciplinary projects want to be successful—that is, achieve bureaucratic recognition with regular budgets and assigned faculty positions—you need to behave like an established discipline (Messer-Davidow, 2002 ). Besides those interdisciplines that have successfully entered the university structure since the 1960s, there were many generic interdisciplinary programs that also evolved into departments even though they were founded as challengers to the disciplinary/departmental system. Evidently, the generic-interdisciplinary departments were perceived by the established departments as the most threatening as well as the most vulnerable. As a consequence, whenever conventional departments found sympathetic administrators they embarked on a campaign for their abolition. In the Politics of Interdisciplinary Studies the stories of several of these program eliminations are told. They include programs at Wayne State, Miami of Ohio, Appalachian State, and San Francisco State, among others. (Augsburg & Henry, 2009 ).

The Political Science Task Force Report also describes how the discipline-based peer-review process works in the federal grant-making process, the largest source of extramural funding in the United States. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is probably organized the most pervasively around the conventional or established disciplines. Therefore, disciplinary criteria are used to evaluate most grant proposals submitted to the NSF. There are small programs within NSF that seem to facilitate interdisciplinary projects: The Measurement, Methodology and Statistics Program and the Human and Social Dynamics Program.

Although the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is organized functionally, its reviewing process also relies largely on disciplinary faculty and their criteria for quality. Federal funding agencies reflect and respect disciplinary boundaries, though they do seek ways to attack new problems through interdisciplinary efforts (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 101–111). However, the ostensibly integrative interdisciplinary projects they fund frequently end up as merely multidisciplinary.

A group that studied the grant-making experience of the Academy of Finland from 1997–2004 discovered, to their surprise, that almost half of the grants (42%) had some degree of interdisciplinarity despite the disciplinary orientations of the review boards. The solution of the study authors to the disciplinary/interdisciplinary divide is to consider all research interdisciplinary. They reason that since disciplinary boundaries are so amorphous and so frequently permeated that maintaining these distinctions is artificial and inhibitive of creativity in research (Bruun, Hukkinen, Huutoniemi, & Klein, 2005 , p. 169). However, ignoring disciplinary boundaries and their associated departmental bureaucracy seems not only unrealistic about the confining power of the disciplinary structure of knowledge, but also politically naive as well.

A further interesting dimension of the International Studies Association (ISA) is the relationship between its many crossdisciplinary sections and the dominant Political Science discipline. Of the 29 sections ( 2019 ), 22 seem crossdisciplinary in nature. Examples include interdisciplinary studies, human rights studies, environmental studies, peace studies, feminist theory and gender studies, and global development studies. For years the leadership of the ISA seemed merely to presume, despite the organization’s claim to interdisciplinarity, that all the section program chairs could gather at the annual Political Science Convention to review the draft program of the upcoming ISA Convention. The implicit assumption in this past ISA practice was that the section program chairs were most likely political scientists who would be attending the annual Political Science Convention. This assumption always struck this author as problematic, especially in light of the organization’s mission statement and its interdisciplinary membership. The greater efficiency of the Internet facilitated the discontinuance of this practice.

The history of the relationship of area studies to International Relations is a fascinating one in itself. The ISA section sponsoring this contribution, the Interdisciplinary Studies Section, was originally established by area studies scholars according to Fred Riggs, one of its founders. In the 1970s, area studies scholars were contemplating founding a separate umbrella organization for all area studies programs, but they were persuaded to stay within the ISA as an independent section. Area studies centers were established in elite universities after WWII as part of a national Cold War strategy. They were “among the most far-reaching interdisciplinary projects in American higher education” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 89). Their responsibility was to provide information on the geographic regions of the world in support of the national interests of the United States. Participating faculty came mostly from language, literature, anthropology, history, and political science (international relations) departments. The centers, despite their holistic aspirations, were multidisciplinary in form and particularistic in methodology. Money and guidance ostensibly came from private sources, such as the Ford Foundation and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC), but they actually came from the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency (Cumings, 2002 ).

In the first few decades after World War II, the study of international relations was significantly oriented to area studies because the money flowing into the universities supported area studies type of knowledge. The legacy of that emphasis is reflected in a 2006 Teagle Foundation survey that found in the responses of 109 Liberal Arts Colleges, half of the top ten interdisciplinary majors were in area and international studies. Since the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, extramural teaching and research support has dwindled significantly for area and international studies. Lloyd Rudolph comments, “after the close of the Cold War, the disciplines and the ‘methodists’ succeeded in attacking and defeating the area studies orientation of Ford and via Ford the SSRC” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 70). Area studies programs have had to endure criticism from those who see them as a “colonial enterprise” (faculty in post-colonial and ethnic studies programs), while many in the disciplines see them as lacking any theoretical coherence and methodological rigor. From the perspective of conventional disciplinarians, their region-centric particularism and their multidisciplinary structures make them the poster examples of what ails interdisciplinary programs (Miyoshi & Harootunian, 2002 ; Szanton, 2004 ).

Nevertheless, despite the continuing identity crises in area studies, they have managed to survive. Their latest restoration positions them as part of the internationalization of the academy, presumably made necessary by the knowledge demands of globalization and regional hot spots such as the Middle East. However, the continuing viability of area studies remains uncertain. As one observer noted, the different area studies faculties are as separated from each other as the members of disciplines are from each other. “By and large, the world area studies tribes inhabit relatively watertight intellectual domains” (Lambert, 1991 , p. 184). This observation is consistent with the author’s experience. As an administrator in charge of curriculum development, he suggested that the area studies programs could share a core course in which the common methodological principles of area studies could be explored. The area studies faculty, however, were not interested. Nevertheless, David Szanton hopes that participation in area studies programs have helped to “deparochialize” disciplinary faculty, though it does not seem to have lowered the heights of the disciplinary walls. Maybe by being one of the first interdisciplinary programs to use identity as one of its key concepts, area studies may have prepared the way for ethnic studies, women’s studies and post-colonial studies (Szanton, 2004 ).

The case of international political economy (IPE) also raises a number of interesting interdisciplinary issues. In its reincarnation over the last four decades or so, it fits in the category of crossdisciplinary hybrids. IPE’s location in the structure of knowledge is as confused as International Relations. The disciplines of Economics, Political Science and Sociology all claim IPE as a subfield. However, Marxists, in the tradition of classical political economy, see political economy as an overarching, holistic frame in which cultural, economic, political, and social dimensions are inter-related subsets. According to Marxists, the establishment of the specialized disciplines around these dimensions is a part of the hegemonic strategy of capitalism to obfuscate the oppressive nature of the capitalist system.

The late British political economist Susan Strange, a non-Marxist, complained about the lack of knowledge sharing across disciplinary boundaries. She was especially critical of the way in which economists and political scientists ignored each other and their respective knowledge domains. She accused American scholars of International Relations of being too narrowly connected to state-centric political models that did not include serious economic analysis. In fact, she argued, “Far from being a subdiscipline of international relations, IPE should claim that international relations are a subdiscipline of IPE” (see Strange, in Lawton, Rosenau, & Verdun, 2000 , p. 412). Susan Strange is among the “Magnificent Seven” that Benjamin Cohen singled out in his intellectual history of international political economy (Cohen, 2008 , p. 8). She was the leader of the “British School,” which is more holistic, interdisciplinary, and explicitly normative in contrast to the “American School,” which is more positivistic in orientation. Cohen continued his geographic schools of thought analysis of IPE in a 2014 publication, Advanced Introduction to International Political Economy . In response to criticism of the limitations of his original dichotomy, he added schools of thought based in continental Europe, Latin America, and China. He also recognized “leftist” or “heterodox” schools in the United States and the British Commonwealth. However, his geographic schools of thought approach focused primarily on national/regional and cultural differences, rather than theoretical.

Members of all schools of international political economy would probably be comfortable having their field identified as an “interdiscipline” (Underhill, 2000 ). An interdiscipline is a crossdisciplinary field that approximates the characteristics of an academic discipline, but it does not qualify as a 20th century conventional discipline. In fact, maybe International Relations would also best be characterized as an “interdiscipline.” However, that identification still leaves unanswered where International Relations fits in the power hierarchy of knowledge.

According to Barry Buzan and Richard Little, members of the English or British School of International Relations, the widespread placement of International Relations in the United States as a subfield of Political Science has significantly limited its theoretical potential. Buzan and Little ( 2001 ) argued that American International Relations is dominated by an ahistorical, Eurocentric, Westphalian, political/military model. One of the consequences of this approach is the preference for “fragmentation into the anarchy of self-governing and paradigm-warring islands of theory rather than integration into the imperial or federative archipelago of theoretically pluralist grand theory” (Buzan & Little, 2001 , p. 31). Margaret Hermann, in her 1998 ISA presidential address, expressed seemingly similar sentiments about fragmentation: “The field has become an administrative holding company rather than an intellectually coherent area of inquiry or a community of scholars” (Hermann, 2002 , p. 16). However, her solution is a respectful dialogue that builds a “mosaic of multiple perspectives” around problems that are issues of “world politics” (pp. 31–33). She does not seem to be recommending “grand theory” nor going beyond Political Science. Thus, hers is an intra-disciplinary rather than an inter-disciplinary solution. On the other hand, Hermann does seem to embrace the “interdisciplinary mental outlook” advocated by the authors of the pioneering OECD Report (Apostel, 1972 ).

Understanding the different types of interdisciplinary approaches and their differentiation from disciplinary approaches gives one deeper insight into the knowledge production and transmission process. If International Relations is to be a truly independent, interdisciplinary field that can take full advantage of multiple perspectives and methodologies in order to deal more effectively with global problems, it needs to liberate itself from the embrace of confining disciplines, especially Political Science.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank the following for helping to improve this article: Stanley Bailis, Felicia Krishna-Hensel, Renee Marlin-Bennett, Tina Mavrikos-Adamou, Anja K. Miller, and Julie Thompson-Klein.

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A Guide To The Top 14 Types Of Reports With Examples Of When To Use Them

What Is The Report Definition?

What are the different types of reports, what does a report look like, what you should look for in a reporting tool, types of reporting for every business & purpose.

Businesses have been producing reports forever. No matter what role or industry you work in, chances are that you have been faced with the task of generating a tedious report to show your progress or performance.

While reporting has been a common practice for many decades, the business world keeps evolving, and with more competitive industries, the need to generate fast and accurate reports becomes critical. This presents a problem for many modern organizations today, as building reports can take from hours to days. In fact, a survey about management reports performed by Deloitte says that 50% of managers are unsatisfied with the speed of delivery and the quality of the reports they receive.

With this issue in mind, several BI tools, such as RIB BI+ , have been developed to assist businesses in generating interactive reports with just a few clicks, enhancing the way companies make critical decisions and service insights from their most valuable data.

But, with so many types of reports used daily, how can you know when to use them effectively? How can you push yourself ahead of the pack with the power of information? Here, we will explore the 14 most common types of reports in business and provide some examples of when to use them to your brand-boosting advantage. In addition, we will see how online dashboards have overthrown the static nature of classic reports and given way to a much faster, more interactive way of working with data.

Let’s get started with a brief report definition.

A report is a document that presents relevant business information in an organized and understandable format. Each report is aimed at a specific audience and business purpose, and it summarizes the development of different activities based on goals and objectives.

That said, there are various types of reports that can be used for different purposes. Whether you want to track the progress of your strategies or stay compliant with financial laws, there is a different report for each task. To help you identify when to use them, we will cover the top 14 most common report formats used for businesses today.

1. Informational Reports

The first in our list of reporting types is informational reports. As their name suggests, this report type aims to give factual insights about a specific topic. This can include performance reports, expense reports, and justification reports, among others. A differentiating characteristic of these reports is their objectivity; they are only meant to inform but not propose solutions or hypotheses. Common informational reports examples are for performance tracking, such as annual, monthly, or weekly reports.

2. Analytical Reports

This report type contains a mix of useful information to facilitate the decision-making process through a mix of qualitative and quantitative insights as well as real-time and historical insights. Unlike informational reports that purely inform users about a topic, this report type also aims to provide recommendations about the next steps and help with problem-solving. With this information in hand, businesses can build strategies based on analytical evidence and not simple intuition. With the use of the right BI reporting tool, businesses can generate various types of analytical reports that include accurate forecasts via predictive analytics technologies. Let’s look at it with an analytical report example.

The example above is the perfect representation of how analytical reports can boost a business’s performance. By getting detailed information such as sales opportunities, a probability rate, as well as an accurate pipeline value forecast based on historical data, sales teams can prepare their strategies in advance, tackle any inefficiencies, and make informed decisions for increased efficiency.

3. Operational Reports

These reports track every pertinent detail of the company’s operational tasks, such as its production processes. They are typically short-term reports as they aim to paint a picture of the present. Businesses use this type of report to spot any issues and define their solutions or to identify improvement opportunities to optimize their operational efficiency. Operational reports are commonly used in manufacturing, logistics, and retail as they help keep track of inventory, production, and costs, among others.

4. Industry Reports

Next in our list of the most common kinds of reports, we have industry-specific reports. As its name suggests, these types of reports are used in specific industries and provide valuable information about KPIs and goals that are unique to that industry. For instance, construction reports are invaluable tools to track project progress and extract valuable conclusions to optimize processes.

The example below is a report for a construction company that has multiple active projects. The template offers a complete overview of performance with KPIs related to contract value, budget, and profit margins, among other things. That said, the most valuable part of this report is the detailed overview of finishing projects and projects in execution, where we see that industry-specific KPIs like the SPI and CPI are tracked for each project with color to understand the status at a glance. Templates like this one play a fundamental role in efficient project management in construction as they offer the necessary overview to make smart decisions with fresh data. 

5. Product Reports

As its name suggests, this report type is used to monitor several aspects related to product development. Businesses often use them to track which of their products or subscriptions are selling the most within a given time period, calculate inventories, or see what kind of product the client values the most. Another common use case of these reports is to research the implementation of new products or develop existing ones. Let’s see it in more detail with a visual example.

The image above is a product report that shows valuable insights regarding usage intention, purchase intention, willingness to pay, and more. In this case, the report is based on the answers from a survey that aimed to understand how the target customer would receive a new product. Getting this level of insight through this report type is very useful for businesses as it allows them to make smart investments in new products and set realistic pricing based on their clients’ willingness to pay.

6. Department Reports

These reports are specific to each department or business function. They serve as a communication tool between managers and team members who must stay connected and work together for common goals. Whether it is the sales department, customer service, logistics, or finances, this specific report type helps track and optimize strategies on a deeper level. Let’s look at it with an example of a team performance report.

The image above is a department report created with an online data analysis tool, and it tracks the performance of a support team. This insightful report displays relevant metrics such as the top-performing agents, net promoter score, and first contact resolution rate, among others. Having this information in hand not only helps each team member to keep track of their individual progress but also allows managers to understand who needs more training and who is performing at their best.

7. Progress Reports

From the branch of informational reports, progress reports provide critical information about a project’s status. Employees or managers can produce these reports daily, weekly, or monthly to track performance and fine-tune tasks for the project’s better development. Progress reports are often used as visual materials to support meetings and discussions. A good example is a KPI scorecard.

8. Internal Reports

A type of report that encompasses many others on this list, internal reports refer to any type of report that is used internally in a business. They convey information between team members and departments to keep communication flowing regarding goals and business objectives.

As mentioned above, internal reports are useful communication tools to keep every relevant person in the organization informed and engaged. This healthcare report aims to do just that. By providing insights into the performance of different departments and areas of a hospital, such as in and outpatients, average waiting times, treatment costs, and more, healthcare managers can allocate resources and plan the schedule accurately, as well as monitor any changes or issues in real-time.

9. External Reports

Although most of the report types listed here are used for internal purposes, not all reporting is meant to be used behind closed doors. External reports are created to share information with external stakeholders such as clients or investors for budget or progress accountability, as well as for governmental bodies to stay compliant with the law requirements.

The image above is the perfect example of an external client report from an IT project. This insightful report provides a visual overview of every relevant aspect of the project’s development. From deadlines, budget usage, completion stage, and task breakdown, clients can be fully informed and involved in the project.

10. Vertical & Lateral Reports

Next, in our rundown of types of reports, we have vertical and lateral reports. This reporting type refers to the direction in which a report travels. A vertical report is meant to go upward or downward the hierarchy, for example, a management report. A lateral report assists in organization and communication between groups that are at the same level of the hierarchy, such as the financial and marketing departments.

11. Research Reports

Without a doubt, one of the most vital reporting types for any modern business is centered on research. Being able to collect, collate, and drill down into insights based on key pockets of your customer base or industry will give you the tools to drive innovation while meeting your audience’s needs head-on.

The image above is a market research analytics report example for customer demographics. It serves up a balanced blend of metrics that will empower you to boost engagement as well as retention rates. Here, you can drill down into your audience’s behaviors, interests, gender, educational levels, and tech adoption life cycles with a simple glance.

What’s particularly striking about this dashboard is the fact that you can explore key trends in brand innovation with ease, gaining a working insight into how your audience perceives your business. This invaluable type of report will help you get under the skin of your consumers, driving growth and loyalty in the process.

12. Strategic Reports

Strategy is a vital component of every business, big or small. Strategic analytics tools are perhaps the broadest and most universal of all the different types of business reports imaginable.

These particular tools exist to help you consistently understand, meet, and exceed your most pressing organizational goals by providing top-level metrics on various initiatives or functions.

By working with strategic-style tools, you will:

• Improve internal motivation and engagement
• Refine your plans and strategies for the best possible return on investment (ROI)
• Enhance internal communication and optimize the way your various departments run
• Create more room for innovation and creative thinking

13. Project Reports

Projects are key to keeping a business moving in the right direction while keeping innovation and evolution at the forefront of every plan, communication, or campaign. But without the right management tools, a potentially groundbreaking project can become a resource-sapping disaster.

A project management report serves as a summary of a particular project’s status and its various components. It’s a visual tool that you can share with partners, colleagues, clients, and stakeholders to showcase your project’s progress at multiple stages. Let’s look at our example and dig a little deeper.

Our example above is a construction project management dashboard that offers a 360-degree view of a project’s development. This invaluable construction collaboration tool can help keep every relevant project stakeholder involved and informed about the latest developments to ensure maximum efficiency and transparency.

Work and budget development and cost breakdown charts can help develop efficient construction cost control strategies to ensure the project remains profitable and on schedule. On the other hand, progress metrics like the SPI and the CPI can help assess construction productivity issues that can lead to delays and costly overruns.

14. Statutory Reports

It may not seem exciting or glamorous, but keeping your business’s statutory affairs in order is vital to your ongoing commercial health and success.

When it comes to submitting vital financial and non-financial information to official bodies, one small error can result in serious repercussions. As such, working with statutory report formats is a watertight way of keeping track of your affairs and records while significantly reducing the risk of human error.

Armed with interactive insights and dynamic visuals, you will keep your records clean and compliant while gaining the ability to nip any potential errors or issues in the bud.

Now that we’ve covered the most relevant types of reports, we will answer the question: what does a report look like?

As mentioned at the beginning of this insightful guide, static reporting is a thing of the past. With the rise of modern technologies like self-service BI tools, the use of interactive reports in the shape of business dashboards has become more and more popular among companies.

Unlike static reports that take time to be generated and are difficult to understand, modern reporting tools are intuitive. Their visual nature makes them easy to understand for any type of user, and they provide businesses with a central view of their most important performance indicators for an improved decision-making process. Here, we will cover 20 useful dashboard examples from different industries, functions, and platforms to put the value of dashboard reporting into perspective.

1. Financial Report

Keeping finances in check is critical for success. This financial report offers an overview of the most important financial metrics that a business needs to monitor its economic activities and answer vital questions to ensure healthy finances.

With insights about liquidity, invoicing, budgeting, and general financial stability, managers can extract long and short-term conclusions to reduce inefficiencies, make accurate forecasts about future performance, and keep the overall financial efficiency of the business flowing. For instance, getting a detailed calculation of the business’s working capital can allow you to understand how liquid your company is. If it’s higher than expected, it means you have the potential to invest and grow—definitely one of the most valuable types of finance reports.

2. Construction Report

Our next example is a construction report offering the perfect overview for efficient construction bid management . In this case, the template is tracked for an enterprise that has multiple projects working simultaneously and needs a general view of how everything is performing to ensure maximum efficiency.

The key metric highlighted in this report is the net bid value, which shows the value of all submitted bids, including canceled ones. As seen in the net bid value by status chart, only a small amount is accounted for canceled bids, which means this organization’s construction bidding process is efficient. The rest of the charts displayed in the template help provide a deeper understanding of bids to make informed decisions.

Another valuable aspect of this construction report is its interactivity. The filters on top allow the user to visualize only data for a specific category, project classification, or bid status, making it possible to answer any questions that arise during meetings or discussions. This was not possible in the past as the construction industry relied heavily on static reporting. Luckily, with the rise of digital construction tools, like interactive real-time reporting, they no longer need to rely solely on intuition or outdated information. Instead, they have fresh insights at all times.

3. Marketing Report

Our following example is a marketing report that ensures a healthy return on investment from your marketing efforts. This type of report offers a detailed overview of campaign performance over the last 12 weeks. Having access to this information enables you to maximize the value of your promotional actions, keeping your audience engaged by providing a targeted experience.

For instance, you can implement different campaign formats as a test and then compare which one is most successful for your business. This is possible thanks to the monitoring of important marketing metrics such as the click-through rate (CTR), cost per click (CPC), cost per acquisition (CPA), and more.

The visual nature of this report makes it easy to understand important insights at a glance. For instance, the four gauge charts at the top show the total spending from all campaigns and how much of the total budget of each campaign has been used. In just seconds, you can see if you are on target to meet your marketing budgets for every single campaign.

4. Sales Report

An intuitive sales dashboard like the one above is the perfect analytical tool to monitor and optimize sales performance. Armed with powerful high-level metrics, this report type is especially interesting for managers, executives, and sales VPs as it provides relevant data to ensure strategic and operational success.

The value of this sales report lies in the fact that it offers a complete and comprehensive overview of relevant insights needed to make smart sales decisions. For instance, at the top of an analysis tool, you get important metrics such as the number of sales, revenue, profit, and costs, all compared to a set target and to the previous time period. The use of historical data is fundamental when building successful sales strategies as they provide a picture of what could happen in the future. Being able to filter the key metrics all in one screen is a key benefit of modern reporting.

5. HR Report

Our next report example concerns human resources analytics. The HR department needs to track various KPIs for employee performance and effectiveness. However, it must also ensure that employees are happy and working in a healthy environment since an unhappy workforce can significantly damage an organization. This intuitive dashboard makes this possible.

Providing a comprehensive mix of metrics, this employee-centric report drills down into every major element needed to ensure successful workforce management. For example, the top portion of the dashboard covers absenteeism in 3 different ways: yearly average, absenteeism rate with a target of 3.8%, and absenteeism over the last five years. Tracking absenteeism rates in detail is helpful as it can tell you if your employees are skipping workdays. If the rate is over the expected target, then you have to dig deeper into the reasons and find sustainable solutions.

On the other hand, the second part of the dashboard covers the overall labor effectiveness (OLE). This can be tracked based on specific criteria that HR predefined, and it helps them understand if workers are achieving their targets or if they need extra training or help.

6. Management Report

Managers must monitor big amounts of data to ensure that the business is running smoothly. One of them being investor relationships. This management dashboard focuses on high-level metrics that shareholders need to look at before investing, such as the return on assets, return on equity, debt-equity ratio, and share price, among others.

By getting an overview of these important metrics, investors can easily extract the needed insights to make an informed decision regarding an investment in your business. For instance, the return on assets measures how efficiently are the company’s assets being used to generate profit. With this knowledge, investors can understand how effectively your company deploys available resources compared to others in the market. Another great indicator is the share price; the higher the increase in your share price, the more money your shareholders are making from their investment.

7. IT Report

Just like all the other departments and sections covered in this list, the IT department is one that can especially benefit from these types of reports. With so many technical issues to solve, the need for a visual tool to help IT specialists stay on track with their workload becomes critical.

As seen in the image above, this IT dashboard offers detailed information about different system indicators. For starters, we get a visual overview of the status of each server, followed by a detailed graph displaying the uptime & downtime of each week. This is complemented by the most common downtown issues and some ticket management information. Getting this level of insight helps your IT staff to know what is happening and when it is happening and find proper solutions to prevent these issues from repeating themselves. Keeping constant track of these metrics will ensure robust system performance.

8. Procurement Report

The following report example was built with intuitive procurement analytics software. It gives a general view of various metrics that any procurement department needs to manage suppliers efficiently.

With the possibility to filter, drill down, and interact with KPIs, this intuitive procurement dashboard offers key information to ensure a healthy supplier relationship. With metrics such as compliance rate, the number of suppliers, or the purchase order cycle time, the procurement team can classify the different suppliers, define the relationship each of them has with the company and optimize processes to ensure it stays profitable.

One of the industries that could truly benefit from this template is construction. Managing procurement in construction projects is not easy, as suppliers must be picked carefully to ensure they meet the project’s needs. An overview like this one can help assess the abilities of each supplier to choose the ones that best meet the requirements. In construction, supplier selection is more than just about pricing, it also involves availability, certifications, quality, etc.

9. Customer Service Report

Following our list of examples of reports is one from the support area. Armed with powerful customer service KPIs, this dashboard is a useful tool for monitoring performance, spotting trends, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and improving the overall effectiveness of the customer support department.

Covering aspects such as revenue and costs from customer support as well as customer satisfaction, this complete analysis tool is the perfect tool for managers who have to keep an eye on every little detail from a performance and operational perspective. For example, by monitoring your customer service costs and comparing them to the revenue, you can understand if you are investing the right amount into your support processes. This can be directly related to your agent’s average time to solve issues; the longer it takes to solve a support ticket, the more money it will cost and the less revenue it will bring. If your agents take too long to solve an issue, you can think of some training instances to help them reduce this number.

10. Market Research Report

This list of report types would not be complete without a market research report. Market research agencies deal with a large amount of information coming from surveys and other research sources. Considering that, reports that can be filtered for deeper interaction become more necessary for this industry than for any other.

The image above is a brand analytics dashboard that displays the survey results about how the public perceives a brand. This savvy tool contains different charts that make it easy to understand the information visually. For instance, the map chart with the different colors lets you quickly understand in which regions each age range is located. The charts can be filtered further to see the detailed answers from each group for a deeper analysis.

11. Social Media Report

Last but not least, we have a social media report. This scorecard-format dashboard monitors the performance of four main social media channels: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. It serves as a perfect visual overview to track the performance of different social media efforts and achievements.

Tracking relevant metrics such as followers, impressions, clicks, engagement rates, and conversions, this report type serves as a perfect progress report for managers or clients who need to see the status of their social channels. Each metric is shown in its actual value and compared to a set target. The colors green and red from the fourth column let you quickly understand if a metric is over or under its expected target.

12. Logistics Report

Logistics are the cornerstone of an operationally fluent and progressive business. If you deal with large quantities of goods and tangible items, in particular, maintaining a solid logistical strategy is vital to ensuring you maintain your brand reputation while keeping things flowing in the right direction.

A prime example designed to improve logistical management, our warehouse KPI dashboard is equipped with metrics required to maintain strategic movement while eliminating any unnecessary costs or redundant processes. Here, you can dig into your shipping success rates across regions while accessing warehouse costs and perfect order rates in real-time. If you spot any potential inefficiencies, you can track them here and take the correct course of action to refine your strategy. This is an essential tool for any business with a busy or scaling warehouse.

13. Manufacturing Report

Next, in our essential types of business reports examples, we’re looking at tools made to improve your business’s various manufacturing processes.

Our clean and concise production tool is a sight to behold and serves up key manufacturing KPIs that improve the decision-making process regarding costs, volume, and machinery.

Here, you can hone in on historical patterns and trends while connecting with priceless real-time insights that will not only enable you to make the right calls concerning your manufacturing process at the moment but will also allow you to formulate predictive strategies that will ultimately save money, boost productivity, and result in top-quality products across the board.

14. Retail Report

As a retailer with so many channels to consider and so many important choices to make, working with the right metrics and visuals is absolutely essential. Fortunately, we live in an age where there are different types of reporting designed for this very reason.

Our sales and order example, generated with retail analytics software, is a dream come true for retailers as it offers the visual insights needed to understand your product range in greater detail while keeping a firm grip on your order volumes, perfect order rates, and reasons for returns.

Gaining access to these invaluable insights in one visually presentable space will allow you to track increases or decreases in orders over a set timeframe (and understand whether you’re doing the right things to drive engagement) while plowing your promotional resources into the products that are likely to offer the best returns.

Plus, by gaining an accurate overview of why people are returning your products, you can omit problem items or processes from your retail strategy, improving your brand reputation as well as revenue in the process.

15. Digital Media Report

The content and communications you publish are critical to your ongoing success, regardless of your sector, niche, or specialty. Without putting out communications that speak directly to the right segments of your audience at the right times in their journey, your brand will swiftly fade into the background.

To ensure your brand remains inspiring, engaging, and thought-leading across channels, working with media types of a business report is essential. You must ensure your communications cut through the noise and scream ‘quality’ from start to finish—no ifs, no buts, no exceptions.

Our content quality control tool is designed with a logical hierarchy that will tell you if your content sparks readership, if the language you’re using is inclusive and conversational, and how much engagement-specific communications earn. You can also check your most engaging articles with a quick glance to understand what your users value most. Armed with this information, you can keep creating content that your audience loves and ultimately drives true value to the business.

16. Energy Report

In the age of sustainability and in the face of international fuel hikes, managing the energy your business uses effectively is paramount. Here, there is little room for excess or error, and as such, working with the right metrics is the only way to ensure successful energy regulation.

If your company has a big HQ or multiple sites that require power, our energy management analytics tool will help you take the stress out of managing your resources. One of the most striking features of this dashboard is the fact that it empowers you to compare your company’s energy usage against those from other sectors and set an accurate benchmark.

Here, you can also get a digestible breakdown of your various production costs regarding energy consumption and the main sources you use to keep your organization running. Regularly consulting these metrics will not only allow you to save colossal chunks of your budget, but it will also give you the intelligence to become more sustainable as an organization. This, in turn, is good for the planet and your brand reputation—a real win-win-win.

17. FMCG Report

The fast-moving consuming goods (FMCG) industry can highly benefit from a powerful report containing real-time insights. This is because the products handled in this sector, which are often food and beverages, don’t last very long. Therefore, having a live overview of all the latest developments can aid decision-makers in optimizing the supply chain to ensure everything runs smoothly and no major issues happen.

Our report format example above aims to do just that by providing an overview of critical performance indicators, such as the percentage of products sold within freshness date, the out-of-stock rate, on-time in full deliveries, inventory turnover, and more. What makes this template so valuable is the fact that it provides a range of periods to get a more recent view of events but also a longer yearly view to extract deeper insights.

The FMCG dashboard also offers an overview of the main KPIs to aid users in understanding if they are on the right track to meet their goals. There, we can observe that the OTIF is far from its target of 90%. Therefore, it should be looked at in more detail to optimize it and prevent it from affecting the entire supply chain.

18. Google Analytics Report

Regardless of your industry, if you have a website, you probably require a Google Analytics report. This powerful tool helps you understand how your audience interacts with your website while helping you reach more people through the Google search engine. The issue is that the reports the tool provides are more or less basic and don’t give you the dynamic and agile view you need to stay on top of your data and competitors.

For that reason, we generated a range of Google Analytics dashboards that take your experience one step further by allowing you to explore your most important KPIs in real-time. That way, you’ll be able to spot any potential issues or opportunities to improve as soon as they occur, allowing you to act on them on the spot.

Among some of the most valuable metrics you can find in this sample are the sessions and their daily, weekly, and monthly development, the average session duration, the bounce rate by channel and by top 5 countries, among others.

19. LinkedIn Report

Another very important platform that companies use, no matter their size or industry, is LinkedIn. This platform is the place where companies develop and showcase their corporate image, network with other companies, and tell their clients and audience about the different initiatives they are developing to grow and be better. Some organizations also use LinkedIn to showcase their charity or sustainability initiatives.

The truth is LinkedIn has become an increasingly relevant platform, and just like we discussed with YouTube, organizations need to analyze data to ensure their strategies are on the right path to success.

The template above offers a 360-degree view of a company page’s performance. With metrics such as the followers gained, engagement rate, impressions vs unique impressions, CTR, and more. Decision-makers can dive deeper into the performance of their content and understand what their audience enjoys the most. For instance, by looking at the CTR of the last 5 company updates, you can start to get a sense of what topics and content format your audience on the platforms interact with the most. That way, you’ll avoid wasting time and resources producing content without interaction.

20. Healthcare Report

Moving on from platform-related examples, we have one last monthly report template from a very relevant sector, the healthcare industry. For decades now, hospitals and healthcare professionals have benefited from data to develop new treatments and analyze unknown diseases. But data can also help to ensure daily patient care is of top quality.

Our sample above is a healthcare dashboard report that tracks patient satisfaction stats for a clinic named Saint Martins Clinic. The template provides insights into various aspects of patient care that can affect their satisfaction levels to help spot any weak areas.

Just by looking at the report in a bit more detail, we can already see that the average waiting time for arrival at a bed and time to see a doctor are on the higher side. This is something that needs to be looked into immediately, as waiting times are the most important success factors for patients. Additionally, we can see those lab test turnarounds are also above target. This is another aspect that should be optimized to prevent satisfaction levels from going down.

As you learned from our extensive list of examples, different reports are widely used across industries and sectors. Now, you might wonder, how do I get my hands on one of these reports? The answer is a professional online reporting tool. With the right software in hand, you can generate stunning reports to extract the maximum potential out of your data and boost business growth in the process.

But, with so many options in the market, how do make sure you choose the best tool for your needs? Below we cover some of the most relevant features and capabilities you should look for to make the most out of the process.

1. Pre-made reporting templates

To ensure successful operations, a business will most likely need to use many reports for its internal and external strategies. Manually generating these reports can become a time-consuming task that burdens the business. That is why professional reporting software should offer pre-made reporting templates. At RIB, we offer an extensive template library for the construction industry that allows users to generate reports in a matter of seconds—allowing them to use their time on actually analyzing the information and extracting powerful insights from it.

2. Multiple visualization options

If you look for report templates on Google, you might run into multiple posts about written ones. This is not a surprise, as written reports have been the norm for decades. That being said, a modern approach to reporting has developed in the past years where visuals have taken over text. The value of visuals lies in the fact that they make the information easier to understand, especially for users who have no technical knowledge. But most importantly, they make the information easier to explore by telling a compelling story. For that reason, the tool you choose to invest in should provide you with multiple visualization options to have the flexibility to tell your data story in the most successful way possible.

3. Customization

While pre-made templates are fundamental to generating agile reports, being able to customize them to meet your needs is also of utmost importance. At RIB Software, we offer our users the possibility to customize their construction reports to fit their most important KPIs, as well as their logo, business colors, and font. This is an especially valuable feature for external reports that must be shown to clients or other relevant stakeholders, giving your reports a more professional look. Customization can also help from an internal perspective to provide employees who are uncomfortable with data with a familiar environment to work in.

4. Real-time insights

In the fast-paced world we live in today, having static reports is not enough. Businesses need to have real-time access to the latest developments in their data to spot any issues or opportunities as soon as they occur and act on them to ensure their resources are spent smartly and their strategies are running as expected. Doing so will allow for agile and efficient decision-making, giving the company a huge competitive advantage.

5. Sharing capabilities

Communication and collaboration are the basis of a successful reporting process. Today, team members and departments need to be connected to ensure everyone is on the right path to achieve general company goals. That is why the tool you invest in should offer flexible sharing capabilities to ensure every user can access the reports. For instance, we offer our users the possibility to share reports through automated emails or password-protected URLs with viewing or editing rights depending on what data the specific user can see and manipulate. A great way to keep everyone connected and boost collaboration.

As we’ve seen throughout our journey, businesses use different report formats for diverse purposes in their everyday activities. Whether you’re talking about types of reports in research, types of reports in management, or anything in between, these dynamic tools will get you where you need to be (and beyond).

In this post, we covered the top 14 most common ones and explored key examples of how different report types are changing the way businesses are leveraging their most critical insights for internal efficiency and, ultimately, external success.

With modern tools and solutions, reporting doesn’t have to be a tedious task. Anyone in your organization can rely on data for their decision-making process without needing technical skills. Rather, you want to keep your team connected or show progress to investors or clients. There is a report type for the job. To keep your mind fresh, here are the top 14 types of data reports covered in this post:

• Informational reports
• Analytical reports
• Operational reports
• Product reports
• Industry reports
• Department reports
• Progress reports
• Internal reports
• External reports
• Vertical and lateral reports
• Strategic reports
• Research reports
• Project reports
• Statutory reports

At RIB Software , we provide multiple solutions to make construction companies’ lives easier. Our construction data analytics software, RIB BI+, offers powerful business intelligence and reporting capabilities to help businesses in the building sector manage their data and make data-driven decisions to boost the quality of their projects. If you are ready to benefit from automated, interactive analytics, get a demo of RIB BI+ today!

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Research: Using AI at Work Makes Us Lonelier and Less Healthy

• David De Cremer
• Joel Koopman

Employees who use AI as a core part of their jobs report feeling more isolated, drinking more, and sleeping less than employees who don’t.

The promise of AI is alluring — optimized productivity, lightning-fast data analysis, and freedom from mundane tasks — and both companies and workers alike are fascinated (and more than a little dumbfounded) by how these tools allow them to do more and better work faster than ever before. Yet in fervor to keep pace with competitors and reap the efficiency gains associated with deploying AI, many organizations have lost sight of their most important asset: the humans whose jobs are being fragmented into tasks that are increasingly becoming automated. Across four studies, employees who use it as a core part of their jobs reported feeling lonelier, drinking more, and suffering from insomnia more than employees who don’t.

Imagine this: Jia, a marketing analyst, arrives at work, logs into her computer, and is greeted by an AI assistant that has already sorted through her emails, prioritized her tasks for the day, and generated first drafts of reports that used to take hours to write. Jia (like everyone who has spent time working with these tools) marvels at how much time she can save by using AI. Inspired by the efficiency-enhancing effects of AI, Jia feels that she can be so much more productive than before. As a result, she gets focused on completing as many tasks as possible in conjunction with her AI assistant.

• David De Cremer is a professor of management and technology at Northeastern University and the Dunton Family Dean of its D’Amore-McKim School of Business. His website is daviddecremer.com .
• JK Joel Koopman is the TJ Barlow Professor of Business Administration at the Mays Business School of Texas A&M University. His research interests include prosocial behavior, organizational justice, motivational processes, and research methodology. He has won multiple awards from Academy of Management’s HR Division (Early Career Achievement Award and David P. Lepak Service Award) along with the 2022 SIOP Distinguished Early Career Contributions award, and currently serves on the Leadership Committee for the HR Division of the Academy of Management .

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• Americans’ Views of Government’s Role: Persistent Divisions and Areas of Agreement

1. Government’s scope, efficiency and role in regulating business

Table of contents.

• Views on the efficiency of government
• Views on the government’s regulation of business
• Confidence in the nation’s ability to solve problems
• Views on the effect of government aid to the poor
• Views on government’s role in health care
• Views on the future of Social Security
• Trust in government
• Feelings toward the federal government
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

American s are evenly divided in their preferences for the size of government. Yet a somewhat greater share wants the government to do more to solve problems than say it is doing too much better left to others.

There is a persistent belief that government is wasteful: 56% say it is “almost always wasteful and inefficient.”

However, a majority of Americans (58%) say government regulation of business is necessary to protect the public good.

Divisions on government’s size, scope

Overall, 49% say they would prefer a smaller government providing fewer services, while 48% say they would rather have a bigger government providing more services.

Most Democrats prefer a larger government. For nearly half a century, Democrats and Republicans have differed in their preferences for the size of government. Today, those differences are as wide as they have ever been:

• Nearly three-quarters of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (74%) favor a bigger government, providing more services. By comparison, in 2015, a smaller majority of Democrats (59%) said they preferred a bigger government.
• Just 20% of Republicans and Republican leaners prefer a bigger government; nearly four times as many want smaller government with fewer services. Republicans’ views of the size of government have changed less than Democrats’. Still, when George W. Bush was running for reelection in 2004, roughly a third of Republicans favored a bigger government.

When asked about the proper role of government, about half of Americans (53%) say the government should do more to solve problems, while 46% say the government is doing too many things better left to businesses and individuals.

An overwhelming share of Democrats (76%) say government should do more to solve problems, while about a quarter (23%) say it is doing too many things better left to individuals and businesses.

By contrast, Republicans prefer a more limited role for government: 71% say government is doing too many things better left to businesses and individuals, while 28% say government should do more to solve problems.

There are also sizable demographic differences in these views:

• White adults (54%) are the most likely to say government is doing too many things better left to businesses and individuals, while smaller shares of Asian (34%), Black (31%) and Hispanic (29%) adults say the same.
• Younger adults are more likely than older adults to favor a larger role for government, with adults ages 18 to 29 (66%) being the most likely to say government should do more to solve problems.
• Among income groups, a majority of lower-income adults (61%) say government should do more to solve problems, while smaller shares of upper- and middle-income adults (53% and 48%, respectively) say the same.

Views among partisans by race, ethnicity and income

Among partisans, there are wide demographic differences on the preferred role of government – especially among Republicans.

Hispanic Republicans (58%) are much more likely than White Republicans (21%) to favor a larger role for government.

Views among Democrats are much less divided, with at least seven-in-ten Democrats in each racial and ethnic group saying government should do more to solve problems.

Nearly half of lower-income Republicans (46%) say that the government should do more to solve problems, while smaller shares of middle- (22%) and upper-income (19%) Republicans say the same.

Wide majorities of Democrats across income groups say government should do more to solve problems.

In assessments of the efficiency of the government, a majority of Americans (56%) find it to be “almost always wasteful and inefficient.” A smaller share (42%) say government “often does a better job than people give it credit for.”

Overall, views on the efficiency of government have remained somewhat steady since 2019, with views today mirroring those five years ago.

Among partisans, a majority of Democrats (63%) say the government often does a better job than people give it credit for, while a large majority of Republicans (77%) say government is often wasteful and inefficient.

Views on the efficiency of government in both parties have remained steady since 2021.

While Democrats are generally more likely than Republicans to say government does not get enough credit, these views vary somewhat depending on which party holds the presidency:

• Democrats are now more likely to give credit to the government than they were during the Trump administration.
• Among Republicans, views of government efficiency were more positive during the Trump administration.

This is consistent with shifts in views during prior administrations .

On the topic of government regulation of business, about six-in-ten Americans (58%) say that government regulation of business is necessary to protect the public interest. Four-in-ten, however, say government regulation of business usually does more harm than good.

These views have remained largely unchanged since 2017.

As with other attitudes about government, Republicans and Democrats differ on the impact of government regulation of business:

• About two-thirds of Republicans (65%) say government regulation does more harm than good.
• Roughly eight-in-ten Democrats (82%) say government regulation is necessary to protect the public interest.

Among other demographic differences:

• White adults (45%) are the most likely to say government regulation does more harm than good, while smaller shares of Hispanic (32%), Asian (29%) and Black (27%) adults say the same.
• Younger adults are more likely than older adults to say government regulation of business is necessary to protect the public interest, with adults ages 18 to 29 (64%) being the most likely to say this.

Americans are divided in their views on the country’s ability to solve important problems. About half (52%) of Americans say “this country can’t solve many of its important problems,” while 47% say that “as Americans, we can always find ways to solve our problems and get what we want.”

More Americans express confidence in the country’s ability to solve problems now than a year ago (47% now, 43% then). Still, the share saying this is lower than it was from 2019 to 2022.

Unlike assessments of government, there are no partisan differences in views on the country’s ability to solve its important problems.

In both parties, about half say the U.S. can’t solve many of its important problems, while slightly narrower shares say Americans can always find ways to solve the country’s problems.

Views among age groups

Among age groups, younger adults are the most likely to express skepticism in the country’s ability to solve its important problems. About six-in-ten adults ages 18 to 29 (62%) say the U.S. can’t solve many of its important problems, while smaller shares of older adults say the same.

Overall, the shares of adults in each age group who voice skepticism on the country’s ability to solve its problems remain higher than they were in 2022.

However, older adults have grown slightly more optimistic on this issue in the past year. Views among the youngest adults are relatively unchanged from 2022.

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Biden, trump are least-liked pair of major party presidential candidates in at least 3 decades, cultural issues and the 2024 election, more than half of americans are following election news closely, and many are already worn out, americans have mixed views about how the news media cover biden’s, trump’s ages, most popular, report materials.

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ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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The state of EV charging in America: Harvard research shows chargers 78% reliable and pricing like the ‘Wild West’

Featuring Omar Asensio . By Barbara DeLollis and Glen Justice on June 26, 2024 .

BiGS Actionable Intelligence:

BOSTON — New data-driven research led by a Harvard Business School fellow reveals a significant obstacle to increasing electric vehicle (EV) sales and decreasing carbon emissions in the United States: owners’ deep frustration with the state of charging infrastructure, including unreliability, erratic pricing, and lack of charging locations.

The research proves that frustration extends beyond “range anxiety,” the common fear that EV batteries won't maintain enough charge to reach a destination. Current EV drivers don’t see that as a dominant issue. Instead, many have "charge anxiety," a fear about keeping an EV powered and moving, according to scholar Omar Asensio, the climate fellow at HBS’s Institute for the Study of Business in Global Society (BiGS) who led the study.

Asensio’s research is based on a first-ever examination of more than 1 million charging station reviews by EV drivers across North America, Europe, and Asia written over 10 years. In their reviews, these drivers described how they regularly encounter broken and malfunctioning chargers, erratic and secretive pricing, and even “charging deserts” — entire counties in states such as Washington and Virginia that don’t have a single public charger and that have even lost previously available chargers. EV drivers also routinely watch gas-engine vehicle drivers steal parking spots reserved for EV charging.

Asensio said that listening to the current drivers — owners rather than potential buyers — provides a new window on the state of America’s charging system because drivers are incredibly candid about their experiences.

“It’s different than what any one company or network would want you to believe,” said Asensio, who is also an associate professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He added that most charging providers don’t share their data and have few regulatory incentives to do so.

Research: EV chargers less reliable than gas pumps

One of the study’s main findings, discovered using customized artificial intelligence (AI) models trained on EV review data, is that charging stations in the U.S. have an average reliability score of only 78%, meaning that about one in five don’t work. They are, on average, less reliable than regular gas stations, Asensio said. “Imagine if you go to a traditional gas station and two out of 10 times the pumps are out of order,” he said. “Consumers would revolt.”

Elizabeth Bruce, director, Microsoft Innovation and Society, said, "This project is a great example of how increasing access to emerging AI technologies enables researchers to better understand how we can build a more sustainable and equitable society.”

Asensio’s research is timely as U.S. policymakers, entrepreneurs, automakers such as General Motors and Tesla , and others grapple with how to develop the nation’s charging network, who should finance it, and who should maintain it. Because charging influences vehicle sales and the ability to meet emissions targets, it’s a serious question. EV sales have climbed, topping 1 million in 2023, but concerns over batteries and charging could slow that growth.

Today, there are more than 64,000 public EV charging stations in the U.S., according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center. Experts say that the nation needs many times more to make a smooth, sustainable, and equitable transition away from gas-powered vehicles — and to minimize the anxiety surrounding EVs.

“I couldn’t even convince my mother to buy an EV recently,” Asensio said. “Her decision wasn’t about the price. She said charging isn’t convenient enough yet to justify learning an entirely new way of driving.”

Reviews give voice to 1 million drivers

An economist and engineer by training, Asensio has been studying EV infrastructure since its infancy in 2010. At that time, the consensus among experts was that the private sector would finance a flourishing charging network, Asensio said. But that didn’t happen at the scale expected, which sparked his curiosity about how the charging market would emerge at points of interest rather than only near highways.

To get answers, Asensio focused on consumer reviews “because they offer objective, unsolicited evidence of peoples’ experience,” he said.

The smartphone apps that EV drivers use to pay for charging sessions allow them to review each station for factors such as functionality and pricing in real-time, much like consumers do on Yelp or Amazon. Asensio and his team, supported by Microsoft and National Science Foundation awards, spent years building models and training AI tools to extract insights and make predictions from drivers leaving these reviews in more than 72 languages.

Until now, this type of data hasn’t existed anywhere, leaving consumers, policymakers, and business leaders — including auto industry executives — in the dark.

Research reveals five facts about EV life

Here are some of the top findings from Asensio’s research about public EV charging stations:

Reliability problems. EV drivers often find broken equipment, making charging unreliable at best and simply not as easy as the old way of topping off a tank of gas. The reason? “No one’s maintaining these stations,” Asensio said. Entrepreneurs are already stepping in with a solution. For example, at Harvard Business School’s climate conference in April 2023, ChargerHelp! Co-founder Evette Ellis explained that her Los Angeles-based technology startup trains people to operate and maintain public charging stations. But until quality control improves nationwide, drivers will likely continue to encounter problems.

Driver clashes. One consumer complaint that surprised Asensio was a mysterious gripe from drivers about “getting ICE’d.” The researchers didn’t know what it meant, so they did some digging and discovered that ICE stands for “internal combustion engine.” EV drivers adopted the term to grouse about gas-fueled car drivers stealing their public EV charger spots for parking.

Price confusion. Drivers are vexed by the pricing they encounter at public charging stations, which are owned by a mix of providers, follow different pricing models, and do not regularly disclose pricing information. The result is often surprises on the road. As one reviewer wrote, “$21.65 to charge!!!!!!! Holy moly!!!! Don’t come here unless you are desperate!!”

Equity questions. Public charging stations are not equally distributed across the U.S., concentrated more heavily in large population centers and wealthy communities and less so in rural areas and smaller cities. The result is that drivers have disparate experiences, well-served in some areas and starved in others. Some parts of the country have become “charging deserts,” with no station at all.

Commercial questions. Commercial drivers in many areas can’t find enough public EV charging stations to reliably charge their cars. Here too, drivers are having very different experiences, well-supplied in some areas and not in others.

‘Wild West’ pricing is a major pain point

The research shows that EV drivers are dissatisfied with EV charging station pricing models, likening the situation to the “Wild West.” Indeed, vehicle charging is both unregulated and non-transparent.

Pricing can vary substantially by facility, level of demand, time of day, and other factors, including the type of charger available. A 45-minute fast charger may have one price, while a traditional charger that takes 3 to 5 hours may have another. Pricing can also change by the hour, based on market conditions.

Unlike traditional gas stations, which often display fuel prices on lighted signs, EV stations rarely advertise what charging will cost. Drivers often arrive without any information on what to expect or how to make comparisons, because there’s no reliable way for consumers to find the most cost-effective places to charge. “The government has a source that lists all locations, but not in real-time,” Asensio said. “You might need five different apps to figure it out.”

The driver reviews in Asensio’s data reflect the irritation caused by the current system. “People are getting frustrated because they don’t feel like they’re getting their money’s worth,” he said.

Why is the charging network so opaque? Research conducted by Asensio and his colleagues in 2021 found that charging station hosts, in the absence of regulation, have no incentive to share data — and they don’t. Station hosts are typically privately owned, highly decentralized, not well-monitored, and have highly varied patterns of demand and pricing.

The lack of transparency prevents researchers — and journalists — from investigating trends. In stark contrast to headlines trumpeting the ups and downs of gas prices, news organizations are not reporting on differential pricing among EV charging stations.

‘Charging deserts’ emerge

With municipal, state, and federal governments all pushing to increase the number of electric vehicles on the road and decrease carbon emissions, experts agree that America will need more charging stations — a lot more.

Looking only at Level 2 chargers, which top off an EV battery in 3 to 5 hours and are the most common type, S&P Global Mobility estimates a need for 1.2 million nationwide by 2027 and almost twice that by 2030. That’s in addition to in-home chargers.

Of course, that assumes robust growth in EV sales. “The transition to a vehicle market dominated by electric vehicles (EVs) will take years to fully develop, but it has begun,” said Ian McIlravey, an analyst at S&P. “With the transition comes a need to evolve the public vehicle charging network, and today's charging infrastructure is insufficient to support a drastic increase in the number of EVs in operation.”

Making matters more difficult, the chargers that do exist are not evenly distributed. Predictably, the places with the most public chargers installed are those with the highest number of registered electric vehicles, including states like California, Florida, and Texas. Yet, even as the federal government invests billions in new charging stations, many of them along major transportation corridors, places are left behind.

Asensio’s research shows that small urban centers and rural areas attract fewer public charging stations, and in some cases, there are “charging deserts” with no facilities at all — and they may not be where you think.

For example, electric vehicles are popular in Washington state, which ranked fourth in number of EV registrations and sixth in number of public charging stations in 2023. Yet Ferry County , an area outside Spokane with about 7,500 residents, where the average commute is 25 minutes and the median income is about $46,000, had only one charging station for several years. And now there are none.

Similarly, Virginia ranked 11th in EV registrations and 13th in public chargers in 2023. There, researchers found Wise County, an area outside Roanoke and Knoxville, Tennessee, with about 3,500 residents and a median income of almost $45,000. The county has an average commute time of 22 minutes, but there are no public charging stations available.

EV charging presents a classic “chicken and egg” situation, begging the question of whether cars or charging facilities must come first. However, a lack of public charging in areas like Ferry County and Wise County makes electric vehicle adoption difficult.

As American drivers debate whether to swap their gas-powered vehicles for EVs and lower emissions, Asensio said research should play a larger role. Policymakers, auto manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and investors need more and better data to build infrastructure where it’s needed, provide reliable charging, and facilitate EV sales.

“How [else] can we make effective decisions about the economics of EVs?” Asensio said.

General Motors: ‘Anxiety around EV charging’

Omar Vargas, head of public policy at General Motors, emphasized the importance of public EV charging infrastructure to driving EV adoption during an interview with The BiGS Fix at one of BiGS’ business leadership roundtables in Northern Virginia.

“We're looking at what are the best places to install an EV charging station for a community,” Vargas said. “The anxiety around EV charging is an inhibitor to EV adoption.”

Beyond the public investment in rolling out charging infrastructure, GM (whose brands include Chevrolet and Cadillac) has committed $750 million in private capital to the development of EV charging stations. It is partnering with car dealerships and other companies. For instance, GM is testing charging stations at Flying J rest stops.

GM, which reported full-year revenue of $171.8 billion for 2023 , also is joining community partnership efforts that are being formed to secure federal dollars through state and local governments. “We're helping that kind of planning, and we're pretty confident that in the next couple of years, we're going to have a vigorous EV charging network in the United States,” Vargas said.

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Fundstrat’s Tom Lee on Analyzing Stocks, Tech and Bitcoin

How he develops his price targets.

Tom Lee, the founder of Fundstrat and FS Insight.

The stock market has had a torrid run in 2024 despite the fact that interest rate cuts haven't materialized in the way people had expected at the start of the year. In fact, outside of a few blips here and there (like spring 2020), US stocks have been phenomenal performers for years. Tom Lee, the founder of Fundstrat and FS Insight has been bullish for a long time, having caught the correct side of this lengthy trend. On this episode, we speak to the former JPMorgan strategist about how he thinks about the market, what he sees happening right now in macro and demographic trends, and why he thinks it’s plausible that the market could roughly triple in the next six years. This transcript has been lightly edited for clarity.

Key insights from the pod: Is Tom an uber bull? — 3:24 Fundstrat’s recent 5,500 target on the S&P 500 — 5:01 Describing Fundstrat’s approach — 6:14 Why markets are up — 8:35 Evaluating consumer strength — 9:45 Tom’s career as a wireless analyst — 10:37 Comparing the 2000s tech bubble with now — 12:43 Interest rates and stock valuations — 17:50 Tom’s outlook for inflation — 20:22 Fundstrat’s year-end target on the S&P 500 — 22:20 Do price targets matter and the 2030 call — 24:00 How to spot a hype cycle in tech — 26:48 Bear market signals Tom looks for — 30:06 How he comes up with Bitcoin targets — 32:53 Lessons from the post-pandemic period — 38:54

Robots keep getting creepier

• Researchers unveiled a smiling humanoid robot with lab-grown, self-healing skin.
• The team from the University of Tokyo used collagen gel to bond living skin tissue to 3D models.
• The researchers said it could benefit the cosmetics industry and help train plastic surgeons.

It's not just nuts and bolts keeping robots together — now they can be made with living skin. Skin that can be made to smile.

Researchers at the University of Tokyo revealed on Tuesday a rather unsettling humanoid robot covered with lab-grown skin. The team said it was able to mimic human skin ligaments by bonding skin tissue to perforated 3D facial molds and 2D robots.

A press release said the team hoped the advancement would be "useful in the cosmetics industry and to help train plastic surgeons."

While the development could prove helpful, some people online reacted to the robot's fleshy skin and facial movements with jokes or said they found it disturbing. One person on X wrote , "You will live to see man-made made horrors beyond your comprehension." Another said : "We don't want this. Nobody wants this. Stop it."

The researchers said that, unlike other materials, biological skin granted these robots self-healing capabilities without requiring triggers such as heat or pressure.

Related stories

"Biological skin repairs minor lacerations as ours does, and nerves and other skin organs can be added for use in sensing and so on," said Shoji Takeuchi, a professor at the University of Tokyo who led the research.

The researchers said other techniques for attaching skin to surfaces, such as using mini anchors or hooks, limited the surfaces they could use and could cause damage.

But they said that by using a "special collagen gel for adhesion," they could apply the skin to any surface, even a curving or moving one — like a smiling robot.

"The natural flexibility of the skin and the strong method of adhesion mean the skin can move with the mechanical components of the robot without tearing or peeling away," Takeuchi said.

He said the team hoped to create a thicker and more realistic skin by "incorporating sweat glands, sebaceous glands, pores, blood vessels, fat and nerves." He added that by using devices called actuators to imitate muscle movement, the researchers could create humanlike expressions.

This is just the latest development in humanoid robotics, which aims to mimic humans' appearance and functions — sometimes falling into the uncanny valley .

Tesla is developing its Optimus robot , which CEO Elon Musk hopes people will regard "as sort of a friend." Other bots operate on all fours, like Boston Dynamics' robotic police dog .

While you probably don't have to worry about seeing living skin on a production robot anytime soon, the University of Tokyo researchers have at least demonstrated it's possible — even if that means a bit of nightmare fuel for the rest of us along the way.

Watch: Tightening face mask claims to retexturize and firm skin as it dries

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